OBJETIVOS HUMANÍSTICOS, CONTEÚDOS

CIENTÍFICOS: CONTRIBUIÇÕES DA HISTÓRIA

E DA FILOSOFIA DA CIÊNCIA PARA O ENSINO
DE CIÊNCIAS
HISTORICAL INQUIRY CASES IN A BRAZILIAN CONTEXT

Douglas Allchin
University of Minnesota
allch001@umn.edu

Introduction: From History to Inquiry

R
eaders of this volume are likely already familiar with
the value of enriching science education with history
(ALLCHIN, 2013; CONANT, 1947; KLOPFER ,1969;
NASH 1951). For advocates, the enduring challenge is practical,
not theoretical: realizing the goal by persuading others, prepar-
ing curriculum materials, teachers and assessment instruments,
and ultimately integrating history among institutional goals and
daily practice (ALLCHIN, 2012; HENKE; HÖTTECKE,
2015; HODSON, 2008; HÖTTECKE; SILVA, 2012; MONK;
OSBORNE, 1997).
Over the past few decades, the environment has changed sig-
nificantly. Notably, in 1996 the U.S. National Science Education
Standards (NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL, 1996) des-
ignated “history and nature of science” as an essential feature of
scientific literacy (echoed by Rutherford and Ahlgren (1990)).
That focus spread internationally (MCCOMAS; OLSON,
1998). Ironically however, while historical perspectives of science
were largely responsible for the shift in philosophical views in
the 1970s and 80s that fueled this change, history has faded as
an explicit element. What remains is robust support for teaching

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about the nature of science, or NOS (NGSS LEAD STATES,
2013; OSBORNE et al., 2003; OECD, 2017).
While NOS has taken a comfortably strong institutional
foothold, history itself remains largely peripheral. The trending
theme now is inquiry, or scientific practices: educators want stu-
dents to conduct their own investigations (DENG et al., 2011;
NGSS LEAD STATES 2013). Teachers have largely welcomed
the strategy, although mostly because it helps engage students.
Accordingly, a fruitful approach for conveying historical perspec-
tives seems to be integrating them with inquiry (ALLCHIN,
2012; in press 1; BRUNEAU et al., 2012; HIPST, 2008; RUDGE;
HOWE, 2009).
Even more, however, one can view history as improving or
facilitating inquiry itself (ALLCHIN, in press 2; see Table 1).
First, history can help motivate questions through human and cul-
tural context (IRWIN, 2000; STINNER, 1995; STINNER et al.,
2013). Second, it can help problematize meta-level questions for
deeper nature-of-science learning (ALLCHIN; ANDERSON;
NIELSEN, 2014; ALLCHIN, 2013; CLOUGH, 2006; HOWE,
2007). Next, historical cases render the uncertainty of science-
in-the-making, basic to learning how conclusions derive from
evidence, not the other way around (FLOWER, 1995; LATOUR,
1987). A historical lineage of questions also helps structure inquiry
(through an episodic, or “interrupted,” narrative) (FARBER,
2003; HERREID, 2005). The narrative format itself is engaging
and also provides a trajectory that leads to a secure resolution
of inquiry, which is inherently open-ended (CLOUGH, 2011;
HAGEN; ALLCHIN; SINGER, 1996; KLASSEN, 2007). All
these elements should interest the inquiry teacher who is not yet
attuned to the virtues of history. Highlighting the links specif-
ically between inquiry and history will help enhance practicing
teachers’ views of the value of history.

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 Table 1. Features of the episodic historical inquiry model (ALLCHIN,
in press).

(1) Motivate inquiry through both cultural and biographical historical contexts
(2) Problematize the nature of science through puzzles and questions
(3) Foster inquiry and the uncertainty of science-in-the-making through
historical perspective
(4) Structure inquiry stepwise to follow a historical lineage of questions, linked
through an episodic (“interrupted”) narrative
(5) Resolve the scientific inquiry and historical narrative in tandem
(6) Consolidate NOS lessons through a final and explicit reflection
(7) Use the narrative format to provide a historical explanation of NOS

Here, I present a few examples of this strategy for teach-

ing NOS: framing historical episodes as student inquiry cases, or
science-in-the-making. Each contains a series of inquiry ques-
tions motivated by and structured by historical context, threaded
together by historical narrative, and designed to foster reflective
nature-of-science thinking (ALLCHIN, in press 2).
These cases also exhibit another feature attractive to most
teachers, which further enhances the likelihood that history is
adopted in actual classroom practice: they help celebrate local sci-
entific achievements - in this case, Brazilian science. (Fortunately
for Brazilians, they are also written in Portuguese!) Of course, this
local orientation is not essential to understanding the nature of
science. But for teachers, who often decide what happens in their
classroom, national pride and the prospect of providing local role
models for students are potent motivators.

Vital Brazil and Snake Venom

The first case is about Vital Brazil (Figure 1), who discov-
ered the specificity of snake venom and went on to help establish
the Butantan Institute, now one of the world’s leading research
institutes on immunotherapy and animal toxins (ALLCHIN,

181
2017; RICCI; DE OLIVEIRA, in press; RICCI; TEIXEIRA;
DE OLIVEIRA, in press).

Figure 1. Vital Brazil (courtesy of Butantan Institute).

The first feature of historical inquiry is a cultural and personal

context for motivating investigation. In this case, we situate our-
selves in the 1890s: Imagine how nearly three thousand persons
are dying annually in Brazil due to encounters with venomous
snakes. Many are illiterate immigrants working on coffee planta-
tions or building the railroads that help transport the coffee. Few
doctors are available in rural areas. Workers rely primarily on local
healers with their herbal remedies. But are they truly effective?
Our motivation, then (still in the 1890s), is healing snake bites
- effectively.

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 Now we add the personal dimension: Young physician Vital
Brazil Mineiro da Campanha worked in the town of Botucatu,
São Paulo state. He wanted to systematically test those alleged
treatments.
Second, the case focuses on particular problems with par-
ticular corresponding lessons in nature of science. For example,
to test remedies, Vital Brazil needs test animals. Fortunately for
him, dogs, goats and guinea pigs are readily available. But what
about securing the test venom? Hypothetical snake venom does
not work. You need living creatures. Along with their real dan-
gers. And Brazil is deeply afraid of snakes. How will you get the
snakes? How will you extract the venom?
Here we meet science-in-the-making - historical inquiry
feature #3. While an easy answer might be found today on
Google or Wikipedia, the students must address the challenge
themselves. No clues. No prior knowledge. This engagement with
uncertainty and creativity is the core of inquiry learning.
After the students generate and discuss their responses,
we turn back to Vital Brazil. He works with local healers to get
snakes-living snakes that have been captured, rather than imme-
diately killed as a threat. The first two specimens are mishandled
and soon die. If you need snakes, a seemingly trivial task like the
proper handling of snakes can ultimately be essential to practic-
ing science. The third snake survives. Next, Brazil presents his
snake with a fake target: a mass of cotton, into which it releases
its venom. Much later, the director of a research institute helps
develop a long-handled device for lassoing the snakes, now known
as Lutz’s loop (Figure 2). With all the supplies and specimens in
hand, the task of administering remedies and comparing them is
relatively simple. But note the nature of science lesson here: sci-
ence needs concrete - and sometimes risky-work in the material
world. It’s not just about theories or imagining ideal experiments
on paper.

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 Figure 2. Lutz’s loop (courtesy of Butantan Institute).

Of course, the investigation is not complete. But where do

you go next? Student-led inquiry can be somewhat blind and
haphazard if one is not careful. If it is too pre-ordained, students
feel manipulated, and simply wait for answers, losing the core
lessons of uncertainty and science-in-the-making (HENKE;
HÖTTECKE, 2015). So (historical inquiry feature #4), we
follow Vital Brazil along a lineage of questions that emerge nat-
urally in a narrative format. When Brazil finds (not surprisingly,
perhaps) that none of the local remedies are effective, he consults
elsewhere. He reads about work in Europe that indicates a role
for anti-sera, a new approach to medicine. You immunize ani-
mals to snake bites, then extract their blood serum to treat other
organisms that had been bitten. The dominant theory ranks the
toxicity of the various species, meaning that sera from the most
venomous snakes should work against all. Vital Brazil is eager to
get some cobra venom, the strongest. But it all comes from France
and is very expensive. When he finally secures some and tests it,
he finds it has no effect at all on Brazilian snakebites. So he will
have to make serum in Brazil. But that now needs a fancy lab.

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 Brazil finds a new job and relocates to a bacteriological
institute in the capital city of São Paulo, where the director
allows him time-and resources-to continue his interest in snake
bites. He begins collecting several species of poisonous snakes
and immunizing animals to develop anti-sera. He looks for
the strongest venom, but the results are unexpected. Now it is
the students’ turn again, to examine and interpret the findings.
The rattlesnake anti-sera work on rattlesnake venom, but not
on jaracara venom. Likewise, the jaracara serum work only on
jaracara bites, not rattlesnake bites. Students generally are able
to conclude along with Brazil that sera are species specific, not
ranked from weakest to strongest. You need serum from the
snake species that bit you. At that time, the discovery of immu-
nological specificity of snake venoms had global significance,
changing how immunologists conceived poisonous venoms,
not just in snakes. And students are able to share vicariously in
the discovery. That’s historical inquiry feature #7: the role of an
experiential narrative, or storytelling format, in helping to con-
vey an abstract explanation.
So, to prevent snake bites, Brazil needs to make sera for each
snake type. More snakes, more lab resources. For a while, Brazil
is prevented from doing much. Plague has broken out in a nearby
port and his job is to make anti-sera. That takes priority. But it all
proves a benefit eventually. To be able to produce large quantities
of plague anti-sera, the government institute purchased a large
farm outside the city (Figure 3) to maintain the horses and sheep
that functioned as organismal “factories” for the serum. When
Brazil resumes his work on snake venom two years later, he has
the extra resources he needs. But now Brazil needs even more
snakes, and a place to keep them all while occasionally harvesting
their venom. Another problem for students: part of the historical
lineage of questions.

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 Figure 3. Fazenda Butantan (courtesy of Butantan Institute).

Where do you keep snakes safely? Brazil constructs a large

serpentarium, surrounded by a pit and sheer walls. In time, the
small “snake zoo,” with its thrilling proximity to danger, becomes
a popular attraction for visitors.
At the same time, Brazil creates an exchange system for
keeping an adequate stock of snakes and then distributing the
sera. When workers in rural areas ship him a snake in one of
the heavy wooden boxes that the institute provides, he returns
several bottles of serum and syringes for the treatment of snake
bites. Establishing that system helps transform an ideal of poten-
tial treatment into a sustainable reality. Mortality rates from
snakebites drop from 25% to 2%. This is science in action and it
exhibits substantive work and resources, not just abstract scien-
tific reasoning alone.
Vital Brazil works over the next several years to transform
the old farm into the Butantan Institute, which has become
today one of the most important worldwide research centers in
immunology, the production of vaccines and anti-sera, and other
biopharmaceuticals. Historical inquiry feature #5: “happy ending”
and resolution. The original scientific problem of healing snake-
bites is solved, and the personal and cultural story comes to a
satisfying end.

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 That is an opportunity to review, and consolidate learning
about the nature of science. This case illustrates (repeatedly) that
scientific ideas are one thing, but without the institutions and
resources that materially enable research, science is empty. The
image of the serpentarium, which became a popular tourist desti-
nation celebrated in postcards, helps underscore the indispensable
role of infrastructure in science (Figure 4).

Figure 4. Serpentarium (courtesy of Butantan Institute).

So, the case of Vital Brazil profiles a scientist of international

caliber, but also a Brazilian hero. It is also a story of science solv-
ing Brazilian problems, but with a globally significant solution.
The local connection can make the science seem more relevant
and important to Brazilian students - and so contributes to the
core problem of motivation and engagement in learning about
science.

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Carlos Chagas and the Railroad Workers Disease

A second case also illustrates the historical inquiry model.

And it involves a scientist that most Brazilians know by name
(AZEVEDO; DEL CORSO, in press). Yet few know much
about his research in much detail. So it provides another oppor-
tunity for profiling the nature of science, but in this case with the
name suppressed. The questions and unknowns are foremost —
to revive science-in-the-making (#3), even though events have
already happened.
The initial problem is, again, a disease among the railroad
workers (#1) early last century. A young physician is sent to
the countryside to treat patients. At first, the disease looks like
malaria, but also not exactly like malaria. Students must analyze
the list of symptoms of each and decide: Is the disease merely a
variant of malaria, to be treated the same way, or is it something
new, which may require a different treatment?
Further observation indicates that in later stages, the patients
develop enlarged thyroid glands (Figure 5). Is the disease a form
of goiter? Again, the students must review the symptoms and
decide. They must also consider, more generally, what criteria are
used to classify diseases (#2).
While visiting a remote district, our physician hears from
the chief engineer of the railroad that many patients with the
goiter have problems with bed bugs in their shacks. He wonders
if there might be a connection. Now, the students face the NOS
problem of expertise (#2). The engineer is not a doctor. Should
they trust what he says?
Just a few decades earlier, Carlos Finlay had identified mos-
quitoes as carriers of yellow fever, so our physician decides to
investigate the bed bugs. But how do you research this? Here, the
students must think about research strategies, how to organize a
search, using models and hypotheses (#2).

188
 Along with his colleague, our physician collects several sam-
ples of the bug. Following the example of yellow fever, he looks in
the gut for microorganisms and finds a flagellated protozoa of the
genus Trypsanoma. But is it the cause? Because of his interest in dis-
eases, he also examines the blood of other animal species, and finds
another form of Trypsanoma in the local marmosets. But he cannot
be sure if it is exactly the same species as that found in the disease
bugs. Students are again challenged to propose ways to investigate
this problem (the next question in a series of inquiries, #4).

Figure 5. The railroad workers’ disease.

With the help of a major research institute in Rio de Janeiro,

the team finds that when marmosets are infected by the bugs,
they develop the new disease in 30 days, and show signs of the
microorganism in their blood - but now they find it to be a
new species of Trypsanoma, unlike those he found in the mar-
moset blood earlier. So now our physician examines blood from

189
his disease patients, but they do not show the presence of bug’s
Trypsanoma either. Apparently, with all this work, there is no con-
nection. So, what do you do next? This is another major dilemma
for the students to solve (again, a series of questions connected by
an authentic narrative, #4, #7).
Our physician in Brazil, Carlos, returns from the research
institute to treat his patients. One young patient is severely ill, in
an advanced stage. And he decides to takes another blood sample.
This sample now shows the new species of Trypsanoma. So, there
does seem to be a connection, after all. The microorganism must
have changed its form inside the patient as the disease progressed.
In the remainder of the case, students learn about the changes
in the morphology of the Trypsanoma. And they see how the
microbe moves from organism to organism, via the bug, eventu-
ally to humans. The discovery of a new disease is confirmed, and
named after the physician, Carlos Chagas (Figure 6) - a famous
Brazilian figure many students know, although only remotely.
Chagas was the first person to identify a new disease and also
track down all the stages of the infection cycle, which involved the
microorganism, the insect vector, and several natural hosts (#5).
In this case, students learn about several aspects of the nature
of science, which are now reviewed (#6):
1. the role of economic factors in the work of scientists;
2. the role of personal motivations;
3. the role of the analogy between a new disease and one
already known;
4. the role of local knowledge versus systematic research;
5. the role of chance in scientific discoveries;
6. the interaction of laboratory and field studies.

This case helps illustrate further the role of a lineage of ques-

tions and a sequence of inquiry episodes for the students (#4).
They follow the history of a major discovery, but in small steps.

190
They participate in authentic science, not artificial or “cookbook”
classroom investigations. All the answers are not obvious. The
students must work with uncertainty and make conclusions based
on the evidence available, rather than on already knowing (or
guessing) the right answer (#2).

Figure 6. Carlos Chagas (Wikimedia, cc2).

Johanna Döbereiner, Soil Bacteria and Plants

The third case in this small collection focuses on a less

familiar scientist, but one of enormous economic importance to
Brazil: Johanna Döbereiner (Figure 7) (PONCE; SIMONETTI,
n.p.). Her work begins in the late 1950s and extends for several
decades, helping to establish a role for nitrogen fixing bacteria in
many tropical crops — beyond the Rhizobium bacteria in legumes
that have been known for a long time.

191
 Figure 7. Johanna Döbereiner (courtesy Embrapa)

Döbereiner arrives in Brazil in the 1950s with her husband,

as émigrés from Czechoslovakia. At first, she (and the students
following the case) must decide if, despite her credentials and
experience, she will accept an unpaid position. She ultimately
accepts, allowing her to continue work on soil microbiology and
agronomy. When her supervisor leaves, she is left to work on her
own. She reflects on the problem of fertilizers, which are now pro-
moted by agricultural models from the U.S. Johanna notices that
some strains of plant develop even if nobody fertilizes them. For
example, Bahia grass grows everywhere in Brazil without being
fertilized. Sugarcane productivity can remain constant for many
years without the addition of nitrogen fertilizer. Again, adopting
the position of Johanna, students now speculate on possible rea-
sons why.
With her background in soil microbiology, Johanna con-
siders a role for independent nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the
soil. One such species is Azotobacter. She can test their growth

192
in Brazilian soils, but what factors here might be relevant to
investigate? Students must decide. Döbereiner considers tem-
perature first and conducts climate-controlled experiments. She
concludes that higher temperature matters to Azotobacter growth.
Accordingly, the numerous studies already done on Azotobacter
in the temperate environments of Europe and North America
are not relevant to Brazil. Location matters. Temperature was an
overlooked variable.
Johanna also considers the possible role of soil acidity.
Azotobacter, researchers have claimed, do not like acid soils. So
(apparently) they should not thrive in the generally acidic soils of
Brazil and the tropics. But Johanna also finds a few previous stud-
ies where they are found in tropical soils. Students receive one
researcher’s data on the percentage of Azotobacter in soil samples
with different pH values. They look for any patterns, and com-
pare their conclusions with those already published. Johanna must
reject the widely accepted conclusions as not informed by studies
in the tropics, and biased by the scientists’ preferred theories.
So, based on lab studies, Azotobacter should be able to grow
in Brazilian soils. But do they? Students must plan how to pro-
ceed. Now, Johanna must examine soil samples from different
geographical regions within Brazil, then conduct more field exper-
iments based on different soils inoculated with Azotobacter. They
must be tested again with different conditions of temperature
and acidity. Yes, they do add nitrogen to the soil, enhancing the
growth of many plants. Meanwhile, some species of Azotobacter
are reclassified to another genus, Beijerinckia. This opens new
possibilities for considering other related species that have not
yet been investigated.
Johanna now takes a few years to finish her formal degrees
in the U.S. and returns to Brazil and is appointed to the National
Soybean Commission. Economic conditions favor the export of
soybeans, but - here is the next question - what can help increase

193
production? The dominant model of agriculture is to develop
improved genetic strains and make large capital investments for
mechanized farming, with substantial inputs of fertilizer and
irrigated water. Johanna considers instead the role of biological
nitrogen fixation. Soybeans are not known to have symbiosis with
Rhizobium. But Johanna is skeptical and tries several different
strains of Rhizobium, finding some new ones that interact with
soybeans. At first her work is disregarded as irrelevant. But as
the difficulties - and expenses - of capital-intensive agriculture
increase, Johanna provides an alternative to the costly use of fer-
tilizer - which makes soybean production cheaper than in the
U.S. Soybean production increases over the next several decades.
By 2003, Brazil becomes the world’s second largest producer of
soybeans, accounting for over 1/4 of the world’s total. Johanna’s
attention to the microscopic bacteria in the soil has resulted in
major economic benefit for Brazil. Another local scientist, but of
international stature.

Other Cases from Brazil

A fourth case (POLATI; CARDOSO, 2017) begins with

Arthur Eddington and his now famous inquiry into the gravita-
tional bending of light according to Einstein’s theory of general
relativity. Relevant measurements could be taken during a full solar
eclipse, and one was due soon in 1919. As a Quaker, Eddington
also wanted to promote post-war amity and cooperation by
mounting an international science expedition. This is where stu-
dent inquiry begins. Of course, the pathway of the eclipse must be
determined first, and it reveals a swath through Brazil. But what is
an appropriate observation site? Students must create a list of rel-
evant criteria, such as favorable weather conditions, proximity to
a port (to enable transport of all the telescopic equipment), and so
forth. (Again, the concrete materiality matters here just as much

194
as the theoretical design, easily sketched on a board.) Eddington
consults an astronomer in Brazil, Henry Morize (Figure 8), and
students take his role in choosing a location. As is now well known,
he recommended a location in Sobral (Figure 9). The case also
allows students to consider the results and the errors introduced
by problems with the telescopic equipment. Further, how will all
this be communicated to the public? Ultimately, with data also
from Africa, Eddington announces the dramatic confirmation of
Einstein’s theory and the news appears on the front page of major
newspapers worldwide. A major discovery, with Brazilians being
significant contributors. The local connection makes the science a
bit more approachable, and helps motivate a historical perspective
into the nature of scientific practice.

Figure 8. Henry Morize, Brazilian astronomer who worked with Arther

Eddington in 1918-19.

195
 Figure 9. Site of the 1919 solar eclipse observation in Sobral, Brazil.

Finally, I mention only briefly the case of evolutionary biol-

ogist and geneticist Theodius Dobzhansky (de Oliveira Gomes
& de Moura Silva, in press). Dobzhansky was instrumental in
integrating modern evolutionary studies with population genet-
ics. He was invited to Brazil and chose to study wild fruit flies
there. In several visits over many years, working with colleagues
there, he collected important evidence on the genetics of evolving
populations. At the same time, he helped the University of Sao
Paulo establish its Genetics Department (Figure 10).

Figure 10. Geneticist Theodosius Dobzhansky (right) with Brazilian

colleagues in the 1960s: Mario G. Ferri, Antonio Brito da Cunha and André
Dreyfus (courtesy Museu da Genetica, University of Rio Grande do Sul).

196
Heroes and Myth-Conceptions

All these cases highlight Brazilian scientists. That makes

the history a more attractive resource to the typical Brazilian
teacher (at least). Yet at the same time, a local or regional focus
carries certain risks. Too eager for pride, one can easily overstate
the importance of some scientific discovery and thereby dilute
authentic lessons about the nature of science. But the cases above
were selected precisely because they also exhibited global signif-
icance: they are just as valuable in the U.S., Canada, Germany,
Greece, or elsewhere, where they can help profile the global nature
of contributions to science. What matters is that the problems are
significant, the narratives compelling, and the nature of science
lessons clear and insightful.
Such cases are also vulnerable in another way. A common
tendency of story-telling among novices is to amplify the heroic
and nationalistic elements, creating monumental and unreal-
istic images of scientists. That is, they may easily succumb to
myth-conceptions, pseudohistory and unfruitful rational recon-
structions (ALLCHIN, 2000; 2003; 2004; 2006). When that
happens, historical cases fail to render the nature of science faith-
fully. So a focus on local heroes should be balanced with a healthy
historical realism to portray NOS authentically (ALLCHIN,
2000; HEERING, 2011). One should honestly acknowledge sci-
entific errors, lapses in scientific integrity or research ethics, and
personality flaws. Heroes need not be perfect to be heroes. Indeed,
utopian “role models” typically impress students as unachievable.
By contrast, realistic profiles of scientists become motivational
as “real models.” Also, given an important discovery as a bench-
mark, one can safely highlight the role of historical contingency,
chance encounters, or accident. One need not misleadingly attri-
bute the achievement wholly to one person’s abilities. Equally,
one should take the opportunity of the secure image of a central

197
hero to underscore the role of others who contributed: research
is inevitably a communal effort. Morize is an important part of
Eddington’s story. Nevertheless, when properly contextualized
and enriched with inquiry questions, local historical cases can
offer an attractive opportunity for teachers to engage students in
lessons about the nature of science.

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