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TOURISM DEVELOPMENT THEORIES

There are existing theories on tourism development that may serve as a guide on what approach can be taken
in tourism planning. Refer to the following for the theories and their definitions.
Laissez-Faire Theory
“Laissez-faire” is a French word for “leave it be.” This theory has the assumption that the tourism industry
works best when left to the responsibility of the market forces. This is also known as the liberal economic
theory which means that no intervention should come from the government when it comes to policies and
regulations involving tourism operations. The market forces of the tourism industry are left on their own terms
as it encourages growth of tourism businesses and emphasizes economic returns (profit). However, it is also
capable of destroying the destinations due to the excessive exploitation of its resources.
Modernization Theory
This theory emphasizes that tourism contributes to an area’s economic progress and transformation from
traditional to modern. It uses tourism as an instrument for technological developments, improving the local
community’s knowledge and skills, and adjustments in the way of living and culture in order to adapt to the
increasing diversity of visitors. Modernization of infrastructure and facilities is also required under this theory
as the needs of international tourists become more advanced. These upgrades also benefit the local
community. However, concerns surrounding modernization are also raised as it tends to make heritage sites
disappear with the thinking that modern structures are a better sight than the old ones.
Trickle-Down Theory
This theory has the assumption that economic growth leads to the improvement of living conditions in an area.
Tourism growth should be able to improve the lives of everyone that is affected, from hotel managers down
to souvenir vendors. This theory is related to the tourism multiplier effect, which is the revenue generated by
inbound tourism that flows into a destination and injects new resource into the economy.
Neoliberal Theory
This theory suggests that the economy functions best when there’s minimal intervention from the
government. Compared to the Laissez-Faire Theory, this theory accepts the government’s function to regulate
but doesn’t accept the idea of the government competing with the private sectors by operating in the same
business sense.
Dependency Theory
This theory sees tourism, particularly international tourism, as the modern-day colonialism. It argues that
tourism makes developing nations dependent on developed nations in terms of technology, skills, and
products to satisfy the international tourism market demands. In turn, the local economy suffers through
leakages which results in a lack of employment opportunities for the locals, an increase on imports, and the
need of services from foreign professionals. This is also evident when the developed nations exploit the
resources of the developing nations which actually worsen the living conditions of the latter.
Irridex Model Theory
This theory is in relation with Doxey’s Irritation Index model where the negative social impacts of tourism is
the highest concern. It suggests that the local community’s attitude towards tourism deteriorates as the
negative impacts of tourism become more and more evident. Another concept related to this theory is social
carrying capacity, which is the local community’s ability to tolerate the social effects of tourist visits within
their area.

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TOURISM PLANNING PLATFORMS

Tourism planning is affected by how tourism is viewed. The tourism planning process usually begins with
identifying the following elements:
• The nature of tourism
• The issues involving tourism
• Possible solutions on how these issues should be addressed.
Once the aforementioned elements are identified, a platform can be formed. Platform is described as a
common theme or focus of a specific study which, in this case, is tourism planning.
There are five (5) tourism planning platforms that currently exist as of this writing. The first four (4) were
introduced by Jafari in 1999, and the other one was mentioned by Todes in 2011 (Cruz, 2014). These are the
following:
Advocacy Platform
This platform focuses on the positive impact that tourism brings. It is a known fact that tourism can cause
massive improvement within an area such as creating employment, foreign exchange income, modernization
on infrastructure, etc. The tourism policy under this platform may involve something that mentions tourism
as a tool for national development. The advocacy platform also depicts tourism as a “clean industry,” or
something that does not produce harmful substances that may pollute the environment. Tourism under this
platform is also viewed as a tool for cultural revitalization and something that brings people together into a
mutual understanding.
These core beliefs in the advocacy platform emphasize that tourism should be enthusiastically pursued and
prioritized. The effects of using this platform normally result in mass tourism. Theories that relate to this
platform are the modernization and trickle-down theories.
Cautionary Platform
This is the exact opposite of the advocacy platform where tourism is viewed as a bad thing and focuses on the
negative effects of mass tourism. This platform criticizes tourism, especially mass tourism, as something that
creates dependency and leakages that takes the wealth of an area. This also views tourism as causes of the
following:
• Hides the level of poverty in an area (through the development of high-rise hotels, airports, and
shopping centers)
• Low-paying and seasonal jobs
• Loss of cultural traditions
• Exploitation of vulnerable groups of society (women, children, poor)
• Resentment of local communities on visitors
• Pollution and loss of biodiversity.
These assumptions prompt this platform to avoid pursuance of further tourism development. This also
supports the dependency and irridex model theories.
Adaptancy Platform
This platform acknowledges the negative impacts of mass tourism. However, it also emphasizes that the
negative impacts tourism brings can be minimized, if not avoided at all. This platform encourages the
pursuance of alternative tourism, which is described as a low-volume and low-impact form of tourism.
Alternative tourism is the anti-thesis of mass tourism that has two (2) sets:
• Environmentally-oriented tourism – This includes forms of tourism that enhance the welfare of the
environment, such as ecotourism and green tourism.

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• Socially-oriented tourism – This refers to the form of tourism that enhances the welfare of society,
such as community-based tourism, ethnic tourism, and volunteer tourism.
Knowledge-based Platform
This platform has a more holistic approach to its views on tourism. It relies on the rawest and most rational
information over moral opinions of others. This heavily supports the critical analysis of tourism which does
not involve labeling certain forms of tourism as either good or bad. For example, it may view mass tourism as
good when properly managed and ecotourism as bad when it is mismanaged. The concept of sustainable
tourism conforms to this platform as it involves thorough education and research.
Social Justice Platform
Todes (as cited in Cruz, 2014) describes this platform as “something that embraces participatory processes
involving open dialogue, inclusivity, resource distribution, equity, equality, pro-poor planning, gender
sensitivity, and responsiveness to diversity.” It encourages those involved in the tourism planning process to
see themselves as someone who is a catalyst for positive social change and a protector of the weaker members
of society. The principles under this platform encourage a more community-approach in tourism planning and
development.
TOURISM PLANNING APPROACHES
Majority of tourism destinations started as undiscovered areas where any form of planning was non-existent.
This was simply because the habitants of the area did not see it as a necessity since the number of visitors
were relatively low and there was no demand. Tourism was not simply the priority during those times, and
local governments did not really allocate funds for tourism development.
However, as the tourism industry started to progress and gain its popularity, different approaches were
applied concerning tourism planning and development in order for destinations to be and remain competitive.
The differences between tourism destinations were also a factor as to why different tourism planning
approaches were developed.
Ad-Hoc Planning
This tourism planning approach is used only when the need arises, such as preparation in local festivals or
when an important visitor is coming. There is no established tourism agenda in this approach, and its planning
is on a case-by-case basis.
Integrated Tourism Planning
This approach integrates tourism in the overall development of a destination. It implies that tourism
development must be linked to the economic, social, cultural, natural, and human resources of the
destination. Tourism must coexist with the existing economic activities and values of the local residents.
Boosterist Approach
This approach heavily promotes tourism as an instrument for economic development. Its main objective is to
generate maximum revenues from tourism through mass tourism. The main functions surrounding this
approach are tourism capacity expansion and promotional campaigns. The indicators of success by using this
approach are increase in tourist arrivals, room occupancies, and airline bookings.
Product-led Development
This approach suggests that focusing on the development of tourism infrastructure, facilities, and amenities
first will naturally attract tourists. It simply supports the idea of “build something and the market will
automatically take notice of it.”

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Spatial Planning Approach

This approach is a type of product-led development approach that focuses on a destination’s layout and
design. It divides tourism into spatial units, or the spaces covered in tourism planning and where tourism is
developed. Spatial units may include gateways or main access points such as airports, communities, access
routes, attraction areas.
According to Gunn and Var (as cited in Cruz, 2014), there are three (3) identified spatial units in tourism:
• Site scale – This scale refers to the level of tourism planning at an individual tourism property, such as
hotels, resorts, or restaurants.
• Destination scale – This scale refers to the level of tourism planning within a community and its
surrounding areas.
• Regional scale – This scale refers to the level of tourism planning at an entire province, region, or
country.
Another way to identify spatial units according to Japan International Cooperation Agency and Department of
Tourism (JICA-DOT) (as cited in Cruz, 2014) is as follows:
• Tourism Sites (TSs) – specific areas that tourists visit and experience
• Tourism Development Area (TDA) – area/s that may contain one (1) or several tourism sites
• Tourism Development Cluster (TDC) – area/s that contain a significant number of tourism sites which
can meet long-term development possibilities, such as geographical features, range of potential
tourist attractions, etc.
Demand-led Approach
The perspective in this approach is to know the customers and satisfy them with their demands. This approach
bears two (2) importance:
• The need for a market-centered tourism product design; and
• Projecting tourism market demands to serve as a basis for expanding the destination’s physical
capacity.
The tourism planning process must fully understand the characteristics and requirements of the tourism
market. These may include stages in the life cycle, religion, culture, etc. These characteristics can be used as
bases for identifying the available tourist attractions that can match the requirements of the tourism market.
Bureaucratic-/Government-led Approach
This approach puts the government as the central force in tourism planning and development. Several types
of policy instruments that can be used in this approach are the following:
• Advocacy – This refers to strategic plans, accreditation schemes, investment schemes, etc.
• Monetary – This includes travel taxes, terminal fees, income tax, etc.
• Government action – This may include infrastructure development, marketing promotion, education,
etc.
• Laws – This may include regulations for construction projects, foreign investment regulations, etc.
There are two (2) types of bureaucratic approach:
• Central planning approach – This approach is where all functions in the tourism planning process are
carried out by national-level departments and agencies. The state makes the policies and controls
everything in the process.
• Developed planning approach – This is where local government units assume control of the entire
tourism planning process within their respective areas.

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Middle Path Approach

This approach is mostly associated with the nation of Bhutan. It is the opposite of the boosterist approach as
this focuses more on low-volume, high-yield tourism. This also imposes strict control on the type and volume
of tourists that may enter and minimizes the negative effects of tourism. In Bhutan, tourist expenditure is
higher than usual because this approach eliminates the entry of budget-type tourists, for they comprise the
bulk of the tourism market. Bhutan believes that these restrictions help in preventing alterations of the
Bhutanese culture.
Environmental Approach
This approach works best in areas that have natural attractions, especially those that are not beyond the reach
of commercial industries or protected by specific types of laws (protected areas, ancestral lands, etc.). It uses
the concept of carrying capacity in the tourism planning process, which is defined as “the maximum number
of people that may visit a tourist destination at the same time without causing destruction of the physical,
economic, and socio-cultural environment and an unacceptable decrease in the quality of visitors’ satisfaction”
(Cruz, 2016).
The most notable dimension of carrying capacity used in the tourism planning process is the physical carrying
capacity, which is the maximum number of people that can fit on a site at any given time and still enables
people to move (Cruz, 2014). Carrying capacities may vary depending on the area, the type of tourism that is
being developed, as well as tourist attitudes, expectations, and behaviors.
Another useful concept in this approach is the Limits of Acceptable Change (LAC). It attempts to set limits on
the conditions that are ideal for an area, then sets up management strategies to attain the area’s desired
conditions. Compared to carrying capacity, which sets a ceiling, LAC sets a range for factors such as social,
ecological, physical, and economic that are acceptable.
A good example of a successful output from this approach is ecotourism.
Social Approach
This approach heavily emphasizes the important role of stakeholders in the tourism planning process.
Stakeholders should direct the benefits and control over the area’s natural resources towards the community
and other sectors within the locals.
Participatory/Stakeholder Approach
This approach is where relevant stakeholders deliberate and make decisions in the tourism planning process.
It helps promote the sense of ownership among stakeholders. This enables them to input their ideas from
personal experiences and skills that may avoid issues affecting the entire tourism planning process. It also
avoids the pitfalls that may be caused by ignorance or inexperience of some stakeholders.
The downside of this approach is that it is vulnerable to arguments. Stakeholders have different agendas and
opinions; this often results in disagreements that slow down, if not entirely halt, the entire tourism planning
process.
Community-based Approach
This approach is community-centric as it emphasizes that local communities should have full control of a
tourism enterprise and that their interest should be placed above the other stakeholders’. The idea behind
this approach is that the local community will always be committed to developing its own domain regardless
if the plan is good or not because they live there and will likely remain.
The concept of this approach is similar to the theory of social learning and interpersonal interaction. This is
when knowledge is brought over the community by someone and they, in turn, share their personal knowledge
and experiences. Both the local community and the person or entity that bought the knowledge will have a

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mutual learning process. The importance and value of the knowledge are recognized by both the entity and
the local community.
Pro-poor Approach
It is defined as “a tourism that generates net benefits for the poor” (Cruz, 2014). This approach ensures that
the poor are prioritized and the benefits of tourism developments are directed to them. It does not let the
trickle-down effect theory happen automatically. The government or other agencies involved in the process
intervene with the channeling of tourism benefits directly to the poor.
Some of the principles that need to be followed in order for the pro-poor approach to succeed are as follows:
• Participation by poor people in decisions affecting their livelihood priorities
• A holistic livelihood approach – tourism is seen as part of the livelihood options in an area, a main
economic activity, or as a supplement to existing livelihood activities
• Equity – distribution of benefits and costs
• Flexibility – pace or scale of development may be adjusted depending on the situation
• Commercial realism – pro-poor approach does not need to be small-scale; linking small tourism
businesses with mainstream tourism enterprises will help ensure their feasibility
• Lessons from poverty analysis, environmental management, good governance, and small enterprise
development should be passed on to build knowledge on this approach.
Fair Trade Tourism Approach
This approach is a response to the failure of delivering sustainable livelihoods and development opportunities
in developing nations. Its concept is similar to the pro-poor approach. Fairtrade helps with sustainable
development by providing better trading conditions and protecting the rights of small scale businesses.
Sustainable Tourism Approach
Sustainable tourism is defined as “management of all resources in such a way that economic, social, and
aesthetic needs can be fulfilled while maintaining cultural integrity, essential ecological processes, biological
diversity, and life support systems” (Cruz, 2016).
This approach emphasizes that tourism development should not damage or exhaust any of the finite natural
and/or cultural resources of a destination. This is in order for the future generation to enjoy the same
resources that are currently providing different kinds of experiences. Tourism development under this
approach is supported by three (3) dimensions: environment, economy, and society.

References:
Cruz, R. (2014). Tourism planning and development. Manila: Rex Bookstore, Inc.
Cruz, R. (2016). Tourism impacts and sustainability. Manila: Rex Bookstore, Inc.
Lansangan-Cruz, Z. (2015). Tourism: Planning and development. Mandaluyong City: National Book Store.
Tourism Guidebook for Local Government Units. (2017). Retrieved from Department of Tourism website:
http://www.tourism.gov.ph/guidebookandmanual.aspx on October 1, 2019

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