BITS Pilani

K K Birla Goa Campus

Dr. Richa Singhal BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

 Sedimentation
Definition: Separation of unstable and destabilized suspended
solids from a suspension by the force of gravity.
The fluid may be gas or liquid; it may be flowing or at rest.

Suspension is separated into two phases –

• Clarified supernatant leaving the top of the sedimentation tank (overflow).
• Concentrated sludge leaving the bottom of the sedimentation tank (underflow).
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Objectives
• To remove the particles from a stream in order to
eliminate contaminants from the fluid or to recover
the particles, as in the elimination of dust and fumes
from air or flue gas or the removal of solids from
liquid wastes.
• In other problems, particles are deliberately
suspended in fluids to obtain separations of the
particles into fractions differing in size or density.

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Applications
• Removal of solids from liquid sewage wastes
• Settling of crystals from the mother liquor
• Separation of liquid-liquid mixture from a solvent-extraction
stage in a settler
• Settling of solid food particles from a liquid food
• Settling of a slurry from a soybean leaching process

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Principle of Settling/Sedimentation
• Suspended solids present in water having specific gravity
greater than that of water tend to settle down by gravity as
soon as the turbulence is retarded by offering storage.
• Basin in which the flow is retarded is called settling tank.
• Theoretical average time for which the water is detained in the
settling tank is called the detention period.
• When a particle is a sufficient distance from the walls of the
container and from other particles so that its fall is not
affected by them, the process is called free settling.
• When the particles are crowded, they settle at lower rate and
is called hindered settling.

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Settling of particles from suspension depends on:

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Types of Settling
• Type 1: Discrete particle settling
 Applicable for very low concentration solids
 Particles settle as individual entities.
 No interaction between particles.
 Particles have no tendency to flocculate.
 Example: removal of grit and sand in wastewater
treatment.

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• Type 2: Flocculation settling
 Applicable for dilute suspension of particles that coalesce or
flocculate
 As particles settle and coalesce with other particles, the size
of particles and their settling velocity increases.
 Example: Removal of suspended solids (SS) in primary
sedimentation tanks of WWTP, settling of chemically
coagulated waters.

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• Type 3: Hindered or zone settling
 Applicable for settling of intermediate concentration of
flocculant particles
 In this case, particles are so close together that the inter-
particle forces are able to hold them in fixed positions relative to
each other.
 The mass of particles settles as a zone at a constant velocity.
 Example: Biological floc removal in secondary settling basins of
WWTP.

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• Type 4: Compression settling
 Settling of particles that are of such a high concentration
that the particles touch each other.
 Compression takes place due to the weight of whole mass
which continuously increases.
 Clear water is formed above the compression zone.
 Example: In sludge thickening facilities.

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BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus
 Type 1 – Discrete Settling
Derivation of basic equations for rigid spheres
• Whenever a particle is moving through a fluid, a number of forces
will be acting upon it.
• If a particle is suspended in the fluid, it initially has 2 forces acting
upon it.
• Force of gravity: 𝐹𝐺 = 𝜌𝑝 𝑔𝑉𝑝 (1)
• Buoyant force quantified by Archimedes as:
𝐹𝐵 = 𝜌𝑔𝑉𝑝 (2)
where, 𝜌𝑝 and 𝜌 are the densities of particle and
fluid respectively, and Vp is the volume of the
particle.

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• Once the motion has been initiated, a third force is created
due to viscous friction, the drag force or frictional resistance,
is proportional to the velocity head v2/2 of the fluid displaced
by the moving body.
• Drag force is quantified by:
𝑣2
𝐹𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷 𝐴𝑝 𝜌 (3)
2
where, CD= drag coefficient (proportionality constant and is
dimensionless), Ap = cross sectional area of particle
perpendicular to the direction of movement, v = settling velocity
of particle

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• The resultant force on the body is the FG-FB-FD. This resultant
force must equal the force of the acceleration:
𝑑𝑣
𝑚 = 𝐹𝐺 − 𝐹𝐵 − 𝐹𝐷 (4)
𝑑𝑡
• When the body is released from its position of rest, the falling of
the body consist of two periods: the period of accelerated fall
and the period of constant-velocity fall.
• The initial acceleration is very short. So, the period of constant-
velocity fall is the important one. It is called the free settling
velocity or terminal velocity vt.
• To solve for the terminal velocity in Eq. (4), dv/dt = 0 and the
equation becomes
2𝑔 𝜌𝑝 −𝜌 𝑉𝑝
𝑣𝑡 = (5)
𝐶𝐷 𝜌𝐴𝑝

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 2𝑔 𝜌𝑝 −𝜌 𝑉𝑝
𝑣𝑡 = (5)
𝐶𝐷 𝜌𝐴𝑝

2
3
• For spherical particles, 𝑉𝑝 = 𝜋𝐷𝑝 /6 and 𝐴𝑝 = 𝜋𝐷𝑝 /4.
Substituting these into Eq. (5), for spherical particles:

4𝑔 𝜌𝑝 −𝜌 𝐷𝑝
𝑣𝑡 = (6)
3𝐶𝐷 𝜌

where vt is m/s (ft/s), ρ is kg/m3 (Ibm/ft3), g is 9.80665 m/s2

(32.174 ft/s2), and Dp is m (ft).

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• For laminar flow, terminal settling velocity equation
becomes:
𝑔𝐷𝑝 2 𝜌𝑝 −𝜌 Settling velocity of spherical
𝑣𝑡 = (8) discrete particles under laminar
18𝜇
flow conditions (STOKE’s LAW)

• For turbulent flow,

Settling velocity of spherical
10𝑔𝐷𝑝 𝜌𝑝 −𝜌
𝑣𝑡 = (9) discrete particles under turbulent
3𝜌 flow conditions

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BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus
• For laminar, transition and turbulent flow, the values of CD are:
24
𝐶𝐷 = (laminar, Re<1)
𝑅𝑒
24 3
𝐶𝐷 = + + 0.34 (transition, 1<Re<104)
𝑅𝑒 𝑅𝑒
𝐶𝐷 = 0.34 − 0.4 (turbulent, Re>104)
𝜌𝑣𝑑
where Re is the Reynolds number (𝑅𝑒 = )
𝜇

Figure. Drag coefficient for

a rigid sphere

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• For transition flow,
Need to solve non-linear equations:

4𝑔 𝜌𝑝 −𝜌 𝐷𝑝 24 3 𝜌𝑣𝑑
𝑣𝑡 = 𝐶𝐷 = + + 0.34 𝑅𝑒 =
3𝐶𝐷 𝜌 𝑅𝑒 𝑅𝑒 𝜇

• Calculate velocity using Stokes law or turbulent flow

expression.
• Calculate and check Reynolds number.
• Calculate CD.
• Use general formula for vt.
• Repeat from step 2 until convergence
(error < 10%, error = |vnew-vold|/voldx100%).
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Problem 1
• Find the terminal settling velocity of a
spherical discrete particle with diameter 0.5
mm and specific gravity of 2.65 settling
through water at 20 °C.
𝜌𝑤 = 998.2 𝑘𝑔 𝑚−3
𝜇 = 1.002 × 10−3 𝑁𝑠𝑚−2

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Types of Settling tanks
• Sedimentation tanks may function either intermittently or
continuously.
• The intermittent tanks also called quiescent type tanks are
those which store water for a certain period and keep it in
complete rest.
• In a continuous flow type tank, the flow velocity is only
reduced and the water is not brought to complete rest as is
done in an intermittent type.
• Settling basins may be either long rectangular or circular in
plan. Long narrow rectangular tanks with horizontal flow are
generally preferred to the circular tanks with radial or spiral
flow.

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 Long rectangular basins are hydraulically
more stable, and flow control for large
volumes is easier with this configuration. A
typical long rectangular tank have length
ranging from 2 to 4 times their width. The
bottom is slightly sloped to facilitate sludge
scraping. A slow moving mechanical sludge
scraper continuously pulls the settled
material into a sludge hopper from where it
is pumped out periodically.

Circular settling basins have the same functional

zones as the long rectangular basin, but the flow
regime is different. When the flow enters at the
center and is baffled to flow radially towards the
perimeter, the horizontal velocity of the water is
continuously decreasing as the distance from the
center increases. Thus, the particle path in a
circular basin is a parabola as opposed to the
straight line path in the long rectangular tank.
Sludge removal mechanisms in circular tanks are
simpler and require less maintenance.
http://nptel.ac.in/courses/105104102/Lecture%206.htm BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus
 Basin Model
inlet outlet
effective settling zone

sludge zone

chamfered weir full-width

to enhance laminar flow weir
(85% of water depth)
• All continuous flow settling basins are conceptually divided into four zones according to function. The
inlet zone serves to uniformly distribute the suspension over the entire cross-section of the basin.
Sedimentation occurs in the settling zone and, upon removal from the water column, the solids
accumulate in the sludge zone. The clarified liquid is generally collected over the entire cross-section of
the basin at the outlet zone and is discharged.
• Under ideal conditions (no mixing or turbulence), required retention time is the time required for a
particle that starts at the top of the inlet zone and settles to the floor of the basin at or before the junction
of the outlet zone.
• The key parameter for the design of settling basins is the volumetric flow of water per unit surface area of
the basin or overflow rate (Vo ).
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Design Equations

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 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ
𝑣𝑐 = 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = =
𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒/𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑄
= = =
(𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ. 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎)/𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴
• vc has units of velocity (m/s or ft/s) is the critical settling velocity.
• Critical settling velocity is the settling velocity of particles which are 100% removed
in the basin.
• Thus, depth of basin is not a factor in determining the size particle that can be
removed completely in the settling zone. The determining factor is Q/A, which has
units of velocity and is referred to as overflow rate.
• Overflow rate or Surface loading (Vo) is expressed in units of flowrate per unit area
(m3/(m2.s)). The critical settling velocity and the overflow rate are the same number,
but proper units should be used to express each.
• Since smaller particles have lower settling velocities, if you want to remove smaller
particles in the settling basin you have to have a lower overflow rate.
• Since V0 = Q/A, to have a smaller V0 you have to have a larger area (a bigger basin
removes smaller particles)
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Problem 2
A water treatment plant has a flow rate of 0.6 m3/sec.
The settling basin at the plant has an effective settling
volume that is 20 m long, 3 m tall and 6 m wide. Will
particles that have a settling velocity of 0.004 m/sec be
completely removed? If not, what percent of the
particles will be removed?

How big would the basin need to be to remove 100% of

the particles that have a settling velocity of 0.004
m/sec?

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Hindered Settling
If the settling is carried out with high concentrations of solid to liquid so that the
particles are so close together that collision between the particles is practically
continuous and the relative fall of particles involves repeated pushing apart of
the lighter by the heavier particles, it is called hindered settling.

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 Hindered Settling
• For hindered flow, the settling velocity is less than would be calculated from Eq. (8)
for Stokes’ law due to interactions with neighboring particles.
• The true drag force is greater in the suspension because of the interference of the
other particles.
• This higher effective viscosity of the mixture µm is equal to the actual viscosity of
the liquid itself, µ, divided by an empirical correction factor, Ψp, which depends
upon ε, the volume fraction of the slurry mixture occupied by the liquid:
𝜇
𝜇𝑚 = (10)
Ψ𝑝
where Ψp is dimensionless and is as follows:
1
Ψ𝑝 = (11)
101.82(1−𝜀)
• The density of the fluid phase becomes effectively the bulk density of the slurry
ρm, which is as follows:
𝜌𝑚 = 𝜀𝜌 + (1 − 𝜀)𝜌𝑝 (12)
where ρm is the density of slurry in kg (solid + liquid)/m3.
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• The density difference is now
𝜌𝑝 − 𝜌𝑚 = 𝜌𝑝 − 𝜀𝜌 + 1 − 𝜀 𝜌𝑝 = 𝜀(𝜌𝑝 − 𝜌) (13)
• The settling velocity vt with respect to the apparatus is 𝜀 times the velocity
calculated by Stokes’ law.
• Substituting mixture properties of µm from Eq. (10) for µ in Eq. (8), (ρp-ρm),
from Eq. (13) for (ρp-ρ), and multiplying the result by ε for the relative-
velocity effect, Eq. (8) becomes, for laminar settling,
𝑔𝐷𝑝 2 𝜌𝑝 −𝜌
𝑣𝑡 =
18𝜇
𝜀 2 Ψ𝑝 (14)
• This is the velocity calculated from Eq. (8), multiplied by the correction factor
(ε2Ψp) .
• The Reynolds number is then based on the velocity relative to the fluid and is
𝐷𝑝 𝑣𝑡 𝜌𝑚 𝐷𝑝 3𝑔(𝜌𝑝 −𝜌)𝜌𝑚 𝜀Ψ𝑝 2
𝑅𝑒 = = (15)
𝜇𝑚 𝜀 18𝜇2
• When the Reynolds number is less then 1, the settling is in the Stokes’ law
range.
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Problem 3
Calculate the settling velocity of glass spheres having
a diameter of 1.554 X 10-4 m (5.10 x 10-4 ft) in water
at 293.2 K (20°C). The slurry contains 60 wt % solids.
The density of the glass spheres is ρp = 2467 kg/m3
(154 lbm/ft3). Density of water ρ= 998 kg/m3 (62.3
lbm/ft3), and viscosity of water µ = 1.005 x 10-3 Pa·s
(6.72 x 10-4 lbm/ft·s).

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Sorting Classifiers
• Devices that separate particles of differing
densities are known as sorting classifiers.
• They use one or the other of the two principal
separation methods:
 Sink-and-float methods
 Differential settling

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 Sink-and-float methods
• This method uses a liquid-sorting medium, whose density is
intermediate between that of the heavy or high-density material
and that of the light-density material.
• The heavy particles settle through the medium, while the light
particles float, and a separation is thus obtained.
• Advantage: Separation depends only on the difference in the
densities of the two substances and is independent of the particle
size.
• Pseudoliquids, consisting of a suspension in water of fine particles
of a heavy mineral (eg. magnetite, galena, etc) is a common
choice of medium. The ratio of mineral to water can be varied to
give a wide range of medium densities.
• Applications: Coal cleaning, and concentrating ores.
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Differential settling methods
• The separation of solid particles into several size fractions
based upon the settling velocities in a medium is called
differential settling or classification.
• The density of the medium is less than that of either of the
two substances to be separated.
• In differential settling, both light and heavy particles settle
through the same medium.
• Disadvantage: Since the mixture of materials to be separated
covers a range of particle sizes, the larger, light particles settle
at the same rate as the smaller, heavy ones and a mixed
fraction is obtained.

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Differential settling methods
• Suppose that there are two materials: heavy-density material A
(such as galena, with a specific gravity ρA = 7.5) and light-density
material B (such as quartz, with a specific gravity ρB = 2.65). The
terminal settling velocity of components A and B, from Eq. (6), can
be written as
1/2
4 𝜌𝑝𝐴 −𝜌 𝑔𝐷𝑝𝐴
𝑣𝑡𝐴 = (16)
3𝐶𝐷𝐴 𝜌
1/2
4 𝜌𝑝𝐵 −𝜌 𝑔𝐷𝑝𝐵
𝑣𝑡𝐵 = (17)
3𝐶𝐷𝐵 𝜌

• For particles of equal settling velocities, 𝑣𝑡𝐴 =𝑣𝑡𝐵 ,

𝐷𝑝𝐴 𝜌𝑝𝐵 −𝜌 𝐶𝐷𝐴
= (18)
𝐷𝑝𝐵 𝜌𝑝𝐴 −𝜌 𝐶𝐷𝐵

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• For particles that are essentially spheres at very high Reynolds number in
the turbulent Newton’s law region, CD is constant and CDA=CDB, giving
1.0
𝐷𝑝𝐴 𝜌𝑝𝐵 −𝜌
= (19)
𝐷𝑝𝐵 𝜌𝑝𝐴 −𝜌
• For laminar Stokes’ law settling,
24𝜇 24𝜇
𝐶𝐷𝐴 = , 𝐶𝐷𝐵 = (20)
𝐷𝑝𝐴 𝑣𝑡𝐴 𝜌 𝐷𝑝𝐵 𝑣𝑡𝐵 𝜌
• Substituting Eq. (20) into eq. (18) and rearranging for Stokes’ law settling,
where vtA=vtB,
0.5
𝐷𝑝𝐴 𝜌𝑝𝐵 −𝜌
= (21)
𝐷𝑝𝐵 𝜌𝑝𝐴 −𝜌
• For transition between laminar and turbulent flow,
𝑛
𝐷𝑝𝐴 𝜌𝑝𝐵 −𝜌
= where ½<n<1 (22)
𝐷𝑝𝐵 𝜌𝑝𝐴 −𝜌

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• For particles settling in the turbulent range, eq. (19) holds for equal
settling velocities. For particles where DpA=DpB and settling in the
turbulent Newton’s law region, combining eqs. (16) and (17),
1/2
𝑣𝑡𝐴 𝜌𝑝𝐴 −𝜌
= (23)
𝑣𝑡𝐵 𝜌𝑝𝐵 −𝜌

• Sharpness of separation is improved

if the density of the medium is
increased.
• The mixed fraction can be reduced or
eliminated by closer sizing of the
feed.

Figure: Settling and

separation of two materials A
and B in the intermediate
regime between Stokes’ law
and Newton’s law settling.

Reading assignment: Sorting classifiers, Batch sedimentation, Pages 1057-1060, Mccabe Smith
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Problem
A mixture of silica (B) and galena (A) solid particles having a size
range of 5.21 x 10-6 m to 2.50 x 10-5 m is to be separated by
hydraulic classification using free settling conditions in water at
293.2 K. The specific gravity of silica is 2.65 and that of galena is
7.5. Calculate the size range of the various fractions obtained in
the settling. If the settling is in the laminar region, the drag
coefficients will be reasonably close to that for spheres.
Density of water ρ= 1000 kg/m3, and
Viscosity of water µ = 1.005 x 10-3 Pa·s.

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Mechanism of sedimentation
• When a dilute slurry is settled by gravity into a clear fluid and a
slurry of higher solids concentration, the process is called
sedimentation or sometimes thickening.

• To illustrate the method for determining settling velocities and

the mechanisms of settling, a batch settling test is carried out
by placing uniform concentration of slurry in a graduated
cylinder.

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 Mechanism of sedimentation
• At first, the solid is uniformly distributed in the liquid and all the particles settle by free
settling in suspension zone B. The total depth of the suspension is zo.
• The particles in zone B settle at a uniform rate at the start to give a zone of clear liquid A,
and a zone D of settled solids. The height, z drops at a constant rate.
• Above zone D is a transition layer, zone C, in which the solids content varies from that in
zone B to that in zone D.
• In zone B, the concentration is uniform and equal to the original concentration, since the
settling rate is the same throughout this zone.
• The boundaries between zones D and C and between C and B may not be distinct, but the
boundary between zones A and B is usually sharp.
• As settling continues, the depths of zones D and A increase. The depth of zone C remains
nearly constant, and that of zone B decreases.
• After further settling, zone B and C disappear. The gradual accumulation of solid puts stress
on the material at the bottom, which compresses solids in layer D.
• During compression, liquid is expelled upward from zone D and the thickness of zone D
decreases.

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Batch sedimentation results

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 Determination of settling velocity
• During early stages of settling the velocity
is constant, as shown by first portion of the
curve.
• When zone B disappears, the rate of
settling starts to decrease and steadily
drops until the ultimate height is reached.
• Since slurries vary greatly in their settling
rates and in the relative heights of various
zones during settling, experimental studies
are needed for the design of a thickener.
• The settling velocity v is determined by
drawing a tangent to the curve at a given
time t1, with slope –dz/dt=v1. A typical plot of interface height (the
boundary between zones A and B) vs.
time of settling

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Centrifugal Sedimentation
• A given particle in a given fluid settles under gravitational force
at a fixed maximum rate. To increase the settling rate, the force
of gravity acting on the particle may be replaced by a much
stronger centrifugal force.
• More effective than gravity separators for separating fine drops
and particles.
• Centrifugation is a procedure that involves the use of
centrifugal force for the sedimentation of mixture with a
centrifuge used in industry and in laboratory settings.
• More dense components of the mixture move away from the
axis of the centrifuge while less dense components of the
mixture move towards the axis.

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Centrifugal motion

• Centrifugal acceleration = rω2

ω is the angular velocity in rad/s
r is the radius of rotation
• Centrifugal force = mrω2
m is the mass of the particle

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Separation of solids from gases; cyclones
• Cyclone separator: consists of a vertical
cylinder with a conical bottom, a tangential
inlet near the top, and an outlet for dust at
the bottom of the cone.
• The incoming dust-laden air travels in a spiral
path around and down the cylindrical body
of the cyclone.
• The centrifugal force developed in the vortex
tends to move the particles radially toward
the wall, and the particles that reach the wall
slide down into the cone and are collected.

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• The centrifugal force (Fc) at a radius r is,
𝑚𝑣𝑡𝑎𝑛 2
𝐹𝑐 =
𝑟

where m is the mass of the particle and vtan is the tangential velocity.
• The ratio of centrifugal force to the force of gravity is called the
separation factor and is given by
𝐹𝑐 𝑚𝑣𝑡𝑎𝑛 2/𝑟 𝑣𝑡𝑎𝑛2
= =
𝐹𝑔 𝑚𝑔 𝑟𝑔

• For a cyclone 1ft in diameter with a tangential velocity of 50 ft/s near

the wall, the ratio Fc/Fg (separation factor) is 2500/(0.5 x 32.2) = 155.
• A large-diameter cyclone has a much lower separation factor at the
same velocity, and velocities above 50 to 70 ft/s are usually impractical
because of the high pressure drop and increased abrasive wear.
• Small-diameter cyclones may have separation factors as high as 2,500.

BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

 Compared to gravity
• mg
• Acceleration constant
• Equilibrium velocity reached
• Terminal velocity given by:
d 2  p   f g
uT 
18 
d is particle diameter (m)
ρp is the particle density (kg/m3)
ρf is the fluid density (kg/m3)
g is acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
 is the fluid viscosity (Pa.s)
• mrω2
• Acceleration increases with r
• Acceleration increases with ω
• Away from axis of rotation
• Equilibrium velocity never
reached
• Instantaneous velocity:
r 2
u  uT
g
uT is the terminal velocity of the particle
r is the distance from axis of rotation
ω is the angular velocity
BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus