foods

Review
Knowledge Domain and Emerging Trends in Vinegar
Research: A Bibliometric Review of the Literature
from WoSCC
Xiang-Long Zhang , Yu Zheng, Meng-Lei Xia, Ya-Nan Wu, Xiao-Jing Liu, San-Kuan Xie,
Yan-Fang Wu and Min Wang *
State Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety, Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology,
Ministry of Education, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science & Technology, Tianjin 300457,
China; xl_zhang@mail.tust.edu.cn (X.-L.Z.); yuzheng@tust.edu.cn (Y.Z.); mlxia@tust.edu.cn (M.-L.X.);
18820944@mail.tust.edu.cn (Y.-N.W.); lxj9704@163.com (X.-J.L.); xskuan@163.com (S.-K.X.);
amwyvonne@163.com (Y.-F.W.)
* Correspondence: minw@tust.edu.cn; Tel.: +86-22-60600045




Received: 13 January 2020; Accepted: 6 February 2020; Published: 10 February 2020


Abstract: Vinegar is one of the most widely used acidic condiments. In recent decades, rapid advances
have been made in the area of vinegar research, and the intellectual structure pertaining to this
domain has significantly evolved. Thus, it is important that scientists keep abreast of associated
developments to ensure an appropriate understanding of this field. To facilitate this current study,
a bibliometric analysis method was adopted to visualize the knowledge map of vinegar research
based on literature data retrieved from the Web of Science Core Collection (WoSCC) database. In
total, 883 original research and review articles from between 1998 and 2019 with 19,663 references
were analyzed by CiteSpace. Both a macroscopical sketch and microscopical characterization of the
whole knowledge domain were realized. According to the research contents, the main themes that
underlie vinegar research can be divided into six categories, that is, microorganisms, substances,
health functions, production technologies, adjuvant medicines, and vinegar residues. In addition to
the latter analysis, emerging trends and future research foci were predicted. Finally, the evolutionary
stage of vinegar research was discerned according to Shneider’s four-stage theory. This review will
help scientists to discern the dynamic evolution of vinegar research, as well as highlight areas for
future research.

Keywords: vinegar; intellectual structure; knowledge mapping; CiteSpace; bibliometrics

1. Introduction
Vinegar is one of the most familiar acidic condiments around the world [1]. It has been widely used
in almost all civilizations since ancient times and plays important roles as a food-flavoring, medicinal,
preservative, and cleaning agent. Nonetheless, very little is known in relation to the origin of this
condiment [2]. Regardless of the variations associated with vinegar from disparate regions and eras,
in essence, vinegar is a dilute solution of acetic acid derived from the oxidation of ethanol following
microbial fermentation rather than chemical synthesis [3]. The Food and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations (FAO) and the World Health Organization (WHO) define vinegar as an edible liquid
exclusively produced from starchy and/or sugary raw materials by two sequential processes including
alcohol and acetic acid fermentation [4]. Throughout the world, vinegar is traditionally brewed
initially from fruits, cereals, vegetables, animal products (e.g., honey and whey) or alcohol, and vinegar
production strategies can be divided into solid-state fermentation (SSF) and liquid-state fermentation
(LSF) methods (Table 1, Figure 1). SSF technology is predominantly used in Asia, especially in China.

Foods 2020, 9, 166; doi:10.3390/foods9020166 www.mdpi.com/journal/foods

Foods 2020, 9, 166 2 of 34

Conversely, LSF, including surface static fermentation and submerged fermentation, is predominantly
used in European countries to manufacture traditional vinegar and accelerate industrial production. As
for the composition of vinegar, it contains a variety of entities including organics, inorganics, polymers,
(nano)particles, macromolecules, small molecules, and polar and nonpolar molecules, as well as
constant and trace substances [5–9]. In addition to its role as a condiment, vinegar also exhibits many
health benefits including antimicrobial, antioxidant, cholesterol-lowering, antiobesity, antihypertensive,
and immunostimulatory effects [1,10,11].

Table 1. Some representative vinegars in different countries. LSF, liquid-state fermentation; SSF,
solid-state fermentation.

Geographical Fermentation
Vinegar Raw Material
Distribution Technology
America Malt vinegar Barley, corn malt LSF
Austria Apple cider vinegar Apple LSF
Brazil Alcohol vinegar Alcohol LSF
Sorghum, barley, pea, bran,
China Shanxi aged vinegar (SAV) SSF
rice hull
Rice, glutinous rice, pea,
China Zhenjiang aromatic vinegar (ZAV) SSF
wheat, barley, rice hull
China Huixian persimmon vinegar Persimmon, bran SSF
England Malt vinegar Barley malt LSF
France Champagne wine vinegar White grape LSF
France Red wine vinegar Red grape LSF
France Walnut grape balsamic vinegar Grape, walnut powder LSF
Germany Apple cider vinegar Apple LSF
Germany White wine vinegar White grape LSF
Greece Red wine vinegar Grape, honey LSF
Traditional balsamic vinegar
Italy Grape LSF
(TBV)
Italy White wine vinegar White grape LSF
Italy Apple cider vinegar Apple LSF
Japan Black rice vinegar Brown rice LSF
Japan Kombucha vinegar Kombucha tea LSF
Malaysia Nipa palm vinegar Nipa palm sap LSF
Mexico Apple cider vinegar Apple LSF
New Zealand Apple cider vinegar Apple, honey LSF
Portugal Grape vinegar Grape LSF
Philippines Coconut vinegar Coconut sap LSF
Philippines Cane vinegar Sugarcane juice LSF
Spain Sherry vinegar Sherry wine LSF
Spain Sweet Moscatel vinegar Sweet Moscatel wine LSF
South Korea Glutinous rice vinegar Glutinous rice LSF
Turkey Grape vinegar Grape LSF
Turkey Pomegranate vinegar Pomegranate LSF
Vietnam Rice vinegar Rice LSF
 Spain Sherry vinegar Sherry wine LSF
Spain Sweet Moscatel vinegar Sweet Moscatel wine LSF
South Korea Glutinous rice vinegar Glutinous rice LSF
Turkey Grape vinegar Grape LSF
Turkey Pomegranate vinegar Pomegranate LSF
Foods 2020, 9, 166 3 of 34
Vietnam Rice vinegar Rice LSF

Figure 1. General production process for vinegar. (a) Alcoholic fermentation, (b) acetic acid fermentation,
and (c) aging of grape vinegar in the barrel set (large special barrels for alcoholic fermentation and
small ones for acetic fermentation and aging); (d) alcoholic fermentation of cereal vinegar in ceramic
vats, (e) turning over the solid mash (called Pei in Chinese) during acetic acid fermentation of cereal
vinegar, and (f) aging of cereal vinegar in the ceramic vats under sun.

Worldwide, the development of the vinegar industry is accelerating and improving all the time.
With the rapid growth of this area, mapping the knowledge domain of vinegar research is becoming
increasingly important as scientists attempt to attain a holistic understanding of this field while keeping
abreast of important developments. As an important form of written research records, scientific
literature clearly reflects the structure and dynamics of knowledge domains [12]. However, the
generation of large-scale literature reviews from extremely large corpora of associated research papers
represents a challenge for scientists and researchers. The study of traditional reviews on vinegar
research has conceivably become an insufficient means of developing a comprehensive understanding
in this field. Following advances in modern information technology and statistics, bibliometric analyses,
which were regarded as powerful tools for both the summarization of historical research achievements
and predictors of future research trends using scientific literature databases, have become increasingly
popular in academic circles for the generation of reviews in many research fields such as regenerative
medicine [13] and food toxicology [14]. However, a specific bibliometric analysis of vinegar research
has not yet been performed.
CiteSpace is one of the most popular bibliometric analysis softwares used for the statistical
visualization of scientific literature across the globe. It was pioneered in early 2004 and is written in Java
language [15]. Thus far, the number of total downloads for each version of this software has exceeded
Foods 2020, 9, 166 4 of 34

130,000 (http://cluster.cis.drexel.edu/~{}cchen/citespace/download/). CiteSpace has three fundamental

concepts: heterogeneous networks, betweenness centrality, and burst detection. Co-citation analysis
is the core function of this application. CiteSpace can be used to explore the dynamic evolution of
disciplinary development through time mapping from the research frontier to the knowledge base [12].
The main objectives of this study were to summarize the current status of and analyze future
developing trends in the knowledge domain of vinegar research. In this current study, we used the
Web of Science Core Collection database (WoSCC) to perform a simple statistical analysis of literature
related to vinegar research; we utilized CiteSpace to perform a bibliometric visualization analysis. The
results of this study will help scientists to better understand the development of research in this area,
the associated research hot spots, and potential future research directions for vinegar research.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Data Acquisition

The WoSCC database has been used in a large number of bibliometric studies and is set up for
this type of analysis. Thus, all reference data used in our study were retrieved from the WoSCC
including Science Citation Index Expanded (SCIE) studies of Clarivate Analytics. The first article
pertaining to vinegar research that can be retrieved from WoSCC was published by Anklam et al.
in 1998 [16]. Thus, the timespan for data retrieval was 1998 to 2019. An initial title search for
‘vinegar’ and a topic search that excluded ‘wood vinegar’ (a kind of pyroligneous liquor collected
during wood carbonization [17]) and ‘vinegar fly’ (a kind of insect belonging to the genus Drosophila,
https://www.britannica.com/animal/vinegar-fly) resulted in 1039 records (retrieval date 15 July 2019).
After filtering out less representative record types, such as proceeding papers and meeting abstracts,
the dataset was reduced to 883 original research articles and review articles. Full records for these 883
articles, including titles, authors, abstracts, and cited references (19,663), were exported in the form of
plain text from WoSCC and were used as the dataset (see Supplementary Materials) for this study.

2.2. Visualization and Analysis

In this study, version 5.4.R1 of CiteSpace (http://cluster.cis.drexel.edu/~{}cchen/citespace/
download/) was used for all visual analyses. After data acquisition, the dataset was exported
to CiteSpace for further analysis [12]. The following is an outline of the process that was followed for
this review. Firstly, appropriate disciplines in vinegar research were visualized by CiteSpace using a
dual-map overlay. Secondly, statistical analysis and comparison of literature outputs were performed
based on the journal citation reports (JCRs) at WoS and co-occurrence analysis in CiteSpace. Both the
analysis of output trends and the comparison of research outputs between different journals were
performed according to JCR, while the co-occurrence analysis of the subject categories and collaborating
analyses between countries and institutions were performed using CiteSpace. Thirdly, the intellectual
structure of vinegar research was visualized through co-citation analysis, and finally, the emerging
trends and outlook were discerned via burst detection and embroiling insights from other research
areas. For all network visualizations, time slicing was set to one-year. If not specified, the top 50 levels
of the most prevalent items from each slice were selected, and no pruning algorithm was applied.
CiteSpace default values were used for all of the other requisite parameters. More detailed software
utilization skills can be found in the CiteSpace manual [18].

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Disciplines and Topics Involved in Vinegar Research

A dual-map overlay of the literature on vinegar research represents the entire dataset in the context
of a global map of science generated from 10,000 journals indexed in the WoS [19]. In a dual-map, both
citing (the left map) and cited (the right map) maps are shown, and an overlay of the given dataset
disciplines in which citing articles were published [19]. As shown in Figure 2, the literature on vinegar
research appears in several areas. The area in purple at the top labeled physics/materials/chemistry;
the area in blue near the top labeled ecology/earth/marine; the area in yellow in the upper middle
section labeled veterinary/animal/science; the areas in orange in the middle labeled
Foods 2020, 9, 166
molecular/biology/immunology; and green in the lower left labeled medicine/medical/clinical. 5 of 34

However, all these citing articles were concentrated in the veterinary/animal/science and
molecular/biology/immunology disciplines.concentrations
facilitates visualization of the disciplinary Furthermore, all the cited
of these articles
articles and were concentrated
how they in
connect other
environmental-/toxicology-/nutrition-, chemistry-/materials-/physics-,
regions in the global map through their citation links [20]. and molecular-/biology-
/genetics-related
Figure 2 showsjournals.
a dual-map overlay of acquired vinegar articles published between 1998 and 2019.
All coloured curvesshown
The bar charts on thefrom
originating citing
themap
citingdepict
map andstepwise
pointingdrifts in trajectories
to the from thethe
cited map represent citing
paths
behavior of related articles. The first bar on the left of the bar chart represents
of the citation links. Both citing and cited maps are divided into thematic areas based on publishing the amount of shift in
1999 with reference
journals, to the
and each area is weight
labeled center
with the ofmost
the disciplines
common words involved
in theintitles
1998of[19]. The charts journals
corresponding show that [20].
theLabels
distance of the shifts increased substantially in 2000, 2002, and 2005–2006. This
in the adjacency of the launching areas display corresponding disciplines in which citing articles phenomenon can
also be observed
were publishedin the As
[19]. partial
shownenlargement
in Figure 2,ofthetheliterature
citing trajectory
on vinegar in the upperappears
research half of Figure 2. This
in several areas.
indicates
The areathat, in these
in purple at years,
the topnew papers
labeled may have been publishedthe
physics/materials/chemistry; in area
different scientific
in blue near thedisciplines
top labeled
compared with the preceding
ecology/earth/marine; the areayears. The starting
in yellow position
in the upper of the
middle citinglabeled
section trajectory is predominated by
veterinary/animal/science;
publications
the areas ininorange
the discipline of veterinary/animal/science,
in the middle while in the driftand
labeled molecular/biology/immunology; years, the in
green trajectory
the lower
appeared
left labeled medicine/medical/clinical. However, all these citing articles were concentrated inofthe
to be influenced by activities in regions near to the disciplines
molecular/biology/immunology. Similarly, the cited trajectory represents
veterinary/animal/science and molecular/biology/immunology disciplines. theFurthermore,
change of disciplines
all the cited
forarticles
cited articles. This change was predominantly influenced by activities
were concentrated in environmental-/toxicology-/nutrition-, chemistry-/materials-/physics-,in areas adjoining the
disciplines of environmental/toxicology/nutrition
and molecular-/biology-/genetics-related journals. and molecular/biology/genetics.

Figure 2. A dual-map overlay of the 883 publications on vinegar research.

Figure 2. A dual-map overlay of the 883 publications on vinegar research.

The bar charts shown on the citing map depict stepwise drifts in trajectories from the citing
The topics associated with vinegar research can be delineated in terms of the keywords in each
behavior of related articles. The first bar on the left of the bar chart represents the amount of shift in 1999
article in the dataset [13]. A minimum spanning tree pruning algorithm (pruning the merged
with reference to the weight center of the disciplines involved in 1998 [19]. The charts show that the
network) was used to depict the network of keywords (Figure 3). Neighbor keywords are often
distance of the shifts increased substantially in 2000, 2002, and 2005–2006. This phenomenon can also be
assigned to the same articles. For example, gradient gel electrophoresis, lactic acid bacteria (LAB),
observed in the partial enlargement of the citing trajectory in the upper half of Figure 2. This indicates
and diversity are near to each other on the top of the network diagram; quality, polyphenol/phenolic
that, in these years, new papers may have been published in different scientific disciplines compared
compound, and antioxidant/antioxidant activity are near to each other on the lower right of the
with the preceding years. The starting position of the citing trajectory is predominated by publications
figure. According to the semantemes, all keywords can be divided into two types:
in the discipline of veterinary/animal/science, while in the drift years, the trajectory appeared to be
What: The subject of a study and a phenomenon of a specialty. For example, Shanxi aged vinegar
influenced by activities in regions near to the disciplines of molecular/biology/immunology. Similarly,
(SAV), volatile compound, and acetic acid bacteria (AAB).
the cited trajectory represents the change of disciplines for cited articles. This change was predominantly
influenced by activities in areas adjoining the disciplines of environmental/toxicology/nutrition and
molecular/biology/genetics.
The topics associated with vinegar research can be delineated in terms of the keywords in each
article in the dataset [13]. A minimum spanning tree pruning algorithm (pruning the merged network)
was used to depict the network of keywords (Figure 3). Neighbor keywords are often assigned to the
same articles. For example, gradient gel electrophoresis, lactic acid bacteria (LAB), and diversity are
Foods 2020, 9, 166 6 of 34

near to each other on the top of the network diagram; quality, polyphenol/phenolic compound, and
antioxidant/antioxidant activity are near to each other on the lower right of the figure. According to
the semantemes, all keywords can be divided into two types:
What: The subject of a study and a phenomenon of a specialty. For example, Shanxi aged vinegar
Foods 2020, 9, 166 6 of 33
(SAV), volatile compound, and acetic acid bacteria (AAB).
How:
How:Methodologies,
Methodologies,procedures, tools,
procedures, andand
tools, techniques. For example,
techniques. chemometrics,
For example, solid-phase
chemometrics, solid-
microextraction, electronic nose, and mass spectroscopy.
phase microextraction, electronic nose, and mass spectroscopy.

Figure 3. Minimum spanning tree of a keyword network based on articles published between 1998
and 2019.
Figure 3. Minimum spanning tree of a keyword network based on articles published between 1998
and 2019.
3.2. Trends and Comparison of Literature Outputs for Vinegar Research
3.2. Trends and Comparison of Literature Outputs for Vinegar Research
3.2.1. Trends of Research Outputs and Citations

3.2.1.The traceofofResearch
Trends published articlesand
Outputs shows the development speed and progress of research, while
Citations
also reflecting the concentration of research in a certain field [21]. As shown in Figure 4, although
The trace of published articles shows the development speed and progress of research, while
some fluctuations were observed, the number of papers published increased over time. The number of
also reflecting the concentration of research in a certain field [21]. As shown in Figure 4, although
published papers rose from 19 in 1998 to 97 in 2018. It should be noted that the retrieved number of
some fluctuations were observed, the number of papers published increased over time. The number
published papers in 2019 was only 44; this is because records for only half of a year were available by
of published papers rose from 19 in 1998 to 97 in 2018. It should be noted that the retrieved number
the end of the retrieval date.
of published papers in 2019 was only 44; this is because records for only half of a year were available
by the end of the retrieval date.
According to the holistic development trend, the studied period can be divided into three stages.
The first stage can be regarded as initiating from 1998 to 2007, with research work still in its infancy
and reduced in its prevalence. A total of 179 papers were published in this 10-year period; this
accounted for 20.27% of the total number of papers. The average annual publication was
approximately 18 papers for this knowledge base forging period. The second stage was from 2008 to
papers were published, accounting for 54.81% of the total number of papers published; during this
period, an average of nearly 75 papers were published annually. The number of publications
increased at every stage of the studied period. This suggests that vinegar research has attracted the
attention of more researchers during this period.
Foods 2020, 9, 166 7 of 34

Figure 4. Annual publication and citation number from 1998 to 2019 at Web of Science (WoS).
Figure 4. Annual publication and citation number from 1998 to 2019 at Web of Science (WoS).
According to the holistic development trend, the studied period can be divided into three stages.
TheInfirst
thestage
22 years
can befrom 1998 toas2019,
regarded the total
initiating fromnumber
1998 to of citations
2007, was 11,809,
with research workandstilleach
in itsarticle
infancywasand
cited approximately
reduced 14 times.
in its prevalence. A The
totalresearch outputs
of 179 papers werewere greatly improved,
published withperiod;
in this 10-year the total number
this of
accounted
citations
for 20.27%rapidly
of thegrowing.
total numberThe increasing
of papers. trend for the annual
The average annual publication
citation number was similar to 18
was approximately that for
papers
the
forannual publication
this knowledge basenumber.
forgingThis also The
period. indicates
secondthat scientists
stage was from tend to to
2008 cite the Although
2012. most recently more
published
papers were articles [22]. in these five years with a total of 220 publications, this stage was relatively flat.
published
On average, 44 papers were published annually; this was twice as much as that observed for the first
3.2.2.
stage.Comparison of Research
The third stage was from Outputs
2013 tobetween
2019 (theDifferent Subject of
first half-year Categories, Countries,
2019). There was a great increase
Institutions,
in both theand Journals
number and growth rate of publications. In the 6.5 years, 484 papers were published,
accounting for 54.81%
In CiteSpace, of the total
category, number
country, andofinstitution
papers published; during this
were selected period,toananalyze
as nodes average subject
of nearly
75 papers were published annually. The number of publications increased
categories and research work forces. Two comprehensive networks consisting of nodes representingat every stage of the studied
period. This suggests that vinegar research has attracted the attention of
co-occurrence subject categories, as well as collaborating countries and institutions, are mapped more researchers during
in
this period.
Figures S1 and S2, respectively. The top ten subject categories, countries, and institutions in terms of
In the 22
publications in years from 1998
883 related to 2019,
articles the total
are shown in number
Table 2. ofThecitations
top tenwas 11,809,
journals and each
(journal article was
information
cited
was approximately
acquired from the14 times. The
retrieval resultresearch
of JCR outputs
at WoS) were greatly improved,
that published with
articles on the total
vinegar number
research areof
citations rapidly
shown in Table 3. growing. The increasing trend for the annual citation number was similar to that
for the annual publication number. This also indicates that scientists tend to cite the most recently
publishedTablearticles [22].10 subject categories, countries, and institutions in terms of publications.
2. Top

NO. Comparison of Research Outputs

3.2.2. Name between Different Subject Categories,
Frequency Countries,
Percentage %
Institutions,
Subject categories
and Journals
1 Food Science & Technology 445 50.40
2
In CiteSpace, category, country, and institution were selected as nodes
Chemistry 247
to analyze subject
27.97
categories
and
3 research work forces. Two comprehensive
Chemistry, Applied networks consisting of nodes
123 representing13.93
co-occurrence
subject
4 categories,Biotechnology
as well as collaborating countries and institutions, are
& Applied Microbiology 113mapped in Figures
12.80S1 and S2,
respectively.
5 The top ten subject categories, countries, and institutions 96
Agriculture in terms of publications
10.87 in 883
6
related articles are shownNutrition & Dietetics
in Table 2. 88
The top ten journals (journal information 9.97 from the
was acquired
7
retrieval Chemistry,
result of JCR at WoS) Analytical articles on vinegar research
that published 84 are shown in Table
9.51 3.
8 Biochemistry & Molecular Biology 70 7.93
Foods 2020, 9, 166 8 of 34

Table 2. Top 10 subject categories, countries, and institutions in terms of publications.

NO. Name Frequency Percentage %

Subject categories
1 Food Science & Technology 445 50.40
2 Chemistry 247 27.97
3 Chemistry, Applied 123 13.93
4 Biotechnology & Applied Microbiology 113 12.80
5 Agriculture 96 10.87
6 Nutrition & Dietetics 88 9.97
7 Chemistry, Analytical 84 9.51
8 Biochemistry & Molecular Biology 70 7.93
9 Microbiology 67 7.59
10 Agriculture, Multidisciplinary 55 6.23
Countries
1 China 261 29.56
2 Japan 109 12.34
3 Spain 101 11.44
4 Italy 83 9.40
5 South Korea 72 8.15
6 USA 58 6.57
7 Turkey 31 3.51
8 Brazil 29 3.28
9 Malaysia 19 2.15
10 Germany 17 1.93
Institutions
1 University of Modena and Reggio Emilia (Italy) 35 3.96
2 University of Seville (Spain) 27 3.05
3 University of Cadiz (Spain) 25 2.83
4 Jiangnan University (China) 19 2.15
5 Jiangsu University (China) 18 2.04
6 Chinese Academy of Sciences (China) 17 1.92
7 University of Rovira i Virgili (Spain) 15 1.70
8 Tianjin University of Science and Technology (China) 13 1.47
9 China Agricultural University (China) 13 1.47
10 Spanish National Research Council (CSIC, Spain) 13 1.47

Each node in the relation network of the subject category represents a category involved in vinegar
research. The area of each node is proportional to the co-occurrence frequency of the respective subject
category. The network consists of 47 nodes and 182 links (Figure S1); this indicates that a total of 47
subject categories are involved in this research field. The most common category is Food Science &
Technology, which is the largest circle with a frequency of 445, followed by Chemistry (247); Chemistry,
Applied (123); Biotechnology & Applied Microbiology (113); and Agriculture (96) (Figure S1, Table 2).
Subject categories including Chemistry, Analytical, and Biochemical Research Methods, where some of
the associated citation rings are illustrated in red (nodes are not shown in Figure S1 because of their
small sizes), represent research areas where the number of articles has increased rapidly. Although
subject categories including Immunology, Endocrinology & Metabolism, and Oncology are much
smaller, they are marked for reference herein.
Foods 2020, 9, 166 9 of 34

Table 3. Top 10 journals that published articles on vinegar research from 1998 to 2019.

Rank in Quartile in Eigenfactor Average JIF

NO. Journal Name JCR Category a IF Frequency Percentage %
Category Category Score Percentile
Chemistry,
1 Food Chemistry 5/71 Q1 5.399 0.10387 92.600 39 4.41
Applied
Journal of Agricultural and Agriculture,
2 3/56 Q1 3.571 0.06656 85.384 34 3.85
Food Chemistry Multidisciplinary
Food Science and Food Science &
3 108/135 Q4 0.888 0.00355 20.370 19 2.15
Biotechnology Technology
Journal of the Japanese
Society for Food Science and Food Science &
4 129/135 Q4 0.262 0.00023 4.815 18 2.04
Technology-Nippon Shokuhin Technology
Kagaku Kogaku Kaishi
Journal of the Science of Food Agriculture,
5 9/56 Q1 2.422 0.01875 73.883 18 2.04
and Agriculture Multidisciplinary
European Food Research and Food Science &
6 58/135 Q2 2.056 0.00607 57.407 17 1.92
Technology Technology
International Journal of Food Food Science &
7 16/135 Q1 4.006 0.01961 79.786 17 1.92
Microbiology Technology
Engineering,
8 Journal of Food Engineering 28/138 Q1 3.625 0.01831 80.592 16 1.81
Chemical
Food Science &
9 Food Analytical Methods 45/135 Q2 2.413 0.00854 67.037 14 1.58
Technology
Food Science &
10 Food Control 11/135 Q1 4.248 0.02984 92.222 14 1.58
Technology
Note: all journal ranks, quartiles, impact factors (IF), eigenfactor scores, and average journal impact factor (JIF) percentiles as of 2018 according to journal citation reports (JCRs). a JCR
category corresponds to the first category listed in the JCR.
Foods 2020, 9, 166 10 of 34

At the national level, China was the largest contributor in terms of numbers of publications
with 261 papers, followed by Japan, Spain, Italy, and South Korea, with 109, 101, 83, and 72 papers,
respectively. The top five countries in terms of centrality (purple round in Figure S2) were China (0.57),
Italy (0.54), Japan (0.48), Spain (0.31), and USA (0.31). An analysis in terms of publication and centrality
indicated that China, Italy, Spain, USA, and South Korea were the main work forces in vinegar research.
The number of papers published by different research institutes was sorted. As the only institute
in Italy, the University of Modena and Reggio Emilia was the most productive with 35 publications.
The University of Seville and the University of Cadiz in Spain were in second and third place, with 27
and 25 papers, respectively. All top ten institutions were from Italy, China, and Spain.
Finally, the research outputs were arranged according to their source journals (Table 3). According
to the rankings, Food Chemistry and Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry ranked first and second,
with 39 and 34 articles, respectively. These two journals represent the journals with the highest impact
in the respective categories (see journal key indicators in Table 3). The total number of articles published
in the ten journals was 206, which accounted for 23.33% of the total number of publications. A large
number of articles were also published in other journals, such as LWT-Food Science and Technology,
Journal of Food Science, and Journal of Functional Foods. This represents important submission-related
information for new researchers. Because of the different scopes and topics of the journals, we can
conclude that vinegar research is interdisciplinary.

3.3. The Intellectual Structure of Vinegar Research

Scientific literature is an interrelated and constantly extending system, in which the intellectual
structure of a research field can be articulated. It has been suggested that a better understanding of a
specific topic often relies on an understanding of its relatedness to other topics [18]. Thus, the mutual
citation of scientific literature reflects the structure and dynamics of a knowledge domain [14]. Citing
articles and cited articles represent the temporal research front and intellectual base, respectively [23].
The co-citation relationship refers to the co-occurrence of two articles in the reference list of a
paper, and the process of mining the co-citation relationship in a dataset is regarded as a co-citation
analysis [12]. In CiteSpace, the co-citation relationship among different articles was visualized in a
co-citation network [13].
The clustering function in CiteSpace divides the whole network into several clusters and extracts
noun phrases from the titles, keywords, or abstracts of articles that cited the particular cluster.
Each cluster is a group of closely coupled documents, representing different research directions and
backgrounds in the field. In a cluster, each node represents a reference and is connected by lines. The
size of a node indicates how many citations the reference received, and the citation tree-rings show
the citation times across the timespan. The colours of co-citation lines show when a connection was
made for the first time (blue for the oldest and yellow for the most recent citations). The betweenness
centrality scores of these nodes indicate the transformative potential of specific articles. The nodes
with high betweenness centrality are displayed in purple rings. Such nodes tend to bridge different
stages of the development of a field. Citation rings in red indicate citation bursts; this means that
the publication evidently has attracted great attention from the scientific community. Citation bursts
provide a meaningful indicator to trace the footprint of the research focus [13,18].

3.3.1. Research Clusters

Figure 5 shows a landscape network of a co-citation analysis for the top 60 references with the
most annual citations. In total, 673 nodes with 2999 connections and 71 clusters were obtained. The
modularity Q of the network was 0.7243, which is relatively high, suggesting that the specialties
in the field are clearly defined. In the present review, all cluster labels were extracted from titles
of citing articles using a log-likelihood ratio algorithm. Table 4 lists 12 clusters with more than 10
members in each cluster. Apart from Clusters #1, #3, and #4, most of the clusters in Table 4 are highly
homogeneous with silhouette values above 0.7, suggesting a reliable clustering result. Besides, the
was the oldest cluster.
Figure 6 shows a timeline view of how the network is divided into distinct co-citation clusters.
Vertically, the clusters are arranged in descending order based on their sizes. It is evident that
Clusters #0–#6 have a high concentration of nodes with citation bursts. Clusters #11, #15, and #16 do
Foods 2020, 9, 166 11 of 34
not appear to have many recent publications. Clusters #9 and #12 appear to be separate from other
clusters with infrequent citation links connecting to other clusters. Cluster #0 has a sustained period
mean20year
of about yearsof afrom
cluster indicates
1997 that
to 2013, Clusters
whereas #4, #9, and
Cluster #12
#15 is were newlywith
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an associated #11 of 4
period
was the oldest cluster.
years from 2004 to 2007. Clusters #1, #3, #4, and # 5 remained active until 5 years ago.

Figure 5. A landscape view of the co-citation network, generated by top 60 per slice between 1998
Figure 5. A landscape view of the co-citation network, generated by top 60 per slice between 1998 and
and 2019. All cluster labels were extracted from titles of citing articles using the log-likelihood
2019. All cluster labels were extracted from titles of citing articles using the log-likelihood ratio
ratio algorithm.
algorithm.
Figure 6 shows a timeline view of how the network is divided into distinct co-citation clusters.
Vertically, the clusters are arranged in descending order based on their sizes. It is evident that Clusters
#0–#6 have a high concentration of nodes with citation bursts. Clusters #11, #15, and #16 do not appear
to have many recent publications. Clusters #9 and #12 appear to be separate from other clusters with
infrequent citation links connecting to other clusters. Cluster #0 has a sustained period of about 20
years from 1997 to 2013, whereas Cluster #15 is short-lived with an associated period of 4 years from
2004 to 2007. Clusters #1, #3, #4, and # 5 remained active until 5 years ago.
Foods 2020, 9, 166 12 of 34

Table 4. Temporal major clusters of co-cited references.

Cluster # Size Silhouette Label (LSI a ) Label (LLR a ) Label (MI a ) Mean (Year)
Multivariate Powerful
0 83 0.737 Modena 2004
calibration combination
Fermented Pomegranate
1 75 0.692 Vinegar 2012
beverage vinegar
Acetic acid Vinegar Pomegranate
2 73 0.810 2007
bacteria production vinegar
3 57 0.602 Maceration New sherry Oat vinegar 2010
Bioactive Aroma
4 53 0.623 Vinegar 2014
compound constituent
Benchmarking
Bacterial laboratory-scale
5 43 0.842 Vinegar 2012
diversity pomegranate
vinegar
Healthy
6 36 0.945 Vinegar Vinegar intake 2003
subject
Sorptive Concentrated
7 36 0.868 Typical aroma 2005
extraction fruit vinegar
Protected Candida Spanish wine
8 33 0.911 2011
designation species vinegar
Euphorbia Cell membrane
9 21 0.955 Vinegar 2013
kansui constituent
Using gas
11 13 0.988 Characterization Electronic nose 1994
chromatography
Vinegar Using vinegar
12 11 0.991 Vinegar residue 2014
residue residue biochar
a Label algorithm, LSI: latent semantic indexing; LLR: log-likelihood ratio; MI: mutual information.
Foods 2020, 9, 166 12 of 33

Figure 6. Timelines of co-citation clusters. Major clusters are labeled on the right.
Figure 6. Timelines of co-citation clusters. Major clusters are labeled on the right.

Table 4. Temporal major clusters of co-cited references.

Cluster Mean
Size Silhouette Label (LSI a) Label (LLR a) Label (MI a)
# (Year)
Multivariate
0 83 0.737 Modena Powerful combination 2004
calibration
Foods 2020, 9, 166 13 of 34

Clusters #0–#7 were deemed conventional clusters because of their larger sizes, increased
sustainability, or higher concentration of citation bursts compared with other clusters. Analysis
of these typical clusters can help us to understand the major specialties associated with vinegar
research and their dynamic evolution. In the following discussion, we will particularly focus on the
following clusters.
Cluster #(1 and 6)—Fermented beverage & Healthy subject. The cluster label of Cluster #1 (Fermented
beverage) seems to indicate that the specialty of this cluster is related to vinegar beverages. However,
a detailed look at the cited members in this cluster reveals that the major content pertains to the
evaluation of vinegar function, which is actually close to the specialty associated with Cluster #6. Thus,
these two clusters were subsequently integrated into one cluster. The split of these two similar clusters
indicates that the clustering function of CiteSpace still needs to be optimized [18]. This integrated
cluster subsequently became the largest cluster with 111 references. This cluster primarily focuses on
studies investigating the health functions of vinegar. The evolution of this specialty can be divided into
two periods. The first period is from 1997 to 1999. During this period, the health function of vinegar
was first introduced to scientific research. The first article in this field was published by Liljeberg &
Björck [24]. In this article, the postprandial hypoglycemic effect of vinegar was evaluated in vivo. The
second period is from 2000 to 2018, with lots of burst articles published. The outstanding references in
this integrated cluster are shown in Table 5.
Cluster #(3 and 4)—New sherry & Bioactive compound. This integrated cluster is the second largest
cluster. The duration of this cluster ranges from 2003 through 2018. The main topic involved in
the cluster is bioactive compounds in vinegar. Many members of this cluster refer to the bioactive
compounds of phenolics. The development of this specialty can be divided into two periods. A
timespan of four years from 2003 to 2006 represents the first period. In this period, the first article
relating to the study of phenolics in vinegar was by Alonso et al. [25]. In this article, both the total
polyphenolic content and polyphenolic compounds in Sherry vinegar were studied. It was found
that there was a close correlation between the antioxidant power and the total phenolic content. The
second period from 2007 to 2018 was a vibrant period in this field. The phenolic compounds in
different vinegars such as traditional balsamic vinegar (TBV) [26], persimmon vinegar [27], strawberry
vinegar [28], and SAV [29,30] were also studied. In addition, other bioactive compounds including
ligustrazine [31] and 5-hydroxy-4-phenyl-butenolide [32] in cereal vinegar, caffeoylsophorose in purple
sweet potato vinegar [33], tryptophol in black soybean vinegar [34], amino acids [35], vitamins [36],
melanoidins [37–39], polysaccharides [6,40], and anthocyanin [41] were also studied.
Cluster #0—Multivariate calibration. Cluster #0 is the third largest cluster with 83 references
(Table 4). The primary focus of this cluster is mainly on the analysis of substance composition of vinegar.
Core contents in this cluster refer to the establishment of detection methods, especially rapid detection
methods, and data processing. The timeline visualization reveals three periods of development
(Figure 6). The first period was from 1997 to 2001. This period was relatively inactive without prolific
publications in terms of citation counts or bursts. An inspirational article by Chiavaro, Caligiani &
Palla in 1998 [42] inspired several studies in the second period. In this latter article, changes in the
composition of balsamic vinegar as a function of aging were analyzed by gas chromatography-mass
spectrometry (GC-MS), and chiral indicators were identified. During the second period from 2002
to 2009, high-profile articles were published. Numerous detection methods were developed and an
abundance of data was generated. The most cited members of this cluster include multiple detection
methods such as GC/GC-MS [43–46], nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) [47], and near infrared
(NIR) [48] spectroscopy. The third period was from 2010 to 2013, with no burst articles detected. The
evolution of this specialized area of research suggests that sufficient research techniques and tools were
garnered by the end of the third period.
Cluster #2—Vinegar production. The timespan associated with this cluster was 15 years (from
2000 to 2014). The main topic of this cluster was AAB. The five-year period from 2006 to 2010 was a
highly active period with 39 references accounting for approximately 54% of the articles in the cluster.
Foods 2020, 9, 166 14 of 34

During this period, the succession, characterization, strain-typing, and genomic characteristics of
AAB in vinegar fermentation were systematically studied [49–51]. AAB are the core microorganisms
in vinegar production. These articles give us a better understanding of the involvement of AAB in
vinegar fermentation. In the following period from 2011 to 2014, the main focus was on the application
of eximious AAB and the optimization of fermentation conditions to improve vinegar production.
Cluster #5—Bacterial diversity. The mean year of this cluster was 2012. The main topic in the
cluster is microbial community involvement in vinegar fermentation. Unlike pure culture fermentation,
traditional vinegar fermentation requires a complex microflora. The function of the microbial
community in both a temporal and spatial context is important when attempting to understand the
mechanisms that underpin vinegar fermentation. In the start-up period from 2004 to 2008, research
pertaining to this topic predominantly focused on the diversity of individual genus microorganisms in
vinegar fermentation. In 2006 and 2008, Gullo et al. [52], De Vero et al. [53], and Solieri & Giudici [54]
reported the diversity of AAB and yeasts involved in TBV fermentation. In the following period from
2009 until 2018, numerous articles investigating the microbial diversity during vinegar fermentation
were continuously published. In 2011, the microbial community was monitored during acetic acid
fermentation of Zhenjiang aromatic vinegar (ZAV) [55]. In 2012, microorganisms including yeasts, LAB,
and AAB in the fermentation of SAV were isolated and characterized [56]. In 2013 and 2015, microbial
succession and diversity during the fermentation of Tianjin Duliu mature vinegar and SAV were
studied [57,58]. In 2016, research investigating microbial community composition during fermentation
of Korean traditional black raspberry vinegar was also conducted [59].
Cluster #7—Typical aroma. This cluster is an old cluster, with 2005 representing the mean
year. The core topic in the cluster is vinegar aroma. The period from 1999 to 2013 was relatively
inactive. Most of the research focused on the profiling of various volatile compounds in vinegar
using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS)/gas chromatography-olfactometry-mass
spectrometry (GC-O-MS)/two-dimensional gas chromatography time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC
× GC-TOF-MS)-based chemical-analytical methodologies [60–65]. The two main extraction methods
used for aroma compounds were solid-phase microextraction (SPME) [63,66] and stir bar sorptive
extraction (SBSE) [60].

3.3.2. Betweenness Centrality

Table 6 shows ten structural references in the co-citation network. These references are important
bridges in connecting individual nodes or/and co-citation clusters in the whole network. These ten
references can be considered as landmarks in the development of the vinegar research domain.

3.3.3. Most Cited Articles

The most cited articles are usually deemed landmark articles owing to the significance of their
contributions [13]. Table 7 lists the 10 most cited references, and 4 of them are reviews. The most
cited reference in our dataset is a review article by Budak et al. [11] with 40 citations, followed by a
journal article by Wu et al. [56] with 34 citations. The third most cited reference is a journal article by
Xu et al. [55]. All three of these references were published in the last decade.
Foods 2020, 9, 166 15 of 34

Table 5. Most cited and highest citation coverage articles in typical clusters.

Cited References Citing Articles

Cluter #
Cites Cited References Coverage % First Author (Year) Title
40 [11] 27 Li, S. (2015) Microbial diversity and their roles in the vinegar fermentation process
Lynch, K. M. (2019) Physiology of acetic acid bacteria and their role in vinegar and fermented
24 [67] 9
beverages
21 [68] 8 Chen, H. Y. (2016) Vinegar functions on health: constituents, sources, and formation mechanisms
1&6 Leeman, M. (2005) Vinegar dressing and cold storage of potatoes lowers postprandial glycaemic
20 [69] 11
and insulinaemic responses in healthy subjects
Ostman, E. (2005) Vinegar supplementation lowers glucose and insulin responses and increases
19 [70] 10
satiety after a bread meal in healthy subjects
Johnston, C. S. (2005) Vinegar and peanut products as complementary foods to reduce
18 [71] 5
postprandial glycemia
18 [35] 24 Li, S. (2015) Microbial diversity and their roles in the vinegar fermentation process
18 [72] 5 Aykin, E. (2015) Bioactive components of mother vinegar
Cejudo-Bastante, M. J. (2013) Study of the volatile composition and sensory characteristics of new
17 [73] 4
sherry vinegar-derived products by maceration with fruits
3&4
16 [74] 9 Kawa-Rygielska, J. (2018) Bioactive compounds in cornelian cherry vinegars
Xia, T. (2018) Evaluation of nutritional compositions, bioactive compounds, and antioxidant
15 [75] 8
activities of Shanxi aged vinegars during the aging process
Xia, T. (2018) Shanxi aged vinegar prevents alcoholic liver injury by inhibiting CYP2E1 and
14 [76] 8
NADPH oxidase activities
Liu, F. (2011) Variety identification of rice vinegars using visible and near infrared spectroscopy
24 [45] 12
and multivariate calibrations

0 Liu, F. (2011) Detection of organic acids and pH of fruit vinegars using near-infrared spectroscopy
22 [77] 10
and multivariate calibration
Chen, Q. S. (2012) Simultaneous measurement of total acid content and soluble salt-free solids
18 [47] 8
content in Chinese vinegar using near-infrared spectroscopy
Foods 2020, 9, 166 16 of 34

Table 5. Cont.

Cited References Citing Articles

Cluter #
Cites Cited References Coverage % First Author (Year) Title
Fernandez-Perez, R. (2010) Rapid molecular methods for enumeration and taxonomical
26 [78] 19
identification of acetic acid bacteria responsible for submerged vinegar production

2 Fernandez-Perez, R. (2010) Strain typing of acetic acid bacteria responsible for vinegar
21 [79] 16
production by the submerged elaboration method
Torija, M. J. (2010) Identification and quantification of acetic acid bacteria in wine and vinegar by
20 [52] 12
TaqMan-MGB probes
Nie, Z. Q. (2017) Unraveling the correlation between microbiota succession and metabolite
34 [56] 7
changes in traditional Shanxi aged vinegar

5 Gan, X. (2017) Diversity and dynamics stability of bacterial community in traditional solid-state
29 [55] 6
fermentation of Qishan vinegar
Milanovic, V. (2018) Profiling white wine seed vinegar bacterial diversity through viable
19 [57] 5
counting, metagenomic sequencing and PCR-DGGE
Callejon, R. M. (2008) Defining the typical aroma of sherry vinegar: sensory and
8 [60] 17
chemical approach
7 8 [80] 17 Callejon, R. M. (2008) Targeting key aromatic substances on the typical aroma of sherry vinegar
Callejon, R. M. (2008) Optimization and validation of headspace sorptive extraction for the
8 [81] 9
analysis of volatile compounds in wine vinegars
Note: cluster labels occurring in citing article titles are in bold. The six most cited and highest citation coverage articles are listed in integrated clusters.
Foods 2020, 9, 166 17 of 34

3.3.4. Citation Bursts

Articles with citation bursts received particular attention from associated academic circles in a
certain period. Strength and duration represent two important attributes of a citation burst. Table 8
lists the top 10 references with the strongest citation bursts from 1998 to 2019. This time interval is
depicted as a blue line. The time period in which a reference was detected as having a burst is shown
as a red line segment, indicating the initial and final year of the burst duration (the lines in Table 9
have the same meanings). Three of the ten references are review articles and two of these reviews have
the strongest citation bursts. This result also indicates that the importance of review articles has been
widely recognized by the academic community [82]. Integrated reviews may help researchers to keep
abreast of knowledge-based developments and research fronts.

3.4. Theme Panels

Intuitively, the keywords from citing articles provide with a snapshot of the main topics in vinegar
research. From the micro perspective, structurally essential (articles with high betweenness centrality)
and inspirational references (articles with strong citation bursts) illustrate the landmarks and hotspots
in this knowledge domain, and macroscopically, the co-citation network provides with an overview of
the intellectual structure. By considering all three levels, related themes in the knowledge domain of
vinegar research can predominantly be divided into six panels.
Microorganisms. Microorganisms have an important influence on the quality of final products.
As previously discussed (see Section 3.3.1), the microbial diversity was extensively studied in many
vinegars either by culture-dependent or culture-independent approaches. A better understanding of
the microbial characteristics and ecology can help us to more optimally utilize eximious microorganisms
while controlling the fermentation process in a more informed manner.
Foods 2020, 9, 166 18 of 34

Table 6. Cited references with the top 10 highest betweenness centrality.

References Centrality Document Type Cluster # Article Contents

Derived sherry wine vinegar was obtained by maceration with fruits; polyphenolic content and
[83] 0.13 Journal article 3
antioxidant activity were determined.
The development of an orange-based vinegar; the polyphenolic and volatile content
[84] 0.11 Journal article 3
were determined.
A gas chromatographic method to determine the sugars and organic acids in vinegar was
[45] 0.09 Journal article 0
developed; a chemometric technique (Tucker 3) was applied in data analysis.
Wine vinegar processing technology (including bacterial strain, acetification system design
[77] 0.08 Review 0
optimum conditions), authentication, and quality evaluation were reviewed.
[52] 0.07 Journal article 2 Isolation and characterization of acetic acid bacteria (AAB) from TBV.
Phenotypic traits of AAB in TBV production, TBV defects, and selection criteria for AAB starter
[78] 0.07 Review 2
culture were reviewed.
The phenolic content and antioxidant activity of high-molecular-weight melanoidins in ZAV
[85] 0.07 Journal article 0
were determined.
An 1 H NMR method to simultaneously determine the main organic components of vinegars
[47] 0.07 Journal article 0
was developed.
A new technique (SBSE) for extracting volatile compounds of vinegar was introduced, and a
[60] 0.06 Journal article 7
comparison of this method with solid-phase microextraction (SPME) method was made.
[86] 0.06 Journal article 1 The antiglycemic properties of vinegar in adults were evaluated.
Foods 2020, 9, 166 19 of 34

Table 7. Top 10 most cited references.

References Citation Counts Document Type Cluster # Article Contents

[11] 40 Review 1 The health effects of vinegar were reviewed.
Microorganisms including yeasts, lactic acid bacteria (LAB), and AAB were isolated and
[56] 34 Journal article 5
characterized based on phenotypic and genotypic approaches.
Denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis combined with clone library was used to analyze the
[55] 29 Journal article 5
microbial diversity during the fermentation process of ZAV.
Phenotypic traits of AAB in TBV production, TBV defects, and selection criteria for AAB
[78] 26 Review 2
starter culture were reviewed.
A gas chromatographic method to determine the sugars and organic acids in vinegar was
[45] 24 Journal article 0
developed; a chemometric technique (Tucker 3) was applied in data analysis.
[67] 24 Journal article 1 The antiobesity effect of vinegar in adults was evaluated.
Wine vinegar processing technology (including bacterial strain, acetification system design
[77] 22 Review 0
optimum conditions), authentication, and quality evaluation were reviewed.
The application of selected Acetobacter pasteurianus strains for TBV production was
[79] 21 Journal article 2
assessed, and its persistence and species succession were evaluated.
The hypolipidemic effect of apple cider vinegars produced with and without inclusion of
[68] 21 Journal article 1
maceration was evaluated in high-cholesterol-fed rats.
Varieties, production, volatile compounds, organic acids, bioactive compounds, and health
[69] 20 Review 1
benefits of vinegar were reviewed.
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[79] [77]
[79] [77]
[77]
[79] 22
References
References
[77]
[77]
[79] 22
References
[77]
[77]
[79] [77] [77]2220
2122202220
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