a 140 b

FD = 15

120

100
FD = 15
Time delay [ns]

80 FD = 30
FD = 30
60

40 FD = 60 FD = 60

20

0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32
Element number

Figure 1-5 Delay values (left) and depth scanning principles (right) for a 32-element linear
array probe focusing at 15-mm, 30-mm, and 60-mm longitudinal waves. Direct contact, no
angled wedge.

1.2 Delay Laws, or Focal Laws

The focal law delay for probes without wedge—in direct contact with the test
piece—, which were programmed to generate longitudinal waves, has a
parabolic shape for depth focusing. The delay increases from the edges of the
probe towards the center. The delay will be divisible in half when the focal
distance is doubled (see Figure 1-5). The element timing has a linear increase
when the element pitch is increasing (see Figure 1-7).

Phased array probes installed on the wedge provide delay laws with different
shapes, based on Fermat’s principle of minimum arrival time along a specific
path (see Figure 1-6). Other types of phased array probes (matrix or conical,
for example) may require advanced simulation for delay law values and for
beam feature evaluation (see chapters 3 and 5).

If the beam deflection is sectorial (azimuthal), and the probe has no wedge,
the delay on identical elements will depend on the element position in the
active aperture and on the generated angle (see Figure 1-8). The delay value
increases with refracted angle and with element number.

Basic Concepts of Phased Array Ultrasonic Technology 13

 500

1 450

400
e1
F
350

Time delay [ns]

300
1

250
Experimental setup
e2 > e2
L-waves - 5,920 m/s
F 200
Focal depth = 20 mm
Linear array n = 16 elements
150 Delay for element no. 1

100
1

50
e3 > e2 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5
F
Element pitch [mm]

Figure 1-6 Delay dependence on pitch size for the same focal depth.

800
60 degrees
700

30 degrees
600
Time delay [ns]

500 F15/60
F30/60
F1 400 F15/45
F30/45
F2= 2 F1 F15/30
300
F30/30

200
45 degrees
Δβ
100

0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32
Element number

Figure 1-7 Example of delay dependence on refracted angle and element position for a
phased array probe on a 37° Plexiglas wedge (H1 = 5 mm).

14 Chapter 1
 1400

LW-no wedge
1200 ____F1 = 15 mm 60º
_ _ _F2= 30 mm

1000 45º
1

800
F1

Delay [ns]
F2= 2 F1 30º
Δβ1 600

400
Δβ2 15º
200

0
1 5 9 13 17 21 25 29
Element number

Figure 1-8 Example of delay dependence on generated angle, and element position and focal
depth for a probe with no wedge (longitudinal waves, refracted angle in steel: 15–60°).

If the phased array probe is on a wedge, the delay value depends on element
position and programmed refracted angle.

The delay has a parabolic shape for the angle given by Snell’s law (45° in
Figure 1-7). For angles smaller than one provided by Snell’s law, the delay on
elements increases from the back towards the front of the probe. For greater
angles, the delay is higher for the back elements, because the beam generated
by the front elements follows a longer path in the wedge, and thus they have
to be excited first.

In all cases, the delay value on each element must be accurately controlled.
The minimum delay increment determines the maximum probe frequency
that can be used according to the following ratio:

n-
---
fc

Basic Concepts of Phased Array Ultrasonic Technology 15

1.3 Basic Components of a Phased Array System

The main components required for a basic scanning system with phased
array instruments are presented in Figure 1-9.

Computer UT PA instrument Motion Control

(with TomoView (Tomoscan III PA) Drive Unit
software) (MCDU-02)

Test piece Phased array probe Scanner/manipulator

inspected by
phased arrays

Figure 1-9 Basic components of a phased array system and their interconnectivity.

1.4 Basic Scanning and Imaging

During a scan with mechanical device, data is collected based on encoder

position. The data is displayed in different views for interpretation.

Typically, phased arrays use multiple stacked A-scans (also called “B-scans,”
see details on chapter 4) with different angles, time of flight and time delays
on each small piezocomposite crystal (element) of the phased array probe.

The real-time information from the total number of A-scans, which are fired
for a specific probe position, are displayed in a sectorial scan or S-scan, or in a
electronic B-scan (see chapter 4 for more details).

Both S-scans and electronic scans provide a global image and quick
information about the component and possible discontinuities detected in the
ultrasonic range at all angles and positions (see Figure 1-10).

16 Chapter 1
 a PA probe b

Figure 1-10 Detection of four side-drilled holes (SDH): (a) sectorial scanning principle;
(b) S-scan view using ±30°.

Data plotting into the 2-D layout of the test piece, called “corrected S-scans,”
makes the interpretation and analysis of ultrasonic results straightforward.
S-scans offer the following benefits:

• Image display during a scan

• True depth representation
• 2-D volumetric reconstruction
Advanced imaging can be achieved by a combination of linear and sectorial
scanning with multiple-angle scans during probe movement. S-scan displays
in combination with other views (see chapter 4 for more details) lead to a
form of defect imaging or recognition. Figure 1-11 illustrates the detection of
artificial defects and the comparison between the defect dimensions
(including shape) and B-scan data.

Figure 1-11 Advanced imaging of artificial defects using merged data: defects and scanning
pattern (top); merged B-scan display (bottom).

Basic Concepts of Phased Array Ultrasonic Technology 17