Chem 101 – Lecture Notes for Chapter 4

These notes will be brief, the chapter is covered best by studying the examples and doing the
problems!

Many chemical processes take place in solution. When a substance such as NaCl is dissolved
in water, we call the resulting mixture a solution. Water is called the solvent, NaCl the solute.
Solutes can be ionic compounds (such as NaCl) or non-ionic compounds (e.g. sugar, ethanol,
etc.). When the solute fully or partially dissociates (= splits up) into ions we speak of an
electrolyte solution

1. Electrolytes (Chang section 4.1, pp. 120-122)

Electrolytes are substances that when dissolved in water dissociate into ions: cations and
anions. Solutions of electrolytes conduct electricity, because the ions can move in an electric
field and thereby carry electric current.

We distinguish strong electrolytes (fully dissociated into ions) and weak electrolytes (only
partially dissociated into ions).
Salts are combinations of cations (in most cases metal cations) and anions. All salts are
strong electrolytes, they are fully dissociated.
Examples: Na2SO4 (aq) → 2 Na+(aq) + SO42−(aq)
Fe(NO3)3(aq)→ Fe3+(aq) + 3NO3−(aq)

We start with a simple definition of acids and bases due to Arrhenius:

Acids give off H+ ions when dissolved in water
Bases give off OH− ions when dissolved in water.
Later we will expand on this concept with the Brønsted definition of acids and bases.

Strong acids:
HCl, HBr, HI: e.g. HCl(aq)→ H+(aq) + Cl−(aq) fully dissociated
HNO3 HNO3 (aq) → H+ + NO3−
H2SO4 (but see special case of sulfuric acid in section 4.3)
HClO3
HClO4

Weak acids - all other acids:

HF
HNO2 (nitrous acid)
H2CO3 (carbonic acid, really CO2+H2O)
H2SO3 (sulfurous acid)
H3PO4
HClO (hypochlorous acid)
All “organic” acids, e.g. acetic acid CH3COOH → CH3COO− + H+

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Strong bases:
Alkali metal hydroxides (LiOH, NaOH, KOH, etc.),
Earth alkali hydroxides insofar soluble, Ba(OH)2

All other bases are weak, the most common weak base: ammonia, NH3

2. Solubility, precipitation reactions, net ionic reactions (Chang section 4.2, pp. 122-125)

You must know the soluble and insoluble compounds in table 4.2 (p. 123)

Soluble are:
All alkali metal and ammonium (NH4+) salts are soluble, no exceptions
All nitrates (NO3−), bicarbonates (HCO3−), chlorates (ClO3−) and perchlorates (ClO4−) are soluble, no
exceptions.
All halides (Cl−, Br−, I−) are soluble, with exception salts with Ag+, Pb2+, Hg22+
All sulfates (SO42−) are soluble, with exceptions salts with Ag+ Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+, Pb2+, Hg22+

Insoluble are:
Carbonates (CO32−), phosphates (PO43−), chromates and dichromates (CrO42−, Cr2O72−), sulfides (S2−)
Exceptions of course are the alkali metal salts of these anions (e.g. K 2CrO4 is soluble)
Hydroxides (OH−), with exceptions the alkalimetal hydroxides but also Ba(OH) 2 is soluble.

A precipitation reaction takes place when two solutions of soluble compounds are mixed, but a new
combination of ions produces an insoluble compound.

Example:
KI is soluble, Pb(NO3)2 is soluble. When we mix solutions of KI and Pb(NO3)2 (both soluble) a
precipitation reaction takes place, because Pb2+ and I− ions when combined form the insoluble salt
PbI2:
2KI(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) → PbI2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)
We can write this reaction in ionic form:
2K+ + 2I− + Pb2+ + 2NO3− → PbI2(s) + 2K+ + 2NO3−
We see that the potassium and nitrate ions do not participate in the reaction, they are called "spectator
ions”. The net ionic reaction is:
Pb2+(aq) + 2I−(aq) → PbI2(aq)

Exercises.

1. Indicate soluble (S) or Insoluble (I) for the following compounds (circle correct answer):
PbSO4 S / I
NH4NO3 S / I
Ca3(PO4)2 S / I
BaBr2 S / I
CuCO3 S / I
Fe2(SO4)3 S / I
AgCl S / I
ZnSO4 S / I

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2. Write the net ionic reactions for:
Note: first decide if there actually will be a precipitation process! If not, simply write “no reaction”!

CuCl2(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) → ?
Net ionic reaction:

Ba(OH)2(aq) + K2SO4(aq) → ?
Net ionic reaction:

ZnCl2 + Fe(NO3)3 → ?
Net ionic reaction:

(NH4)2CO3(aq) + FeSO4(aq) → ?
Net ionic reaction:

3. Acid –Base reactions (Chang section 4.3, pp 277 – 131)

A new and more complete definition of acids and bases, due to Brønsted:

An acid is a proton donor

A base is a proton acceptor

We write an acid dissociation reaction as:

HCl(aq) + H2O → H3O+(aq) + Cl−(aq)
HCl is the proton donor, it is a Brønsted acid. In this reaction H2O is a Brønsted base, it accepts the
proton. The resulting H3O+ ion is called the hydronium ion.

The Brønsted definition makes it easier to include NH3(aq) as a base:

NH3(aq) + H2O → NH4+(aq) + OH−(aq)

NH3 is the proton acceptor, the Brønsted base. Now surprisingly we see that H 2O act as the proton
acceptor, it is the Brønsted acid in this reaction. Of course we already know that NH3 is a weak base,
the reaction proceeds only partially.

Monoprotic acids potentially can give off (donate) 1 proton. They may be strong acids or weak
acids::
HCl, HNO3, CH3COOH etc.

Diprotic acids potentially can give off 2 protons:

H2SO4 → HSO4− + H+ dissociation step 1
HSO4− → SO42− + H+ dissociation step 2
For sulfuric acid, the first step is complete, the first step dissociates as a strong acid, but the second
step is incomplete, the HSO4− anion is a weak acid!

H2CO3 (carbonic acid) → H+ + HCO3− dissociation step 1

HCO3− (bicarbonate ion) → CO32− + H+ dissociation step 2

H2C2O4 (oxalic acid) → H+ + HC2O4−

HC2O4− → H+ + C2O42− C2O42− is called the oxalate ion.

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Triprotic acids can give off 3 protons:
H3PO4 → H2PO4− + H+ dissociation step 1
2− 2− +
H2PO4 → HPO4 + H dissociation step 2
HPO42− → PO43− + H+ dissociation step 3
For phosphoric acid, all steps are incomplete, but the degree of dissociation becomes less and less
with each step, therefore HPO42− is a very weak acid, and in fact is stronger as a base, in other words
HPO42− is a stronger proton acceptor (Brønsted base) than it is a proton donor (Brønsted acid).

In all these reactions, the H+ ion is actually in the form of the hydronium ion, H3O+. In other words,
for instance the dissociation step 2 of sulfuric acid should be written as:
HSO4− + H2O → SO42− + H3O+
With HSO4− as the Brønsted acid donating its proton to the Brønsted base H 2O.

In acid-base reactions, the H+ is transferred from the acid (the proton donor) to the base (the proton
acceptor. In its simplest form, an acid –base reaction is that of an acid HX with a base MOH, where X
is the anion of the acid and M the metal ion (normally) of the base, for instance:
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + water
Acid + base → salt + water
Net ionic reaction: H+(aq) + OH–(aq) → H2O
The Na+ and Cl– are spectator ions, they do not take part in the acid base reaction.
Another example:
H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O
Net ionic reaction, again: 2H+ + 2OH–– → 2H2O

But note the case of the base ammonia, NH3(aq):

NH3(aq) + HCl(aq) → NH4Cl(aq) no water is formed!
Net ionic reaction: NH3(aq) + H+(aq) → NH4+(aq)

Exercise:
For each of the compounds or ions below, classify it as a Brønsted acid, a Brønsted base, or whether
it can act as both (circle correct answer)

HF Brønsted acid / Brønsted base/can be both

HCO3− Brønsted acid / Brønsted base/can be both

NH3 Brønsted acid / Brønsted base/can be both

H2SO4 Brønsted acid / Brønsted base/can be both

OH− Brønsted acid / Brønsted base/can be both

PO43− Brønsted acid / Brønsted base/can be both

H3O+ Brønsted acid / Brønsted base/can be both

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4. Oxidation-reduction (Redox) reactions and oxidation numbers (Chang section 4.4, pp. 131-
142)

Oxidation: to lose electrons

Reduction: to gain electrons

In the reaction: 4Fe + 3O2 → 2Fe2O3

we know Fe2O3 is an ionic compound, consisting of Fe3+ and O2− ions. Therefore, in this reaction, Fe
has lost electrons (it is oxidized, 4Fe → 4Fe3+) and oxygen has gained electrons (it is reduced, 3O2 →
6O2−).
We can write the redox process in terms of half reactions:
Fe → Fe3+ + 3e− (1) the oxidation half reaction
O2 + 4e → 2O2−
−
(2) the reduction half reaction

In redox reactions, electrons cannot “walk away”, the reactions are balanced by making sure that
electrons lost in the oxidation half reaction are gained in the reduction half reaction

For the two half reactions above, we see that to balance the reaction we need to multiply reaction (1)
by 4 (4x3e−) and reaction (2) by 3 (3x4e−) to arrive at the balanced overall reaction. In this simple
redox process we could already balance by simple inspection, in many more complex redox reactions
we need to keep track of the electrons in order to balance.

Oxidation numbers.

We keep track of the electrons using a device called the oxidation number:
In assigning an oxidation number to an element in a molecule or ion, we do as if all electrons are
transferred completely from one element to another. The oxidation number then tells us how many
electrons an element has lost or gained.

This is clear in ionic compounds. For instance, in NaCl (consisting of Na + and Cl− ions) the oxidation
number of Na = +1, the oxidation number of Cl = −1.
However, we also use the “bookkeeping device’ in molecular compounds, even though in reality
these are compounds where the electrons are “shared”. For instance in H 2O, a molecular compound
with covalent bonds, we assign oxidation numbers H = +1 and O = −2, as if each H has lost an
electron and each O has gained 2.

Rules for assigning oxidation numbers (see Chang p. 134-135):

1. Neutral elements have ox# = 0: Fe, Cl2, O2, N2, S8: ox# of all these is 0.
2. Monoatomic ions have ox# = charge:
Na+ = +1, Fe3+ = +3, Cl− = − 1, O2− = −2, S2− = −2, Zn2+ = +2, Al3+ = +3, etc. All alkali metals in
compounds always are +1, earth alkaline metals always are +2, Al always = +3.
3. Fluorine is always −1
4. O is always −2 (except in peroxides, such as H2O2 where it is −1)
5. H is always +1 (except in metalhydrides such as AlH 3 or NaH where it is −1)

Then comes the rule that tells us the oxidation number of elements not mentioned in rules 1-5:
6. The sum of oxidation numbers in a neutral compound = 0, in an ion it equals the charge of the ion.
In equation form: Σ(Ox.#) = net charge

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Example: assign the oxidation number of each element in:

a) H2S Rule 5: H = +1; then from rule 6: 2xox# H + ox# S = 0, or 2x(+1) + ox# S = 0, ox# S = −2

b) KMnO4 Rule 2: K = +1; rule 4: O = −2; rule 6: +1 +4x(−2) + Mn = 0 → ox# Mn = +7

c) Cr2O72− 2xCr + 7x(−2) = −2 → Cr = +6

Instead of oxidation number we often use the term “oxidation state”.

Oxidation numbers across the periodic table.

Have a close look at the oxidation numbers of the elements in the periodic table on p. 136 of Chang
and note the regularities as discussed in the lecture.
For the main group metals:
Group 1 (alkalimetals) always +1, they lose 1 electron
Group 2 (earth alkaline metals) always +2, they lose 2 electrons
Group 13 Al always +3
For the non-metals:
Group 17 (halogens) −1 as monoatomic ions, but in oxyanions they can lose a maximum of 7
electrons, e.g. Cl in ClO4− = +7
Group 16 −2 as monoatomic ions (S2−, O2−), but in oxyanions they can lose a maximum of 6
electrons, e.g. S in SO42− = +6
Group 15 -3 as monoatomic ions (e.g. N3−, the nitrides), but in oxyanions they can lose a maximum
of 5 electrons, e.g in NO3 N = +5, in PO43− P = +5
Group 14 no monoatomic ions exist, but in oxyanions they can lose a maximum of 4 electrons, e.g. in
CO32− C = +4, also in CO2 and SiO2,C and Si are +4 respectively.

The transition metals can have a range of oxidation numbers, as shown in the periodic table on p. 136.
We will come back to the regularities for the transition metals in chapter 8.

Types of redox reactions.

You should be able to recognize;

Combination reactions: e.g. 4Fe + 3O2 → 2Fe2O3 where Fe is oxidized and O reduced

Decomposition reactions: e.g. 2KClO3 → 2KCl + 3O2 where Cl is reduced (from +5 to −1) and O is
oxidized (from −2 to 0)

Combustion reactions: combustion is reaction with oxygen, e.g. CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O

Displacement reactions: a reaction where an atom or ion is displaced by another element, e.g.:
Ca + 2H2O → Ca(OH)2 + H2 the Ca replaces the H in its combination with oxygen
Mg + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2 the Mg replaces the H in its combination with Cl −
Cl2 + 2KBr → 2KCl + Br2 the Cl replaces the Br in its combination with K +

Disproportionation reactions: a reaction when the same element in part is oxidized and in part
reduced, e.g.:
H2O2 → H2O + O2
Etc.

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Exercises.
1. Find the oxidation number of:

N in NH3

Al in Al2O3

N in NH4+

Mn in MnO2

Cl in: ClO4− ClO3 ClO− HCl

S in: K2SO4 K2SO3 K2S S4O62− (ox#’s can be fractions!)

5. Solution concentrations, Molarity, dilutions (Chang section 4.5, pp. 142-148)

When a certain amount of a solute is dissolved in a certain amount of solution, we express the
concentration (i.e., the strength of the solution in terms of Molarity, moles/L, symbol M)

moles solute n(mol )

M= = n = MxV
L solution V ( L)

M is called the Molarity or the Molar Concentration.Note that V is the final volume of the solution
after the solute has been dissolved, it is not the volume of the water in which the solute is dissolved.
In calculating the Molarity of a solution, V must be in L. If V is given in mL, divide by 1000! The
symbol M is often replaced by square brackets, so instead of e.g M HCl (mol/L) we write [HCl].

Examples:
1. What is the Molarity, M of NaCl when 5.84 g NaCl is dissolved in water to give 250 mL solution?
(this would be the procedure in the laboratory when we first dissolve the NaCl in a small amount of
water in a 250 mL volumetric flask, and then fill up the flask with more water to make 250 mL
solution).
Answer: n = 5.84/58.4 = 0.100 mol, so M(NaCl) = n/V = 0.100/0.250 = 0.400 mol/L

2. How many g of NaOH are needed to make 500 mL of a 0.1 M NaOH solution?
Answer:
First calculate how many moles NaOH are needed: n = MxV = 0.1x0.500 = 0.0500 mol
The mass NaOH = molxMolar Mass = 0.0500x40.0 = 2.00 g NaOH.

3. What is the Molarity of OH− in a solution when 0.171 g Ba(OH)2 is dissolved in water to make
100 mL solution?
Answer: here we have to recognize that 1 mol of Ba(OH) 2 gives 2 mol of OH−.
n(Ba(OH)2) = 0.171/171.3 = 0.00100 mol, so n(OH−) = 2x0.00100 = 0.00200 mol.
M(OH−) = n/V = 0.00200/0.100 = 0.0200 mol/L.

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4. 3.50 g CaCl2 is dissolved to give 100 mL solution. Calculate the chloride ion concentration.
Answer.
3.50 g CaCl2 = 3.50/111.0 = 0.0315 mol CaCl2. MCl- = 2x0.0315/0.100 = 0.630 mol/L

5. 1.75 g CaCl2 and 4.52 g NaCl are dissolved together to give 250 mL solution. Calculate the
chloride ion concentration in the final solution mixture.
Answer.
1.75 g CaCl2 = 1.75/111.0 = 0.0158 mol CaCl2; CaCl2(s) → Ca2+(aq) + 2Cl−(aq)
Therefore when dissolved we have = 2x0.0158 = 0.0316 mol Cl − from the CaCl2.

4.52 g NaCl = 4.52/58.44 = 0.0773 mol NaCl; NaCl(s) → Na +(aq) + Cl−(aq)

Therefore when dissolved we have 1x0.0773 = 0.0773 mol Cl− from the NaCl.

In total we have 0.0316 + 0.0773 = 0.1089 mol Cl−, nCl- = 0.1089, and [Cl−] = n/V = 0.1089/0.250 =
0.436 mol/L

Dilution

A common operation in the laboratory is to dilute a solution, to make a more dilute (less
concentrated) solution starting with a concentrated (stronger) solution. In many cases we call the
concentrated solution the “stock solution”, it is the solution from which we may make a series of
more dilute solutions.

The principle here is that when we have a certain number of moles in a certain amount of solution,
then we add water, we still have the same amount of solute (same number of moles) but now in a
larger volume, so the concentration (strength) becomes less. Think of putting one sugar cube in a pot
of tea half filled. When we now add water to fill the teapot full, we still have the same sugar cube in
there (the same number of moles of solute), but the solution has become more dilute. This can be
expressed as;
moles solute before = moles solute after
moles solute before: nbefore = (MxV)before moles solute after: nafter = (MxV)after

In equation form: MiVi = MfVf

Where i stands for initial (“before”) and f for final (“after”).

Examples.
1 25.0 mL of a 0.200 M HCl solution is diluted to a final volume of 100 mL. Calculate the final HCl
concentration.
Answer: Use MiVi = MfVf : 0.200x0.0250 = Mf(?)x)0.100 → Mf = 0.0500 mol/L
In fact, since both Vi and Vf are given in mL, we don’t have to divide both sides by 1000, and we
could simply have written 0.200x25.0 = Mfx100, giving of course the same answer for Mf. be
careful with this though, it can only be used when both volumes are already in mL. The dilution
process in this example is a 4-fold dilution, i.e., we go from 25 to 100 mL, so the concentration
simply becomes 4x as low!

2. We have a 6.0 M H2SO4 stock solution and want to make 500 mL of 0.10 M H2SO4. How many mL
of the 6.0 M stock solution should we dilute to make the 500 mL?
Answer: in this case we know Mf and Vf, and Mi, and we need to find Vi:
MiVi = MfVf 6.0xVi = 0.10x500 (note we use mL for Vf, then Vi will be in mL also)
Vi = 0.10x500/6.0 = 8.33 mL.

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An additional question could be: what is the [H+] in this final solution? Since MH2SO4 = 0.100 M, then
[H+] = 2x0.100 = 0.200 mol/L, since 1 molecule H2SO4 gives 2 H+ ions.

6. Acid-Base titrations (Chang section 4.7, pp. 150-152)

Note: you are not responsible for section 4.6, gravimetric analysis, and 4.8, redox titrations.

A titration is an example of quantitative analysis, in which we determine the solution concentration

e.g of an acid by determining exactly the volume of a base solution of a known concentration that is
needed to exactly neutralize the acid, i.e., to have the acid-base reaction exactly go to completion. We
have seen that in an acid-base reaction the net ionic reaction is H + + OH− → H2O, therefore when the
reaction goes exactly to completion, at that point (called the end point of the titration) we will have:
moles H+ = moles OH−

When the acid is monoprotic (HCl, CH3COOH), and the base is e.g. NaOH solution (1 OH− ), this can
be written as;
nacid =MAVA, nbase = MBVB, and we have: MAVA = MBVB

But be careful!! This equality is valid only when we have a monoprotic acid (e.g. HCl, with a base
such as NaOH.

When the acid is diprotic (e.g H2SO4 or H2C2O4, oxalic acid), we have 2H+ per mole acid. For
instance, for the titration of H2SO4 with NaOH the balanced neutralization reaction is:

H2SO4 + 2NaOH → Na2SO4 + 2H2O

Now we have to take care of the factor 2, if we have n A moles of H2SO4 we need 2x as many moles
of base, so nB = 2xnA, and with nB = MBVB and nA = MAVA we find
nB = 2xnacid or nB = Mbase Vbase = 2MAVA

Note that we will always use M in mol/L, therefore we have to recognize that for diprotic acids (e.g.
H2SO4) we produce 2 moles of H+ and therefore need double the moles of OH−.

An “always safe” way of doing these problems is once again the dimensional analysis method:

2 mol NaOH
To find mol NaOH: molNaOH =M B V B =mol H 2 SO 4 x
1 mol H 2 S O 4

Similarly, in the unusual case we would have a dibasic base (e.g. Ba(OH)2), each mole of base would
need 2 moles of a monoprotic acid!

Examples.
1. 25.0 mL of an unknown HCl solution is titrated with 0.200 M NaOH. 22.52 mL NaOH is needed
to reach the endpoint of the titration. Calculate the Molarity M, of the HCl solution.
Answer.
HCl is a monoprotic acid, so we use MAVA = MBVB. In this case VA, MB, and VB are known and we
have to find MA.
MAx25.0 = 0.200x22.52 → MA = 0.200x22.52/25.0 = 0.180 mol/L
As with the dilution example, since both VA and VB are in mL, we do not have to convert to L.

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2. The concentration of a NaOH solution is determined by titrating the solution with 0.478 g
potassium hydrogen phthalate or KHP (KHC8H8O4, a monoprotic solid organic acid, MW = 204.2
g/mol). 32.45 mL NaOH solution are needed to titrate to the endpoint. Calculate the Molarity of the
NaOH solution.
Answer.
In this case, we know nA and VB, and need to find MB. It is a monoprotic acid, so nA = MBVB.
nA = 0.478/204.2 = 0.00234 mol KHP, thus:
0.00234 = MBx32.45/1000 (now we must use L for VB since we do not have a volume
unit on the other side!!)
MB = 1000x0.00234/32.45 = 0.0721 mol/L

3. 25.0 mL of an H2SO4 solution is titrated with 35.47 mL 0.234 M NaOH. Calculate the Molarity, M
of the sulfuric acid solution.

Answer.
Now we know VA, VB and MB and have to find MA. We recognize that H2SO4 is a diprotic acid, so we
use:
2MAVA = MBVB 2MAx25.0 = 35.47x0.234 → MA = 0.166 mol/L
(MA in this case is the concentration of H2SO4, so in this solution [H+] = 2x0.166 = 0.332 mol/L).

4. A NaOH solution is standardized by titration with 0.456 g oxalic acid dihydrate, H 2C2O4.2H2O.
27.35 mL NaOH is needed. Calculate the concentration of the NaOH solution.
Answer.
Oxalic acid dihydrate is a diprotic acid (it gives off 2 H+). The H2O in the formula has no effect on the
number of protons but must be counted in the weight.
The Molar Mass of H2C2O4.2H2O is 126.0 g/mol, so 0.456 g = 0.456/126.0 = 0.00362 mol acid.
Since it is a diprotic acid:
2nA = MBVB 2x0.00362 = MBx27.35/1000 (once again we must now use L, not mL!).
MB = 0.265 mol/L

Exercises.
1. 0. 256 g sucrose, C12H22O11 is dissolved in water to give 250 mL solution. Calculate the
Molarity of the sucrose (remember, M = mol/L).

2. How many g of CaCl2 must we have to make 200 mL of a 0.100 M solution?

3. What is the [H+] when we dissolve 0.245 g H2SO4 in 50 mL solution?

4. 5.3 g Fe2(SO4)3 and 7.2 g MgSO4 are dissolved together to give 500.0 mL solution. Calculate the
sulfate ion concentration in the final solution mixture.

5. 10.0 mL of a 0.35 M HCl solution is diluted to a final volume of 250 mL. What is the HCl
concentration (M, mol/L) of the final solution?

6. 0.35 g FeSO4 is dissolved to give 100 mL stock solution. 25 mL of this stock solution in turn is
diluted to 250 mL. Calculate the [Fe2+] in the final solution.

7. The concentration of an unknown HCl solution is determined by titration with standard NaOH
solution. The concentration of the standard base is 0.1250 mol/L. When 25.0 mL HCl is titrated with
the NaOH, 17.93 mL base is needed to reach the endpoint. Calculate the concentration of the HCl
solution.

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8. 25.0 mL of an unknown H2SO4 solution is titrated to the endpoint with 34.50 mL 0.0946 M NaOH.
Calculate the Molarity M of the sulfuric acid solution.

9. A NaOH solution is standardized by titration with 0.835 g KHP (monoprotic standard acid, MW =
204.2 g/mol). 23.47 mL of the unknown NaOH solution is needed to titrate the 0.835 g KHP to the
endpoint. Calculate the concentration of the NaOH solution.

Answers to solution concentration exercises: 1. 0.0299 mol/L; 2. 2.22 g; 3. 0.10M; 4. 0.20M; 5. 0.014 mol/L; 6.
0.00230 mol/L; 7. 0.0897 mol/L; 8. 0.0653 mol/L; 9. 0.174 mol/L

Additional problems in Chang, chapter 4: 4.10, 4.18, 4.20, 4.22, 4.30, 4.32, 4.34, 4.46,
4.50, 4.56, 4.60, 4.62, 4.70, 4.74, 4.86, 4.88 (Answers to all even-numbered problems are
given in the AP pages in the back of the book)

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