Parrot: Parrots Parrots, Also Known As Psittacines

Parrot
Parrots, also known as psittacines /ˈsɪtəsaɪnz/,[1][2] are

Parrots
birds of the roughly 398 species[3] in 92 genera
comprising the order Psittaciformes /ˈsɪtəsɪfɔːrmiːz/, Temporal range: Eocene – Holocene
found mostly in tropical and subtropical regions. The 50–0 Ma
order is subdivided into three superfamilies: the
PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K PgN
Psittacoidea ("true" parrots), the Cacatuoidea (cockatoos),
and the Strigopoidea (New Zealand parrots). One-third of
all parrot species are threatened by extinction, with higher
aggregate extinction risk (IUCN Red List Index) than any
other comparable bird group.[4] Parrots have a generally
pantropical distribution with several species inhabiting
temperate regions in the Southern Hemisphere, as well.
The greatest diversity of parrots is in South America and
Australasia.
Characteristic features of parrots include a strong, curved

bill, an upright stance, strong legs, and clawed zygodactyl
feet. Many parrots are vividly coloured, and some are
multi-coloured. Most parrots exhibit little or no sexual
dimorphism in the visual spectrum. They form the most
variably sized bird order in terms of length. The most
important components of most parrots' diets are seeds,
nuts, fruit, buds, and other plant material. A few species
Scientific classification
sometimes eat animals and carrion, while the lories and
lorikeets are specialised for feeding on floral nectar and Kingdom: Animalia
soft fruits. Almost all parrots nest in tree hollows (or nest
boxes in captivity), and lay white eggs from which hatch Phylum: Chordata
altricial (helpless) young. Class: Aves
Parrots, along with ravens, crows, jays, and magpies, are Clade: Psittacopasserae
among the most intelligent birds, and the ability of some Order: Psittaciformes
species to imitate human speech enhances their popularity
Wagler, 1830
as pets. Trapping wild parrots for the pet trade, as well as
hunting, habitat loss, and competition from invasive Superfamilies
species, has diminished wild populations, with parrots
being subjected to more exploitation than any other group
Cacatuoidea (cockatoos)
of birds. Measures taken to conserve the habitats of some
Psittacoidea (true parrots)
high-profile charismatic species have also protected many
Strigopoidea (New Zealand parrots)
of the less charismatic species living in the same
ecosystems.
Contents
Taxonomy
Origins and evolution Range of parrots, all species (red)
Etymology
Phylogeny
Systematics
Morphology
Distribution and habitat
Behaviour
Diet
Breeding
Intelligence and learning
Sound imitation and speech
Song
Cooperation
Relationship with humans
Pets
Trade
Culture
Feral populations
Threats and conservation
World Parrot Day
See also
References
Cited sources
External links
Taxonomy
Origins and evolution
Psittaciform diversity in South America and Australasia suggests that

the order may have evolved in Gondwana, centred in Australasia.[5]
The scarcity of parrots in the fossil record, however, presents
difficulties in confirming the hypothesis. There is currently a higher
amount of fossil remains from the northern hemisphere in the early
Cenozoic.[6] Molecular studies suggest that parrots evolved
approximately 59 million years ago (Mya) (range 66–51 Mya) in
Fossil dentary specimen UCMP
Gondwana. The three major clades of Neotropical parrots originated
143274 restored as a parrot (left) or
about 50 Mya (range 57–41 Mya).[7] an oviraptorosaur
A single 15 mm (0.6 in) fragment from a large lower bill (UCMP

143274), found in deposits from the Lance Creek Formation in
Niobrara County, Wyoming, had been thought to be the oldest parrot fossil and is presumed to have originated
from the Late Cretaceous period, which makes it about 70 million years old.[8] However, other studies suggest
that this fossil is not from a bird, but from a caenagnathid oviraptorosaur (a non-avian dinosaur with a birdlike
beak), as several details of the fossil used to support its identity as a parrot are not actually exclusive to parrots,
and it is dissimilar to the earliest-known unequivocal parrot fossils.[9][10]
It is generally assumed that the Psittaciformes were present during the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event
(K-Pg extinction), 66 mya. They were probably generalised arboreal birds, and did not have the specialised
crushing bills of modern species.[6][11] Genomic analysis provides strong evidence that parrots are the sister
group of passerines, forming the clade Psittacopasserae, which is the sister group of the falcons.[12]
The first uncontroversial parrot fossils date to tropical Eocene Europe around 50 mya. Initially, a neoavian
named Mopsitta tanta, uncovered in Denmark's Early Eocene Fur Formation and dated to 54 mya, was
assigned to the Psittaciformes. However, the rather nondescript bone is not unequivocally psittaciform, and it
may rather belong to the ibis genus Rhynchaeites, whose fossil legs were found in the same deposits.[13]
Several fairly complete skeletons of parrot-like birds have been found

in England and Germany.[14] These are probably not transitional
fossils between ancestral and modern parrots, but rather lineages that
evolved parallel to true parrots and cockatoos:[15]
Psittacopes
Serudaptus
Halcyornithidae
Cyrilavis
Fossil skull of a presumed parrot
Halcyornis
relative from the Eocene Green River
Pulchrapollia Formation in Wyoming
Pseudasturides
Vastanavidae
Vastanavis
Quercypsittidae
Quercypsitta
Messelasturidae[16]
Messelastur
Tynskya
The earliest records of modern parrots date to around 23–20 mya.[17] The fossil record—mainly from Europe
—consists of bones clearly recognisable as belonging to anatomically modern parrots.[18] The Southern
Hemisphere contains no known parrot-like remains earlier than the Early Miocene around 20 mya.[17]
Etymology
The name of the order is from ancient Greek for parrot ψιττακός (Psittacus) whose origin is unclear. Ctesias
recorded the name Psittacus after the Indian name for a bird, most likely a parakeet (now placed in the genus
Psittacula). Pliny the Elder in his Natural History (book 10, chapter 58) noted that the Indians called the bird
as "siptaces". No matching Indian name has been traced though.[19][20]
Phylogeny
P
Parrots
The Psittaciformes comprise three main lineages: Strigopoidea,
Psittacoidea and Cacatuoidea.[23] The Strigopoidea were considered
part of the Psittacoidea, but the former is now placed at the base of Psittacoidea
the parrot tree next to the remaining members of the Psittacoidea, as
well as all members of the Cacatuoidea.[5][21][22] The Cacatuoidea
are quite distinct, having a movable head crest, a different
arrangement of the carotid arteries, a gall bladder, differences in the Cacatuoidea
skull bones, and lack the Dyck texture feathers that—in the
Psittacidae—scatter light to produce the vibrant colours of so many
parrots. Colourful feathers with high levels of psittacofulvin resist
the feather-degrading bacterium Bacillus licheniformis better than
white ones.[24] Lorikeets were previously regarded as a third family,
Loriidae,[25]:45 but are now considered a tribe (Loriini) within the
subfamily Loriinae, family Psittaculidae. The two other tribes in the
subfamily are the closely related fig parrots (two genera in the tribe Strigopoidea
Cyclopsittini) and budgerigar (tribe Melopsittacini).[5][21][22]
Systematics
Other birds
The order Psittaciformes consists of roughly 393 species belonging
to 92 genera.[26][5][21][23][27][28][29][30] Phylogenetic relationship between the
three parrot superfamilies[5][21][22]
Superfamily Strigopoidea: New
Zealand parrots Nestoridae
Strigopoidea
Family Nestoridae: two
genera with two living (kea Strigopidae
and New Zealand kaka) and
several extinct species of the
New Zealand region Cacatuoidea
Cacatuidae
Family Strigopidae: the Psittacoidea
flightless, critically
endangered kakapo of New Neotropical parrots
Zealand Psittacidae
Psittacinae
Superfamily Cacatuoidea:
cockatoos
Psittrichadinae
Family Cacatuidae Psittrichasiidae
Subfamily Nymphicinae: Coracopseinae
one genus with one
species, the cockatiel. Psittaculidae
Subfamily Psittaculinae
Calyptorhynchinae: the
black cockatoos
Subfamily Cacatuinae Broad-tailed parrots
Tribe Microglossini:
one genus with one Fig parrots
species, the black
palm cockatoo
Budgerigar
Tribe Cacatuini: four
genera of white, pink, Lories and Lorikeets
and grey species
Superfamily Psittacoidea: true Bolbopsittacus

parrots
Hanging parrots
Family Psittacidae
Subfamily Psittacinae:
two African genera, Lovebirds
Psittacus and
Poicephalus
Psittacella
Subfamily Arinae
Tribe Arini: 18 genera Phylogenetic relations between parrots[5]
Tribe Androglossini: seven genera.
Family Psittaculidae
Subfamily Psittrichasinae: one species, Pesquet's
parrot
Subfamily Coracopsinae: one genus with three
species.
Subfamily Platycercinae
Tribe Pezoporini: ground parrots and allies
Tribe Platycercini: broad-tailed parrots Skeleton of a parrot
Subfamily Psittacellinae: one genus (Psittacella) with

several species
Subfamily Loriinae
Tribe Loriini: lories and lorikeets
Tribe Melopsittacini: one genus with one species, the budgerigar
Tribe Cyclopsittini: fig parrots
Subfamily Agapornithinae: three genera
Subfamily Psittaculinae
Tribe Polytelini: three genera
Tribe Psittaculini: Asian psittacines
Tribe Micropsittini: pygmy parrots
Morphology
Living species range in size from the buff-faced pygmy parrot, at under 10 g (0.4 oz) in weight and 8 cm
(3.1 in) in length,[25]:149 to the hyacinth macaw, at 1 m (3.3 ft) in length,[31] and the kakapo, at 4.0 kg (8.8 lb)
in weight.[32] Among the superfamilies, the three extant Strigopoidea species are all large parrots, and the
cockatoos tend to be large birds, as well. The Psittacoidea parrots are far more variable, ranging the full
spectrum of sizes shown by the family.[32]
The most obvious physical characteristic is the strong, curved, broad
bill. The upper mandible is prominent, curves downward, and comes
to a point. It is not fused to the skull, which allows it to move
independently, and contributes to the tremendous biting pressure the
birds are able to exert. A large macaw, for example, has a bite force of
35 kg/cm2 (500 lb/sq in), close to that of a large dog.[33] The lower
mandible is shorter, with a sharp, upward-facing cutting edge, which
moves against the flat portion of the upper mandible in an anvil-like
fashion. Touch receptors occur along the inner edges of the
keratinised bill, which are collectively known as the "bill tip organ",
allowing for highly dexterous manipulations. Seed-eating parrots have
a strong tongue (containing similar touch receptors to those in the bill
tip organ), which helps to manipulate seeds or position nuts in the bill
so that the mandibles can apply an appropriate cracking force. The
head is large, with eyes positioned high and laterally in the skull, so
the visual field of parrots is unlike any other birds. Without turning its
head, a parrot can see from just below its bill tip, all above its head,
and quite far behind its head. Parrots also have quite a wide frontal
binocular field for a bird, although this is nowhere near as large as
Blue and gold macaw (Ara ararauna)
primate binocular visual fields.[34] Unlike humans, the vision of
skeleton on display at the Museum
parrots is also sensitive to ultraviolet light.[35] of Osteology.
Parrots have strong zygodactyl feet (two toes facing forward and two
back) with sharp, elongated claws, which are used for climbing and
swinging. Most species are capable of using their feet to manipulate food and
other objects with a high degree of dexterity, in a similar manner to a human
using their hands. A study conducted with Australian parrots has
demonstrated that they exhibit "handedness", a distinct preference with
regards to the foot used to pick up food, with adult parrots being almost
exclusively "left-footed" or "right-footed", and with the prevalence of each
preference within the population varying by species.[36]
Cockatoo species have a mobile crest

of feathers on the top of their heads,
which they can raise for display, and
retract.[37] No other parrots can do
so, but the Pacific lorikeets in the
genera Vini and Phigys can ruffle the Glossy black cockatoo
feathers of the crown and nape, and showing the parrot's strong
the red-fan parrot (or hawk-headed bill, clawed feet, and
Eclectus parrots, male left and
sideways-positioned eyes
female right parrot) has a prominent feather neck
frill that it can raise and lower at will.
The predominant colour of plumage
in parrots is green, though most species have some red or another colour in small quantities. Cockatoos,
however, are predominately black or white with some red, pink, or yellow.[38] Strong sexual dimorphism in
plumage is not typical among parrots, with some notable exceptions, the most striking being the eclectus
parrot.[25]:202–207 However it has been shown that some parrot species exhibit sexually dimorphic plumage in
the ultraviolet spectrum, normally invisible to humans.[39][40]
Distribution and habitat

Parrots are found on all tropical and subtropical continents and
regions including Australia and Oceania, South Asia, Southeast Asia,
Central America, South America, and Africa. Some Caribbean and
Pacific islands are home to endemic species.[41] By far the greatest
number of parrot species come from Australasia and South
America.[42] The lories and lorikeets range from Sulawesi and the
Philippines in the north to Australia and across the Pacific as far as
French Polynesia, with the greatest diversity being found in and
around New Guinea.[41] The subfamily Arinae encompasses all the
neotropical parrots, including the amazons, macaws, and conures, and Most parrot species are tropical, but
ranges from northern Mexico and the Bahamas to Tierra del Fuego in a few species, like this austral
the southern tip of South America.[43] The pygmy parrots, tribe parakeet, range deeply into
Micropsittini, form a small genus restricted to New Guinea and the temperate zones.
Solomon Islands. [44] The superfamily Strigopoidea contains three
living species of aberrant parrots from New Zealand.[45] The broad-
tailed parrots, subfamily Platycercinae, are restricted to Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacific islands as far
eastwards as Fiji.[46] The true parrot superfamily, Psittacoidea, includes a range of species from Australia and
New Guinea to South Asia and Africa.[41] The centre of cockatoo biodiversity is Australia and New Guinea,
although some species reach the Solomon Islands (and one formerly occurred in New Caledonia),[47]
Wallacea and the Philippines.[48]
Several parrots inhabit the cool, temperate regions of South America

and New Zealand. Three species—the Thick-billed parrot, the Green
parakeet, and the now-extinct Carolina parakeet—have lived as far
north as the southern United States. Many parrots have been
introduced to areas with temperate climates, and have established
stable populations in parts of the United States (including New York
City),[49] the United Kingdom,[50] Belgium,[51] Spain[52][53] and
Greece.[54] These birds can be quite successful in introduced areas,
such as the non-native population of red-crowned amazons in the
The kea is the only alpine parrot. U.S. which may rival that of their native Mexico.[55] The only parrot
to inhabit alpine climates is the Kea, which is endemic to the Southern
Alps mountain range on New Zealand's South Island.[56]
Few parrots are wholly sedentary or fully migratory. Most fall somewhere between the two extremes, making
poorly understood regional movements, with some adopting an entirely nomadic lifestyle.[57] Only three
species are migratory – the orange-bellied, blue-winged and swift parrots.[58]
Behaviour
Numerous challenges are found in studying wild parrots, as they are difficult to catch and once caught, they
are difficult to mark. Most wild bird studies rely on banding or wing tagging, but parrots chew off such
attachments.[57] Parrots also tend to range widely, and consequently many gaps occur in knowledge of their
behaviour. Some parrots have a strong, direct flight. Most species spend much of their time perched or
climbing in tree canopies. They often use their bills for climbing by gripping or hooking on branches and other
supports. On the ground, parrots often walk with a rolling gait.[34]
Diet
The diet of parrots consists of seeds, fruit, nectar, pollen, buds, and
sometimes arthropods and other animal prey. The most important of
these for most true parrots and cockatoos are seeds; the large and
powerful bill has evolved to open and consume tough seeds. All true
parrots, except the Pesquet's parrot, employ the same method to obtain
the seed from the husk; the seed is held between the mandibles and
the lower mandible crushes the husk, whereupon the seed is rotated in
the bill and the remaining husk is removed.[57] They may use their
foot sometimes to hold large seeds in place. Parrots are granivores
rather than seed dispersers, and in many cases where they are seen
consuming fruit, they are only eating the fruit to get at the seed. As
Macaw parrot sitting on a tree branch
seeds often have poisons that protect them, parrots carefully remove
seed coats and other chemically defended fruit parts prior to ingestion.
Many species in the Americas, Africa, and Papua New Guinea
consume clay, which releases minerals and absorbs toxic compounds
from the gut.[59]
Geographical range and body size predominantly explains diet

composition of Neotropical parrots rather than phylogeny.[60]
Lories, lorikeets, hanging parrots, and swift parrots are primarily Play media
nectar and pollen consumers, and have tongues with brush tips to A yellow-tailed black cockatoo using
collect it, as well as some specialised gut adaptations. Many other its strong bill to search for grubs
species also consume nectar when it becomes available.[61][62]
Some parrot species prey on animals, especially invertebrate larvae.

Golden-winged parakeets prey on water snails,[63] the New Zealand
kea can, though uncommonly, hunts adult sheep,[64] and the
Antipodes parakeet, another New Zealand parrot, enters the burrows
of nesting grey-backed storm petrels and kills the incubating
adults.[65] Some cockatoos and the New Zealand kaka excavate
branches and wood to feed on grubs; the bulk of the yellow-tailed
black cockatoo's diet is made up of insects.[66]
Chestnut-fronted macaws, yellow-
Some extinct parrots had carnivorous diets. Pseudasturids were crowned amazons, and dusky-
probably cuckoo- or puffbird-like insectivores, while messelasturids headed parakeets at a clay lick in
were raptor-like carnivores.[16] Ecuador
Breeding
With few exceptions, parrots are monogamous breeders who nest in cavities and hold no territories other than
their nesting sites.[57][67] The pair bonds of the parrots and cockatoos are strong and a pair remains close
during the nonbreeding season, even if they join larger flocks. As with many birds, pair bond formation is
preceded by courtship displays; these are relatively simple in the case of cockatoos. In Psittacidae parrots'
common breeding displays, usually undertaken by the male, include slow, deliberate steps known as a
"parade" or "stately walk" and the "eye-blaze", where the pupil of the eye constricts to reveal the edge of the
iris.[57] Allopreening is used by the pair to help maintain the bond. Cooperative breeding, where birds other
than the breeding pair help raise the young and is common in some bird families, is extremely rare in parrots,
and has only unambiguously been demonstrated in the El Oro parakeet and the golden parakeet (which may
also exhibit polygamous, or group breeding, behaviour with multiple females contributing to the clutch).[68]
Only the monk parakeet and five species of lovebirds build nests in
trees,[69] and three Australian and New Zealand ground parrots nest
on the ground. All other parrots and cockatoos nest in cavities, either
tree hollows or cavities dug into cliffs, banks, or the ground. The use
of holes in cliffs is more common in the Americas. Many species use
termite nests, possibly to reduce the conspicuousness of the nesting
site or to create a favourable microclimate.[70] In most cases, both
parents participate in the nest excavation. The length of the burrow
varies with species, but is usually between 0.5 and 2 m (1.6 and
The vast majority of parrots are, like 6.6 ft) in length. The nests of cockatoos are often lined with sticks,
this rose-ringed parakeet, cavity wood chips, and other plant material. In the larger species of parrots
nesters. and cockatoos, the availability of nesting hollows may be limited,
leading to intense competition for them both within the species and
between species, as well as with other bird families. The intensity of
this competition can limit breeding success in some cases.[71][72] Hollows created artificially by arborists have
proven successful in boosting breeding rates in these areas.[73] Some species are colonial, with the burrowing
parrot nesting in colonies up to 70,000 strong.[74] Coloniality is not as common in parrots as might be
expected, possibly because most species adopt old cavities rather than excavate their own.[75]
The eggs of parrots are white. In most species, the female undertakes all the incubation, although incubation is
shared in cockatoos, the blue lorikeet, and the vernal hanging parrot. The female remains in the nest for almost
all of the incubation period and is fed both by the male and during short breaks. Incubation varies from 17 to
35 days, with larger species having longer incubation periods. The newly born young are altricial, either
lacking feathers or with sparse white down. The young spend three weeks to four months in the nest,
depending on species, and may receive parental care for several months thereafter.[76]
As typical of K-selected species, the macaws and other larger parrot species have low reproductive rates. They
require several years to reach maturity, produce one or very few young per year, and do not necessarily breed
every year.[77]:125
Intelligence and learning
Some grey parrots have shown an ability to associate words with their
meanings and form simple sentences. Along with crows, ravens, and
jays (family Corvidae), parrots are considered the most intelligent of
birds. The brain-to-body size ratio of psittacines and corvines is
comparable to that of higher primates.[78] Instead of using the cerebral
cortex like mammals, birds use the mediorostral HVC for
cognition.[79] Not only have parrots demonstrated intelligence
through scientific testing of their language-using ability, but also some
Sun conure demonstrating parrots'
species of parrots, such as the kea, are also highly skilled at using
puzzle-solving skills
tools and solving puzzles.[80]
Learning in early life is apparently important to all parrots, and much

of that learning is social learning. Social interactions are often practised with siblings, and in several species,
crèches are formed with several broods. Foraging behaviour is generally learnt from parents, and can be a very
protracted affair. Generalists and specialists generally become independent of their parents much quicker than
partly specialised species who may have to learn skills over long periods as various resources become
seasonally available. Play forms a large part of learning in parrots; play can be solitary or social. Species may
engage in play fights or wild flights to practice predator evasion. An absence of stimuli can delay the
development of young birds, as demonstrated by a group of vasa parrots kept in tiny cages with domesticated
chickens from the age of 3 months; at 9 months, these birds still behaved in the same way as 3-month-olds, but
had adopted some chicken behaviour.[57] In a similar fashion, captive birds in zoo collections or pets can, if
deprived of stimuli, develop stereotyped and harmful behaviours like self-plucking. Aviculturists working with
parrots have identified the need for environmental enrichment to keep parrots stimulated.[81]
Sound imitation and speech
Many parrots can imitate human speech or other sounds. A study by

scientist Irene Pepperberg suggested a high learning ability in a grey
parrot named Alex. Alex was trained to use words to identify objects,
describe them, count them, and even answer complex questions such
as "How many red squares?" with over 80% accuracy.[82] N'kisi,
another grey parrot, has been shown to have a vocabulary around a
thousand words, and has displayed an ability to invent and use words
in context in correct tenses.[83]
Play media
Parrots do not have vocal cords, so sound is accomplished by Video of an orange-winged amazon
expelling air across the mouth of the trachea in the organ called the saying "hello" having been prompted
syrinx. Different sounds are produced by changing the depth and by some humans
shape of the trachea.[84] Grey parrots are known for their superior
ability to imitate sounds and human speech, which has made them
popular pets since ancient times.[85]
Although most parrot species are able to imitate, some of the amazon parrots are generally regarded as the
next-best imitators and speakers of the parrot world. The question of why birds imitate remains open, but those
that do often score very high on tests designed to measure problem-solving ability. Wild grey parrots have been
observed imitating other birds.[86]
Song
Parrots are unusual among birds due to their learned vocalizations, a trait they share with only hummingbirds
and songbirds.[87] The syrinx (vocal organ) of parrots, which aids in their ability to produce song, is located at
the base of the trachea and consists of two complex syringeal muscles that allow for the production of sound
vibrations, and a pair of lateral tympaniform membranes that control sound frequency.[88] The position of the
syrinx in birds allows for directed air flow into the interclavicular air sacs according to air sac pressure, which
in turn creates a higher and louder tone in birds’ singing.[87]
Cooperation
A 2011 study stated that some African grey parrots preferred to work alone, while others like to work
together.[89] With two parrots, they know the order of tasks or when they should do something together at
once, but they have trouble exchanging roles. With three parrots, one parrot usually prefers to cooperate with
one of the other two, but all of them are cooperating to solve the task.[90]
Relationship with humans
Pets
Parrots may not make good pets for most people because of their natural wild
instincts such as screaming and chewing. Although parrots can be very
affectionate and cute when immature, they often become aggressive when
mature (partly due to mishandling and poor training) and may bite, causing
serious injury.[91] For this reason, parrot rescue groups estimate that most
parrots are surrendered and rehomed through at least five homes before
reaching their permanent destinations or before dying prematurely from
unintentional or intentional neglect and abuse. The parrots' ability to mimic
human words and their bright colours and beauty prompt impulse buying
from unsuspecting consumers. The domesticated budgerigar, a small parrot, is
the most popular of all pet bird species.[92] In 1992, the newspaper USA
Today published that 11 million pet birds were in the United States alone,[93]
many of them parrots. Europeans kept birds matching the description of the
Pet Cuban amazons in Cuba
rose-ringed parakeet (or called the ring-necked parrot), documented
particularly in a first-century account by Pliny the Elder.[94] As they have
been prized for thousands of years for their beauty and ability to talk, they
have also often been misunderstood. For example, author Wolfgang de Grahl says in his 1987 book The Grey
Parrot that some importers had parrots drink only coffee while they were shipped by boat, believing that pure
water was detrimental and that their actions would increase survival rates during shipping.[95] Nowadays, it is
commonly accepted that the caffeine in coffee is toxic to birds.[96]
Pet parrots may be kept in a cage or aviary; though generally, tame parrots should be allowed out regularly on
a stand or gym. Depending on locality, parrots may be either wild-caught or be captive-bred, though in most
areas without native parrots, pet parrots are captive-bred. Parrot species that are commonly kept as pets include
conures, macaws, amazon parrots, cockatoos, greys, lovebirds, cockatiels, budgerigars, caiques, parakeets, and
Eclectus, Pionus, and Poicephalus species. Temperaments and personalities vary even within a species, just as
with dog breeds. Grey parrots are thought to be excellent talkers, but not all grey parrots want to talk, though
they have the capability to do so. Noise level, talking ability, cuddliness with people, and care needs can
sometimes depend on how the bird is cared for and the attention he/she regularly receives.[97]
Parrots invariably require an enormous amount of attention, care, and

intellectual stimulation to thrive, akin to that required by a three-year-
old child, which many people find themselves unable to provide in the
long term.[98] Parrots that are bred for pets may be hand fed or
otherwise accustomed to interacting with people from a young age to
help ensure they become tame and trusting. However, even when
hand fed, parrots revert to biting and aggression during hormonal
surges and if mishandled or neglected.[99] Parrots are not low-
Scarlet macaw riding a tricycle at a maintenance pets; they require feeding, grooming, veterinary care,
show in Spain training, environmental enrichment through the provision of toys,
exercise, and social interaction (with other parrots or humans) for
good health.[100]
Some large parrot species, including large cockatoos, amazons, and macaws, have very long lifespans, with 80
years being reported,[101] and record ages of over 100.[102] Small parrots, such as lovebirds, hanging parrots,
and budgies, have shorter lifespans up to 15–20 years.[103] Some parrot species can be quite loud, and many
of the larger parrots can be destructive and require a very large cage, and a regular supply of new toys,
branches, or other items to chew up.[97] The intelligence of parrots means they are quick to learn tricks and
other behaviours—both good and bad—that get them what they want, such as attention or treats.[100]
The popularity, longevity, and intelligence of many of the larger kinds of pet parrots and their wild traits such
as screaming, has led to many birds needing to be rehomed during the course of their long lifespans. A
common problem is that large parrots that are cuddly and gentle as juveniles mature into intelligent, complex,
often demanding adults who can outlive their owners, and can also become aggressive or even dangerous.
Due to an increasing number of homeless parrots, they are being euthanised like dogs and cats, and parrot
adoption centres and sanctuaries are becoming more common.[77]:77–78 Parrots do not often do well in
captivity, causing some parrots to go insane and develop repetitive behaviours, such as swaying and
screaming, or they become riddled with intense fear. Feather destruction and self-mutilation, although not
commonly seen in the wild, occur frequently in captivity.[104][105]
Trade
The popularity of parrots as pets has led to a thriving—and often

illegal—trade in the birds, and some species are now threatened with
extinction. A combination of trapping of wild birds and damage to
parrot habitats makes survival difficult or even impossible for some
species of parrot. Importation of wild-caught parrots into the US and
Europe is illegal after the Wild Bird Population Act was passed in
1992.[108]
The scale of the problem can be seen in the Tony Silva case of 1996, Hyacinth macaws were taken from
in which a parrot expert and former director at Tenerife's Loro Parque the wild for the pet trade in the
(Europe's largest parrot park) was jailed in the United States for 82 1980s.[106] As a result, Brazil now
has only a very small number of
months and fined $100,000 for smuggling hyacinth macaws (such
breeding pairs left in the wild.[107]
birds command a very high price.)[109]
Different nations have different methods of handling internal and

international trade. Australia has banned the export of its native birds since 1960.[110] In July 2007, following
years of campaigning by NGOs and outbreaks of avian flu, the European Union (EU) halted the importation
of all wild birds with a permanent ban on their import.[111] Prior to an earlier temporary ban started in late
October 2005, the EU was importing about two million live birds a year, about 90% of the international
market: hundreds of thousands of these were parrots.[112] No national laws protect feral parrot populations in
the U.S.[113]
Mexico has a licensing system for capturing and selling native birds.[114] According to a 2007 report, 65,000
to 78,500 parrots are captured annually, but the mortality rate before reaching a buyer is over 75%, meaning
around 50,000 to 60,000 will die.[115]
Culture
Parrots have featured in human writings, story, art, humor, religion, and music for thousands of years, such as
Aesop's fable "The parrot and the cat"[116] the Masnavi by Rumi of Persia in 1250 "The Merchant and the
Parrot".[117] Recent books about parrots in human culture include Parrot Culture.[118]
In ancient times and current, parrot feathers have been used in ceremonies and for decoration.[119] They also
have a long history as pets, stretching back thousands of years, and were often kept as a symbol of royalty or
wealth.[120] In Polynesian legend as current in the Marquesas Islands, the hero Laka/Aka is mentioned as
having undertaken a long and dangerous voyage to Aotona in what are now the Cook Islands, to obtain the
highly prized feathers of a red parrot as gifts for his son and daughter. On the voyage, 100 of his 140 rowers
died of hunger on their way, but the survivors reached Aotona and captured enough parrots to fill 140 bags
with their feathers.[121][122] Parrots have also been considered sacred. The Moche people of ancient Peru
worshipped birds and often depicted parrots in their art.[123] Parrots
are popular in Buddhist scripture and many writings about them exist.
For example, Amitābha once changed himself into a parrot to aid in
converting people. Another old story tells how after a forest caught
fire, the parrot was so concerned, it carried water to try to put out the
flames. The ruler of heaven was so moved upon seeing the parrot's
act, he sent rain to put out the fire.[124] In Chinese Buddhist
iconography, a parrot is sometimes depicted hovering on the upper
right side Guan Yin clasping a pearl or prayer beads in its beak.[125]
Moche parrot, 200 CE Larco
Museum Collection Lima, Peru
Parrots are used as symbols of nations and nationalism. A parrot is
found on the flag of Dominica and two parrots on their coat of
arms.[126] The St. Vincent parrot is the national bird of St. Vincent
and the Grenadines, a Caribbean nation.[127]
Sayings about parrots colour the modern English language. The verb "parrot" in the dictionary means "to
repeat by rote". Also clichés such as the British expression "sick as a parrot" are given; although this refers to
extreme disappointment rather than illness, it may originate from the disease of psittacosis, which can be
passed to humans.[128][129] The first occurrence of a related expression is in Aphra Behn's 1681 play The
False Count.[130] Fans of Jimmy Buffett are known as parrotheads.[131] Parrots feature in many media.
Magazines are devoted to parrots as pets, and to the conservation of parrots.[132] Fictional media include
Monty Python's "Dead Parrot sketch",[133] Home Alone 3[134] and Rio;[135] and documentaries include The
Wild Parrots of Telegraph Hill.[136]
Feral populations
Escaped parrots of several species have become established in the

wild outside their natural ranges and in some cases outside the natural
range of parrots. Among the earliest instances were pet red shining-
parrots from Fiji, which established a population on the islands of
southern Tonga. These introductions were prehistoric and red-shining
parrots were recorded in Tonga by Captain Cook in the 1770s.[47]
Escapees first began breeding in cities in California, Texas, and
Florida in the 1950s (with unproven earlier claims dating back to the
Feral red-masked parakeets in San
1920s in Texas and Florida).[52] They have proved surprisingly hardy
Francisco
in adapting to conditions in Europe and North America. They
sometimes even multiply to the point of becoming a nuisance or pest,
and a threat to local ecosystems, and control measures have been used
on some feral populations.[137]
Feral parrot flocks can be formed after mass escapes of newly imported, wild-caught parrots from airports or
quarantine facilities. Large groups of escapees have the protection of a flock and possess the skills to survive
and breed in the wild.[138] Some feral parakeets may have descended from escaped zoo birds. Escaped or
released pets rarely contribute to establishing feral populations, as they usually result in only a few escapees,
and most captive-born birds do not possess the necessary survival skills to find food or avoid predators and
often do not survive long without human caretakers. However, in areas where there are existing feral parrot
populations, escaped pets may sometimes successfully join these flocks.[138][139] The most common years that
feral parrots were released to non-native environments was from the 1890s to the 1940s, during the wild-
caught parrot era.[139] In the "parrot fever" panic of 1930, a city health commissioner urged everyone who
owned a parrot to put them down, but some owners abandoned their parrots on the streets.[140]
Threats and conservation
The principal threats of parrots are habitat loss and degradation, hunting, and,
for certain species, the wild-bird trade. Parrots are persecuted because, in
some areas, they are (or have been) hunted for food and feathers, and as
agricultural pests. For a time, Argentina offered a bounty on monk parakeets
for that reason, resulting in hundreds of thousands of birds being killed,
though apparently this did not greatly affect the overall population.[142]
Parrots, being cavity nesters, are vulnerable to the loss of nesting sites and to
competition with introduced species for those sites. The loss of old trees is a
particular problem in some areas, particularly in Australia, where suitable
nesting trees must be centuries old. Many parrots occur only on islands and
are vulnerable to introduced species such as rats and feral cat, as they lack the
The Norfolk kaka went appropriate antipredator behaviours needed to deal with predators.[143] Island
extinct in the mid-1800s due species, such as the Puerto Rican amazon, which have small populations in
to overhunting and habitat restricted habitats, are also vulnerable to natural events, such as
loss.[141] hurricanes.[144] Due to deforestation, the Puerto Rican amazon is one the
world's rarest birds despite conservation efforts.[145]
One of the largest parrot conservation groups is the World Parrot

Trust,[146] an international organisation. The group gives assistance to
worthwhile projects, as well as producing a magazine
(PsittaScene)[147] and raising funds through donations and
memberships, often from pet parrot owners. On a smaller scale, local
parrot clubs raise money to donate to a conservation cause. Zoo and
wildlife centres usually provide public education, to change habits that
cause damage to wild populations. Conservation measures to
conserve the habitats of some of the high-profile charismatic parrot
species has also protected many of the less charismatic species living A mounted specimen of the Carolina
in the ecosystem.[148]:12 A popular attraction that many zoos employ parakeet, which was hunted to
is a feeding station for lories and lorikeets, where visitors feed them extinction
with cups of liquid food. This is usually done in association with
educational signs and lectures.[149] Birdwatching-based ecotourism
can be beneficial to economies.[150]
Several projects aimed specifically at parrot conservation have met with success. Translocation of vulnerable
kakapo, followed by intensive management and supplementary feeding, has increased the population from 50
individuals to 123 in 2010.[151] In New Caledonia, the Ouvea parakeet was threatened by trapping for the pet
trade and loss of habitat. Community-based conservation, which eliminated the threat of poaching, has allowed
the population to increase from around 600 birds in 1993 to over 2000 birds in 2009.[152]
As of 2009, the IUCN recognises 19 species of parrot as extinct since 1500 (the date used to denote modern
extinctions).[153] This does not include species like the New Caledonian lorikeet, which has not been officially
seen for 100 years, yet is still listed as critically endangered.[154]
Trade, export, and import of all wild-caught parrots is regulated and only permitted under special licensed
circumstances in countries party to the Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)
which came into force in 1975 to regulate the international trade of all endangered, wild-caught animal and
plant species. In 1975, 24 parrot species were included on Appendix I, thus prohibiting commercial
international trade in these birds. Since that initial listing, continuing threats from international trade led it to
add an additional 32 parrot varieties to Appendix I.[155] All other parrot species are protected on Appendix II
of CITES.[156] In addition, individual countries may have laws to regulate trade in certain species; for
example, the EU has banned parrot trade,[112] whereas Mexico has a licensing system for capturing
parrots.[114]
World Parrot Day
Every year 31 May, World Parrot Day is celebrated.[157]
See also
List of parrots
Parrots of New Zealand
Parrots of New Guinea
References
1. "Psittacine" (https://web.archive.org/web/20070827104100/http://www.bartleby.com/61/21/P063
2100.html). American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton
Mifflin Company. 2000. Archived from the original (http://www.bartleby.com/61/21/P0632100.ht
ml) on 2007-08-27. Retrieved 2007-09-09.
2. "Psittacine" (http://www.merriam-webster.com/). Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Merriam-
Webster, Inc. Retrieved 2007-09-09.
3. Gill, F.; Donsker, D.; Rasmussen, P. (eds.). "Order Psittaciformes" (https://www.worldbirdnames.
org//bow/parrots). IOC World Bird List. International Ornithological Congress. Retrieved
19 November 2020.
4. Olah, George; Butchart, Stuart H. M.; Symes, Andy; Guzmán, Iliana Medina; Cunningham,
Ross; Brightsmith, Donald J.; Heinsohn, Robert (2016). "Ecological and socio-economic factors
affecting extinction risk in parrots". Biodiversity and Conservation. 25 (2): 205–223.
doi:10.1007/s10531-015-1036-z (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10531-015-1036-z). ISSN 0960-
3115 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0960-3115). S2CID 17282072 (https://api.semanticscholar.
org/CorpusID:17282072).
5. Wright, T.F.; Schirtzinger E. E.; Matsumoto T.; Eberhard J. R.; Graves G. R.; Sanchez J. J.;
Capelli S.; Muller H.; Scharpegge J.; Chambers G. K.; Fleischer R. C. (2008). "A Multilocus
Molecular Phylogeny of the Parrots (Psittaciformes): Support for a Gondwanan Origin during
the Cretaceous" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2727385). Molecular Biology
and Evolution. 25 (10): 2141–2156. doi:10.1093/molbev/msn160 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fm
olbev%2Fmsn160). PMC 2727385 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2727385).
PMID 18653733 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18653733).
6. Mayr, G. (2009). Paleogene fossil birds. Springer.
7. Tavares ES, Baker AJ, Pereira SL, Miyaki CY (2006). "Phylogenetic relationships and historical
biogeography of neotropical parrots (Psittaciformes: Psittacidae: Arini) inferred from
mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences"
(https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10635150600697390). Systematic Biology. 55 (3): 454–470.
doi:10.1080/10635150600697390 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10635150600697390).
8. Stidham, T. (1998). "A lower jaw from a Cretaceous parrot". Nature. 396 (6706): 29–30.
Bibcode:1998Natur.396...29S (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998Natur.396...29S).
doi:10.1038/23841 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2F23841). S2CID 204995638 (https://api.semantic
scholar.org/CorpusID:204995638).
9. Dyke, G. J.; Mayr, G. (1999). "Did parrots exist in the Cretaceous period?". Nature. 399 (6734):
317–318. Bibcode:1999Natur.399..317D (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999Natur.399..31
7D). doi:10.1038/20583 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2F20583). S2CID 204993284 (https://api.sem
anticscholar.org/CorpusID:204993284).
10. Waterhouse, D. M. (2006). "Parrots in a nutshell: The fossil record of Psittaciformes (Aves)".
Historical Biology. 18 (2): 227–238. doi:10.1080/08912960600641224 (https://doi.org/10.108
0%2F08912960600641224). S2CID 83664072 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:8366
4072).
11. Ksepka, Daniel T.; Clarke, Julia A.; Grande, Lance (2011). "Stem Parrots (Aves,
Halcyornithidae) from the Green River Formation and a Combined Phylogeny of Pan-
Psittaciformes". Journal of Paleontology. 85 (5): 835–852. doi:10.1666/10-108.1 (https://doi.org/
10.1666%2F10-108.1). ISSN 1937-2337 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1937-2337).
S2CID 86618579 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:86618579).
12. Suh A, Paus M, Kiefmann M; Paus; Kiefmann; Churakov; Franke; Brosius; Kriegs; Schmitz
(2011). "Mesozoic retroposons reveal parrots as the closest living relatives of passerine birds"
(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3265382). Nature Communications. 2 (8): 443–
8. Bibcode:2011NatCo...2E.443S (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011NatCo...2E.443S).
doi:10.1038/ncomms1448 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fncomms1448). PMC 3265382 (https://w
ww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3265382). PMID 21863010 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.
gov/21863010).
13. Waterhouse, D.M.; Lindow, B.E.K.; Zelenkov, N.; Dyke, G.J. (2008). "Two new fossil parrots
(Psittaciformes) from the Lower Eocene Fur Formation of Denmark" (https://curis.ku.dk/ws/files/
3925609/waterhouseetal2008.pdf) (PDF). Palaeontology. 51 (3): 575–582. doi:10.1111/j.1475-
4983.2008.00777.x (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1475-4983.2008.00777.x).
14. Dyke, GJ; Cooper, JH (2000). "A new psittaciform bird from the London clay (Lower Eocene) of
England" (https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1475-4983.00126). Palaeontology. 43 (2): 271–285.
doi:10.1111/1475-4983.00126 (https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1475-4983.00126).
15. Ksepka, Daniel T.; Clarke, Julia A.; Grande, Lance (2011). "Stem Parrots (Aves,
Halcyornithidae) from the Green River Formation and a Combined Phylogeny of Pan-
Psittaciformes". Journal of Paleontology. 85 (5): 835–852. doi:10.1666/10-108.1 (https://doi.org/
10.1666%2F10-108.1). ISSN 1937-2337 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1937-2337).
16. Mayr, Gerald (2011). "Well-preserved new skeleton of the Middle Eocene
Messelastursubstantiates sister group relationship between Messelasturidae and
Halcyornithidae (Aves, ?Pan-Psittaciformes)". Journal of Systematic Palaeontology. 9: 159–
171. doi:10.1080/14772019.2010.505252 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14772019.2010.505252).
17. Cameron 2007, p. 43 (https://books.google.com/books?id=u9qSHzxWdy0C&pg=PA43).
18. Toft, Catherine A.; Wright, Timothy F. (2015). Parrots of the Wild: A Natural History of the
World's Most Captivating Birds (https://books.google.com/books?id=IBFiCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1
4). Oakland, California: University of California Press. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-520-23925-8.
19. Ball, V. (1889). "Further Notes on the Identification of the Animals and Plants of India, Which
Were Known to Early Greek Authors". Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. 1: 1–9.
JSTOR 20503820 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/20503820).
20. Schrader, O. (1890). Prehistoric antiquities of the Aryan Peoples: A manual of comparative
philology and the earliest culture. Being the "Sprachvergleichung und Urgeschichte" translated
by Frank Byron Jevons (https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.533902/page/n290/mode/1u
p). London: Charles Griffin and Co. p. 270.
21. de Kloet, RS; de Kloet SR (2005). "The evolution of the spindlin gene in birds: Sequence
analysis of an intron of the spindlin W and Z gene reveals four major divisions of the
Psittaciformes". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 36 (3): 706–721.
doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2005.03.013 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ympev.2005.03.013).
22. Tokita, M; Kiyoshi T; Armstrong KN (2007). "Evolution of craniofacial novelty in parrots through
developmental modularity and heterochrony". Evolution and Development. 9 (6): 590–601.
doi:10.1111/j.1525-142X.2007.00199.x (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1525-
142X.2007.00199.x). PMID 17976055 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17976055).
23. Joseph, Leo; et al. (2012). "A revised nomenclature and classification for family-group taxa of
parrots (Psittaciformes)" (http://www.mapress.com/zootaxa/2012/f/z03205p040f.pdf) (PDF).
Zootaxa. 3205: 26–40. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.3205.1.2 (https://doi.org/10.11646%2Fzootaxa.32
05.1.2).
24. Burtt, E. H.; Schroeder, M. R.; Smith, L. A.; Sroka, J. E.; McGraw, K. J. (2010). "Colourful parrot
feathers resist bacterial degradation" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3061162).
Biology Letters. 7 (2): 214–216. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2010.0716 (https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsbl.20
10.0716). PMC 3061162 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3061162).
25. Forshaw, Joseph M.; Cooper, William T. (1978) [1973]. Parrots of the World (2nd ed.).
Melbourne, Australia: Landsdowne Editions. ISBN 978-0-7018-0690-3.
26. "Zoological Nomenclature Resource: Psittaciformes (Version 9.013)" (http://www.zoonomen.ne
t/avtax/psit.html). zoonomen.net. 29 December 2008.
27. White, Nicole E.; et al. (2011). "The evolutionary history of cockatoos (Aves: Psittaciformes:
Cacatuidae)" (http://researchrepository.murdoch.edu.au/id/eprint/4397/). Molecular
Phylogenetics and Evolution. 59 (3): 615–622. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2011.03.011 (https://doi.or
g/10.1016%2Fj.ympev.2011.03.011). PMID 21419232 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/214192
32).
28. Schweizer, Manuel; Seehausen, Ole & Hertwig, Stefan T. (2011). "Macroevolutionary patterns
in the diversification of parrots: effects of climate change, geological events and key
innovations" (https://www.dora.lib4ri.ch/eawag/islandora/object/eawag%3A8824). Journal of
Biogeography. 38 (11): 2176–2194. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2699.2011.02555.x (https://doi.org/10.1
111%2Fj.1365-2699.2011.02555.x).
29. Joseph, Leo; Toon, Alicia; Schirtzinger, Erin E. & Wright, Timothy F. (2011). "Molecular
systematics of two enigmatic genera Psittacella and Pezoporus illuminate the ecological
radiation of Australo-Papuan parrots (Aves: Psittaciformes)". Molecular Phylogenetics and
Evolution. 59 (3): 675–684. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2011.03.017 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ymp
ev.2011.03.017). PMID 21453777 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21453777).
30. Schweizer, M.; Seehausen O; Güntert M; Hertwig ST (2009). "The evolutionary diversification
of parrots supports a taxon pulse model with multiple trans-oceanic dispersal events and local
radiations". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 54 (3): 984–94.
doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2009.08.021 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ympev.2009.08.021).
31. Forshaw, Joseph M. (2006). Parrots of the World; an Identification Guide (https://archive.org/det
ails/parrotsofworldid0000fors). Princeton University Press. p. 70 (https://archive.org/details/parr
otsofworldid0000fors/page/70). ISBN 978-0-691-09251-5.
32. Dunning, Jr., John B., ed. (2008). CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses (2 ed.). CRC Press.
ISBN 978-1-4200-6444-5.
33. Sweat, Rebecca. "Powerful Bird Beaks" (https://web.archive.org/web/20160715065925/http://w
ww.birdchannel.com/bird-diet-and-health/bird-care/powerful-bird-beak.aspx). Archived from the
original on 15 July 2016. Retrieved 8 August 2016.
34. Demery, Zoe P.; Chappell, J.; Martin, G. R. (2011). "Vision, touch and object manipulation in
Senegal parrots Poicephalus senegalus" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3203
496). Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 278 (1725): 3687–3693.
doi:10.1098/rspb.2011.0374 (https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspb.2011.0374). PMC 3203496 (http
s://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3203496). PMID 21525059 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nl
m.nih.gov/21525059).
35. Ödeen, A.; Håstad, O. (2013). "The phylogenetic distribution of ultraviolet sensitivity in birds" (ht
tps://bmcecolevol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2148-13-36). BMC Evol Biol. 13
(36): 36. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-13-36 (https://doi.org/10.1186%2F1471-2148-13-36).
PMC 3637589 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3637589). PMID 23394614 (http
s://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23394614). Retrieved 7 April 2021.
36. Brennand, Emma (2011-02-02). "Parrots prefer 'left handedness' " (http://news.bbc.co.uk/earth/
hi/earth_news/newsid_9382000/9382181.stm). BBC Earth News. Retrieved 5 February 2011.
39. Santos, Susana I. C O.; Elward, Brian; Lumeij, Johannes T. (1 March 2006). "Sexual
Dichromatism in the Blue-fronted Amazon Parrot (Amazona aestiva) Revealed by Multiple-
angle Spectrometry". Journal of Avian Medicine and Surgery. 20 (1): 8–14. doi:10.1647/1082-
6742(2006)20[8:SDITBA]2.0.CO;2 (https://doi.org/10.1647%2F1082-6742%282006%2920%5B
8%3ASDITBA%5D2.0.CO%3B2).
40. Masello, J. F.; Lubjuhn, T.; Quillfeldt, P. (2009). "Hidden dichromatism in the Burrowing Parrot
(Cyanoliseus patagonus) as revealed by spectrometric colour analysis" (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20180620001234/http://digital.bl.fcen.uba.ar/gsdl-282/cgi-bin/library.cgi?a=d&c=publica
ciones%2Fhornero&d=008_ElHornero_v024_n01_articulo047). Hornero. 24 (1): 47–55.
ISSN 1850-4884 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1850-4884). Archived from the original (http://di
gital.bl.fcen.uba.ar/gsdl-282/cgi-bin/library.cgi?a=d&c=publicaciones/hornero&d=008_ElHorner
o_v024_n01_articulo047) on 2018-06-20. Retrieved 2019-09-08.
41. Cooke, Fred; Bruce, Jenni (2004). The Encyclopedia of Animals: a complete visual guide (http
s://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofan0000unse_t2v7/page/296) (1 ed.). Berkeley, California:
University of California Press. p. 296 (https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofan0000unse_t2
v7/page/296). ISBN 978-0-520-24406-1.
42. Bradford, Alina (2014). "Parrot Facts: Habits, Habitats and Species" (http://www.livescience.co
m/28071-parrots.html). LiveScience. Retrieved 7 August 2016.
43. Forshaw, Joseph M. (1989). Parrots of the World (3 ed.). London: Blandford Press. ISBN 978-0-
7137-2134-8.
44. "Pygmy parrots" (https://web.archive.org/web/20171225021933/http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/lif
e/Pygmy_parrot). BBC Nature. 2014. Archived from the original (https://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/lif
e/Pygmy_parrot) on 2017-12-25. Retrieved 7 August 2016.
45. Bonaparte, C. L. (1850). Conspectus Generum Avium (in Latin). Lugduni Batavorum.
46. Heads, Michael (2012). Molecular Panbiogeography of the Tropics (https://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=uZUEkV0sOeIC&pg=PA296). 4. Berkeley, California: University of California Press.
p. 296. ISBN 978-0-520-27196-8.
47. Steadman, D. (2006). Extinction and Biogeography in Tropical Pacific Birds. University of
Chicago Press. pp. 342–351. ISBN 978-0-226-77142-7.
49. Steve Baldwin. "about the Wild Parrots of Brooklyn" (https://web.archive.org/web/20130224133
818/http://www.brooklynparrots.com/). BrooklynParrots.com. Archived from the original (http://w
ww.brooklynparrots.com/) on 2013-02-24. Retrieved 2013-02-27.
50. Coughlan, Sean (2004-07-06). "Wild parrots settle in suburbs" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/3869
815.stm). BBC News.
51. Mayer-Hohdahl, Alexandra (22 August 2015). "Exotic parakeets set hearts, dread aflutter in
Brussels" (http://www.gulf-times.com/story/452197/Exotic-parakeets-set-hearts-dread-aflutter-in
-Brus). Gulf Times. Retrieved 23 March 2018.
52. Butler, C (2005). "Feral Parrots in the Continental United States and United Kingdom: Past,
Present, and Future". Journal of Avian Medicine and Surgery. 19 (2): 142–149.
doi:10.1647/183 (https://doi.org/10.1647%2F183). S2CID 86275800 (https://api.semanticschola
r.org/CorpusID:86275800).
53. Sol, Daniel; Santos, David M.; Feria, Elías; Clavell, Jordi (1997). "Habitat Selection by the
Monk Parakeet during Colonization of a New Area in Spain" (https://semanticscholar.org/paper/
54028cf4664e2f112f1d0614e22aa69a8ba3cc31). Condor. 99 (1): 39–46. doi:10.2307/1370222
(https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1370222). JSTOR 1370222 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/1370222).
54. Kalodimos, Nicholas P. (2013). "First Account of a Nesting Population of Monk Parakeets,
Myiopsitta monachus With Nodule-shaped Bill Lesions in Katehaki, Athens, Greece" (http://ww
w.birdpop.org/docs/journals/Volume-12/BPJ12-05_Kalodimas.pdf) (PDF). Bird Populations. 12
(1–6).
55. "Red-crowned Parrot" (https://abcbirds.org/bird/red-crowned-parrot/). American Bird
Conservancy. Retrieved 6 January 2019.
56. Benham, W. B. (1906). "Notes on the Flesh-eating Propensity of the Kea (Nestor notabilis)" (htt
p://rsnz.natlib.govt.nz/volume/rsnz_39/rsnz_39_00_001080.html). Transactions of the Royal
Society of New Zealand. 39: 71–89.
57. Collar, N. (1997). "Family Psittacidae (Parrots)". In del Hoyo, J.; Elliott, A.; Sargatal, J. (eds.).
Handbook of the Birds of the World. Sandgrouse to Cuckoos. Barcelona: Lynx Editions.
ISBN 978-84-87334-22-1.
58. Juniper, Tony; Mike Parr (2010). Parrots: A Guide to Parrots of the World (https://books.google.c
om/books?id=kqYmmbZXlOkC&pg=PA21). A & C Black. p. 21. ISBN 978-1-4081-3575-4.
59. Diamond, J (1999). "Evolutionary biology: Dirty eating for healthy living". Nature. 400 (6740):
120–121. Bibcode:1999Natur.400..120D (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999Natur.400..12
0D). doi:10.1038/22014 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2F22014). PMID 10408435 (https://pubmed.n
cbi.nlm.nih.gov/10408435). S2CID 4404459 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:440445
9).
60. Bendavidez, A.; Palacio, F.X.; Rivera, L.O.; Echevarria, A.L.; Politi, N. (2018). "Diet of
Neotropical parrots is independent of phylogeny but correlates with body size and
geographical range" (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fibi.12630). Ibis. 160 (4): 742–754.
doi:10.1111/ibi.12630 (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fibi.12630).
61. Gartrell, B; Jones, S; Brereton, R; Astheimer, L (2000). "Morphological Adaptations to
Nectarivory of the Alimentary Tract of the Swift Parrot Lathamus discolor". Emu. 100 (4): 274–
279. doi:10.1071/MU9916 (https://doi.org/10.1071%2FMU9916). S2CID 86013058 (https://api.s
emanticscholar.org/CorpusID:86013058).
62. Schweizer, Manuel; Güntert, Marcel; Seehausen, Ole; Leuenberger, Christoph; Hertwig, Stefan
T. (2014). "Parallel adaptations to nectarivory in parrots, key innovations and the diversification
of the Loriinae" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4130445). Ecology and
Evolution. 4 (14): 2867–2883. doi:10.1002/ece3.1131 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fece3.1131).
PMC 4130445 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4130445). PMID 25165525 (http
s://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25165525).
63. "Golden-winged Parakeet (Brotogeris chrysoptera)" (https://www.parrots.org/encyclopedia/gold
en-winged-parakeet). World Parrot Trust. Retrieved 8 August 2016.
64. Jackson, J. R. (1962). "Do Keas Attack Sheep?" (http://notornis.osnz.org.nz/system/files/Notorn
is_10_1.pdf) (PDF). Notornis. 10 (1).
65. Greene, Terry (November–December 1999). "Aspects of the ecology of Antipodes Parakeet
(Cyanoramphus unicolor) and Reischek's Parakeet (C. novaezelandiae hochstetten) on
Antipodes Island" (http://notornis.osnz.org.nz/system/files/Notornis_46_2_301.pdf) (PDF).
Notornis. Ornithological Society of New Zealand. 46 (2): 301–310.
66. Cameron 2007, p. 114–116 (https://books.google.com/books?id=u9qSHzxWdy0C&pg=PA114).
67. Rowley, I. (1997). "Family Cacatuidae (Cockatoos)". In del Hoyo, J.; Elliott, A.; Sargatal, J.
(eds.). Handbook of the Birds of the World. 4. Barcelona: Lynx Editions. ISBN 978-84-87334-
22-1.
68. Oren, David C.; Novaes, Fernando (1986). "Observations on the golden parakeet Aratinga
guarouba in Northern Brazil". Biological Conservation. 36 (4): 329–337. doi:10.1016/0006-
3207(86)90008-X (https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0006-3207%2886%2990008-X).
69. Eberhard, J (1998). "Evolution of nest-building behavior in Agapornis parrots" (http://sora.unm.e
du/sites/default/files/journals/auk/v115n02/p0455-p0464.pdf) (PDF). Auk. 115 (2): 455–464.
doi:10.2307/4089204 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F4089204). JSTOR 4089204 (https://www.jsto
r.org/stable/4089204).
70. Sanchez-Martinez, Tania; Katherine Renton (2009). "Availability and selection of arboreal
termitaria as nest-sites by Orange-fronted Parakeets Aratinga canicularis in conserved and
modified landscapes in Mexico". Ibis. 151 (2): 311–320. doi:10.1111/j.1474-919X.2009.00911.x
(https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1474-919X.2009.00911.x).
71. Heinsohn, Robert; Murphy, Stephen; Legge, Sarah (2003). "Overlap and competition for nest
holes among eclectus parrots, palm cockatoos and sulphur-crested cockatoos" (https://semanti
cscholar.org/paper/6e9fa016ecafd20a93a362f43c7bdac1e96410ff). Australian Journal of
Zoology. 51 (1): 81–94. doi:10.1071/ZO02003 (https://doi.org/10.1071%2FZO02003).
72. Pell, A; Tidemann, C (1997). "The impact of two exotic hollow-nesting birds on two native
parrots in savannah and woodland in eastern Australia". Biological Conservation. 79 (2): 145–
153. doi:10.1016/S0006-3207(96)00112-7 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0006-3207%2896%29
00112-7).
73. "Man-made nesting hollows big hit with endangered swift parrots" (http://www.abc.net.au/news/
2016-10-21/swift-parrots-nest-in-new-trees/7954880). 21 October 2016.
74. Masello, J; Pagnossin, M; Sommer, C; Quillfeldt, P (2006). "Population size, provisioning
frequency, flock size and foraging range at the largest known colony of Psittaciformes: the
Burrowing Parrots of the north-eastern Patagonian coastal cliffs" (http://naturalis.fcnym.unlp.ed
u.ar/repositorio/_documentos/sipcyt/bfa004796.pdf) (PDF). Emu. 106 (1): 69–79.
doi:10.1071/MU04047 (https://doi.org/10.1071%2FMU04047). S2CID 59270301 (https://api.se
manticscholar.org/CorpusID:59270301).
75. Eberhard, Jessica (2002). "Cavity adoption and the evolution of coloniality in cavity-nesting
birds". Condor. 104 (2): 240–247. doi:10.1650/0010-5422(2002)104[0240:CAATEO]2.0.CO;2
(https://doi.org/10.1650%2F0010-5422%282002%29104%5B0240%3ACAATEO%5D2.0.CO%
3B2). ISSN 0010-5422 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0010-5422).
76. Forshaw, Joseph (1991). Forshaw, Joseph (ed.). Encyclopaedia of Animals: Birds. London:
Merehurst Press. pp. 118–124. ISBN 978-1-85391-186-6.
77. Tweti, Mira (2008). Of Parrots and People (https://books.google.com/books?id=yNWa24SnO8M
C&pg=PA77) (1 ed.). New York: Viking Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-311575-5.
78. Iwaniuk, A. N.; Nelson, J. E. (2003). "Developmental differences are correlated with relative
brain size in birds: a comparative analysis". Canadian Journal of Zoology. 81 (12): 1913–1928.
doi:10.1139/z03-190 (https://doi.org/10.1139%2Fz03-190).
79. Emery, Nathan J. (2006). "Cognitive ornithology: the evolution of avian intelligence" (https://ww
w.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1626540). Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences. 361 (1465): 23–43. doi:10.1098/rstb.2005.1736 (https://doi.org/
10.1098%2Frstb.2005.1736). PMC 1626540 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC16
26540). PMID 16553307 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16553307).
80. Beynon, Mike (April 2000). "Who's a clever bird, then?" (https://web.archive.org/web/20070901
202329/http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/animals/features/132index.shtml). BBC News. Archived
from the original (https://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/animals/features/132index.shtml) on 2007-09-
01. Retrieved 2007-09-09.
81. Cussen, Victoria A.; Mench, Joy A. (2015). Wicker-Thomas, Claude (ed.). "The Relationship
between Personality Dimensions and Resiliency to Environmental Stress in Orange-Winged
Amazon Parrots (Amazona amazonica), as Indicated by the Development of Abnormal
Behaviors" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4482636). PLOS ONE. 10 (6):
e0126170. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1026170C (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015PLoSO..1
026170C). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0126170 (https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.012617
0). PMC 4482636 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4482636). PMID 26114423
(https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26114423).
82. Pepperberg, Irene M. (1988). "Comprehension of "Absence" by an African Grey Parrot:
Learning with Respect to Questions of Same/Different" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC1338917). Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior. 50 (3): 553–564.
doi:10.1901/jeab.1988.50-553 (https://doi.org/10.1901%2Fjeab.1988.50-553). PMC 1338917 (h
ttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1338917). PMID 16812572 (https://pubmed.ncbi.
nlm.nih.gov/16812572).
83. Dunayer, Joan (2013). Corbey, Raymond; Lanjouw, Annette (eds.). The Politics of Species:
Reshaping our Relationships with Other Animals (https://books.google.com/books?id=gL_3Cw
AAQBAJ&pg=PA33). New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 33. ISBN 978-1-107-03260-6.
84. Patterson, Dianne K.; Pepperberg, Irene M.; Story, Brad H.; Hoffman, Eric A. (1997). "How
parrots talk: Insights based on CT scans, image processing and mathematical models" (https://
www.researchgate.net/publication/253578913). Proceedings of the International Society for
Optical Engineering. Medical Imaging 1997: Physiology and Function from Multidimensional
Images. 3033: 14–24. Bibcode:1997SPIE.3033...14P (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1997S
PIE.3033...14P). doi:10.1117/12.274039 (https://doi.org/10.1117%2F12.274039).
85. BirdLife International (2013). "Psittacus erithacus" (https://www.iucnredlist.org/details/2272481
3/0). IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2013. Retrieved 9 August 2016.
86. Cruickshank, A; Gautier, J; Chappuis, C (1993). "Vocal mimicry in wild African Grey Parrots
Psittacus erithacus". Ibis. 135 (3): 293–299. doi:10.1111/j.1474-919X.1993.tb02846.x (https://d
oi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1474-919X.1993.tb02846.x).
87. Gaunt, Abbot S. (1983-10-01). "An Hypothesis concerning the Relationship of Syringeal
Structure to Vocal Abilities" (https://academic.oup.com/auk/article/100/4/853/5187341). The
Auk. 100 (4): 853–862. doi:10.1093/auk/100.4.853 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fauk%2F100.4.8
53). ISSN 0004-8038 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0004-8038).
88. SUTHERS, RODERICK A.; ZOLLINGER, SUE ANNE (June 2004). "Producing Song: The
Vocal Apparatus" (https://dx.doi.org/10.1196/annals.1298.041). Annals of the New York
Academy of Sciences. 1016 (1): 109–129. Bibcode:2004NYASA1016..109S (https://ui.adsabs.
harvard.edu/abs/2004NYASA1016..109S). doi:10.1196/annals.1298.041 (https://doi.org/10.119
6%2Fannals.1298.041). ISSN 0077-8923 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0077-8923).
PMID 15313772 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15313772). S2CID 45809019 (https://api.se
manticscholar.org/CorpusID:45809019).
89. Péron, F.; Rat-Fischer, L.; Lalot, M.; Nagle, L.; Bovet, D. (2011). "Cooperative problem solving
in African grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus)". Animal Cognition. 14 (4): 545–553.
doi:10.1007/s10071-011-0389-2 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10071-011-0389-2).
PMID 21384141 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21384141). S2CID 5616569 (https://api.sem
anticscholar.org/CorpusID:5616569).
90. Gill, Victoria (18 May 2011). "Parrots choose to work together" (https://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/12
913981). BBC Nature. Retrieved 3 July 2016.
91. "Choosing a New Pet Bird" (http://www.petco.com/shop/PetcoContentDisplayView?catalogId=
10051&langId=-1&storeId=10151&path=/content/petco/PetcoStore/en_US/pet-services/resourc
e-center/new-pet/Choosing-a-New-Pet-Bird.html). Petco. Retrieved 1 August 2016.
92. Grindol, Diane (2013). "Budgie Vs. Cockatiel – Which Right For You?" (https://lafeber.com/pet-
birds/budgie-vs-cockatiel-which-right-for-you/). Retrieved 1 August 2016.
93. Ward, Sam (1992-12-21). "USA Snapshots: Most Popular Pets" (https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/
USAToday/access/4150521.html?dids=4150521&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS&date=Dec+21%2C
+1992&author=Ward%2C+Sam&pub=USA+TODAY&edition=&startpage=D1&desc=USA+Sna
pshots%3A++Most+Popular+Pets). USA Today. Retrieved 6 September 2009.
94. "Parrot" (http://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast235.htm). The Medieval Bestiary. 2011. Retrieved
1 August 2016.
95. de Grahl, Wolfgang (1989). The Grey Parrot (https://archive.org/details/greyparrot0000degr).
Tfh Publications Incorporated. ISBN 978-0-86622-094-1.
96. Sweat, Rebecca (March 2015). "Foods such as alcohol, chocolate, avocado, uncooked meats
and shellfish can be bad for your pet bird" (http://www.birdchannel.com/bird-diet-and-health/bird
-nutrition/off-limit-food-for-birds.aspx). BirdChannel.com. Retrieved 12 July 2016.
97. "Pet Birds, Parrots, Cockatiels, Macaws, Conures, Parakeets Care" (http://www.birdchannel.co
m/). BirdChannel. Retrieved 1 August 2016.
98. The National Parrot Sanctuary. "The National Parrot Sanctuary – Europe's Only Dedicated
Parrot Zoo" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080619152522/http://www.parrotsanctuary.co.uk/Sa
nctuary/DerrenBrown.htm). parrotsanctuary.co.uk. Archived from the original (http://www.parrots
anctuary.co.uk/Sanctuary/DerrenBrown.htm) on 2008-06-19.
99. Noeth, Gay; Johnson, Sibylle. "Biting: The Sharp Beak" (https://www.beautyofbirds.com/biting.h
tml). Avian Web: Beauty of Birds. Retrieved 1 August 2016.
00. Patt, Jill M. "Bird Behavior and Training" (https://www.beautyofbirds.com/training.html). Avian
Web: Beauty of Birds. Retrieved 1 August 2016.
01. Leisure, Susan. "How Long can a Parrot Live?" (http://pets.thenest.com/long-can-large-parrot-li
ve-6585.html). The nest. Retrieved 5 August 2016.
02. "Winston's obscene parrot lives on" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/3410893.stm). BBC
News. 2004. Retrieved 5 August 2016.
03. Coila, Bridget. "The Average Lifespan of Parrots" (http://pets.thenest.com/average-lifespan-parr
ots-6518.html). The nest. Retrieved 1 August 2016.
04. "The Truth About Parrots as Pets" (http://www.idausa.org/campaigns/wild-free2/the-truth-about-
parrots-as-pets/). In Defense of Animals. Retrieved 1 August 2016.
05. Kelly, Denise; Rae, Joan; Menzel, Krista (2007). "The True Nature of Parrots" (http://www.avian
welfare.org/issues/articles/truenature.htm). Avian Welfare Coalition. Retrieved 1 August 2016.
06. Clay, R.; Donegan, T.; Hennessey, A.; Herrera, M.; López de Kochalka, N.; Pryor, J.; Yamashita,
C.; del Castillo, H. (2014). "Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus" (https://www.iucnredlist.org/details/22
685516/0). IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2014. Retrieved 3 July 2016.
07. Munn, Charles A.; Thomsen, Jorgen B.; Yamashita, Carlos (2013). Chandler, William J.; Wille,
Chris; Labate, Lillian (eds.). Audubon Wildlife Report, 1988–1989. Academic Press. pp. 405–
419. ISBN 978-0-12-041001-9.
08. Vallery, Anna (January 2015). "The Truth About the Exotic Bird Trade Will Make You Rethink
Buying a Parrot in the Pet Shop" (http://www.onegreenplanet.org/animalsandnature/the-truth-ab
out-the-exotic-bird-trade-will-make-you-rethink-buying-a-parrot-in-the-pet-shop/). One Green
Planet. Retrieved 5 August 2016.
09. Lowther, Jason; Cook, Dee; Roberts, Martin (5 August 2002). Crime and Punishment in the
Wildlife Trade (https://web.archive.org/web/20080910131939/http://www.wwf.org.uk/filelibrary/p
df/crime_and_punishment.pdf) (PDF). World Wildlife Federation. Archived from the original (htt
p://www.wwf.org.uk/filelibrary/pdf/crime_and_punishment.pdf) (PDF) on September 10, 2008.
Retrieved 9 September 2007.
10. Soucek, Gayle (2008). Gouldian Finches (https://books.google.com/books?id=30IbissUqh4C&
pg=PA7). Barron's Educational Series. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-7641-3850-8.
11. "New rules for captive bird imports to protect animal health in the EU and improve the welfare
of imported birds" (http://europa.eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=IP/07/40&format=
HTML&aged=0&language=EN&guiLanguage=en). European Commission: Press Release
Database. 2015. Retrieved 6 August 2016.
12. "EU Permanently Bans Import of Wild Birds" (http://www.defenders.org/press-release/eu-perma
nently-bans-imports-wild-birds). Defenders of Wildlife. January 2007. Retrieved 5 August 2016.
13. "Naturalized Parrots in the U.S." (http://www.avianwelfare.org/issues/naturalized.htm) Avian
Welfare Coalition. Retrieved 9 August 2016.
14. Guzman, Juan C. C.; Sanchez, Saldana M. E.; Grosselet, Manuel; Gomez, Jesus S. (2007).
The Illegal Parrot Trade in Mexico (Report). Mexico: Defenders of Wildlife. pp. 9–10.
15. "Stopping the Illegal Mexican Parrot Trade" (https://defenders.org/publications/the_illegal_parr
ot_trade_in_mexico.pdf) (PDF). Defenders of Wildlife. Retrieved 23 December 2007.
16. "The Cat and the Parrot" (http://etc.usf.edu/lit2go/68/fairy-tales-and-other-traditional-stories/507
1/the-cat-and-the-parrot/). Fairy Tales and Other Traditional Stories. 2012. Retrieved 9 August
2016.
17. Gamard, Ibrahim. "The Merchant and the Parrot" (http://www.dar-al-masnavi.org/n-I-1547.html).
Dar-Al Masnavi. Retrieved 9 August 2016.
18. Boehrer, Bruce (2004). Parrot Culture (https://archive.org/details/parrotculture00bruc).
Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-3793-1.
19. "Feathers have always been used by humans as decoration and status symbols" (http://www.bi
rdlife.org/datazone/sowb/casestudy/94). BirdLife International. 2008. Retrieved 9 August 2016.
20. Chamberlain, Susan (2013). "Parrot History: Yesterday and Today" (http://www.birdchannel.co
m/bird-news/bird-entertainment/bird-history.aspx). BirdChannel. Retrieved 9 August 2016.
21. Craig, Robert D. (1989). Dictionary of Polynesian mythology (https://books.google.com/books?i
d=pG2fvBwNplYC&pg=PA6). Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-313-25890-9.
22. Handy, E. S. C. (1930). Marquesan Legends. Honolulu: Bernice P. Bishop Museum Press.
pp. 130–1.
23. Katherine, Berrin; Museum, Larco (1997). The Spirit of Ancient Peru: Treasures from the Museo
Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera. New York: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-01802-
6.
24. Chung Tai World (2009). "The Parrot who Extinguished a Forest Fire" (http://www.ctworld.org.t
w/english-96/html/a9stories04.htm). Chung Tai Monastery. Retrieved 6 August 2016.
25. Idema, Wilt L. (2008). Personal salvation and filial piety: two precious scroll narratives of
Guanyin and her acolytes (https://books.google.com/books?id=nKimqfLnB1IC&pg=PA33).
University of Hawaii Press. p. 33. ISBN 978-0-8248-3215-5.
26. "Dominica Flags and Symbols and National Anthem" (http://www.worldatlas.com/webimage/co
untrys/namerica/caribb/dominica/dmflags.htm). World Atlas. Retrieved 9 August 2016.
27. "The National Bird" (http://www.foreign.gov.vc/foreign/index.php?option=com_content&view=ar
ticle&id=91&Itemid=134). The Government of St. Vincent and the Grenadines Ministry of
Foreign Affairs, Trade and Commerce. Retrieved 5 August 2016.
28. Quinion, Michael (10 June 2000). "Sick as a." (http://www.worldwidewords.org/qa/qa-sic1.htm)
World Wide Words. Retrieved 13 October 2011.
29. Swithenbank, G. "Expressions and Sayings" (https://web.archive.org/web/20180630042815/htt
p://users.tinyonline.co.uk/gswithenbank/sayingss.htm). Archived from the original (http://users.ti
nyonline.co.uk/gswithenbank/sayingss.htm) on 30 June 2018. Retrieved 13 October 2011.
30. Behn, Aphra (1681). "The False Count" (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/10039/10039-8.txt).
Project Gutenberg. Retrieved 13 January 2018. "'Lord, Madam, you are as melancholy as a
sick Parrot.' 'And can you blame me, Jacinta? have I not many Reasons to be sad?'"
31. "What is a Parrot Head?" (https://web.archive.org/web/20160621160428/http://phofnc.com/hom
e/what-is-a-parrot-head/). Parrot Heads of North Carolina. Archived from the original (http://phof
nc.com/home/what-is-a-parrot-head/) on 21 June 2016. Retrieved 3 July 2016.
32. "PsittaScene Magazine" (http://www.parrots.org/index.php/ourpublication/psittascene/). World
Parrot Trust. Retrieved 3 July 2016.
33. "The Dead Parrot sketch" (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4vuW6tQ0218). Monty Python.
Season 1. Episode 8. United Kingdom. December 1969. 5:33 minutes in. BBC1.
34. Gosnell, Raja (Director) (1997). Home Alone 3 (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mBTHxjzPo
7E) (Motion picture). 20th Century Fox.
35. "Rio the Movie Synopsis" (http://www.fandango.com/riothemovie_131571/plotsummary).
Fandango. 2011. Retrieved 9 August 2016.
36. "The Wild Parrots of Telegraph Hill" (https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0424565/). Internet Movie
Database. 2005. Retrieved 9 August 2016.
37. Department of Conservation (2008). "DOC's work with rainbow lorikeet" (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20131202222532/http://www.doc.govt.nz/conservation/threats-and-impacts/animal-pest
s/animal-pests-a-z/rainbow-lorikeet/docs-work/). Archived from the original (http://www.doc.gov
t.nz/conservation/threats-and-impacts/animal-pests/animal-pests-a-z/rainbow-lorikeet/docs-wor
k/) on 2013-12-02. Retrieved 14 July 2008.
38. Toft, Catherine A.; Wright, Timothy F. (2015). "Parrots as Invasive Species" (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=IBFiCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA248). Parrots of the Wild: A Natural History of the
World's Most Captivating Birds (1 ed.). Oakland, California: University of California Press.
p. 248. ISBN 978-0-520-96264-4.
39. Butler, Christopher J. (2005). "Feral Parrots in the Continental United States and United
Kingdom: Past, Present, and Future" (https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232688408).
Journal of Avian Medicine and Surgery. 19 (2): 142–149. doi:10.1647/183 (https://doi.org/10.16
47%2F183). S2CID 86275800 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:86275800).
40. Lepore, Jill (1 June 2009). "It's Spreading" (http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2009/06/01/09
0601fa_fact_lepore). The New Yorker: 27–29. Retrieved 13 September 2011.
41. BirdLife International (2012). "Nestor productus" (https://www.iucnredlist.org/details/22684834/
0). IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2012. Retrieved 7 August 2016.
42. Campbell, T. S. (December 2000). "The Monk Parakeet" (https://web.archive.org/web/2007070
1084156/http://invasions.bio.utk.edu/invaders/monk.html). The Institute for Biological Invasions.
Archived from the original (http://invasions.bio.utk.edu/invaders/monk.html) on 2007-07-01.
43. Moorhouse, Ron; Greene, Terry; Dilks, Peter; Powlesland, Ralph; Moran, Les; Taylor,
Genevieve; Jones, Alan; Knegtmans, Jaap; Wills, Dave; Pryde, Moira; Fraser, Ian; August,
Andrew; August, Claude (2002). "Control of introduced mammalian predators improves kaka
Nestor meridionalis breeding success: reversing the decline of a threatened New Zealand
parrot". Biological Conservation. 110 (1): 33–44. doi:10.1016/S0006-3207(02)00173-8 (https://d
oi.org/10.1016%2FS0006-3207%2802%2900173-8).
44. White, Jr., Thomas H.; Collazo, Jaime A.; Vilella, Francisco J.; Guerrero, Simón A. (2005).
"Effects of Hurricane Georges on Habitat Used by Captive-Reared Hispaniola Parrots
(Amazona ventralis) Released in the Dominican Republic" (https://www.fws.gov/southeast/prpa
rrot/pdf/ON(16)405-418.pdf) (PDF). Ornitologia Neotropical. 16: 405–417.
45. "Natural Resources – Endangered and Threatened Species" (http://www.fs.usda.gov/wps/porta
l/fsinternet/!ut/p/c4/04_SB8K8xLLM9MSSzPy8xBz9CP0os3gjAwhwtDDw9_AI8zPyhQoY6Bdk
OyoCAGixyPg!/?navtype=BROWSEBYSUBJECT&cid=fsbdev3_042976&navid=1501300000
00000&pnavid=150000000000000&ss=110819&position=Not%20Yet%20Determined.Html&tt
ype=detail&pname=El%20Yunque%20National%20Forest-%20Nature). USDA. Retrieved
2013-08-21.
46. "History & Accomplishments" (https://www.parrots.org/about-wpt/history-accomplishments).
The World Parrot Trust. Retrieved 6 January 2019.
47. "Our publications: PsittaScene Magazine" (http://www.parrots.org/index.php/ourpublication/psitt
ascene/). World Parrot Trust.
48. Snyder, N.; McGowan, P.; Gilardi, J.; Grajal, A. (2000). Parrots: Status Survey and Conservation
Action Plan, 2000–2004 (http://www.parrots.org/index.php/ourpublication/papfiles/).
International Union for Conservation of Nature. ISBN 978-2-8317-0504-0.
49. "Rainbow Lorikeet" (https://www.beautyofbirds.com/rainbowlorikeet.html). Beauty of Birds.
2011. Retrieved 9 August 2016.
50. Christian, C.; Potts, T.; Burnett, G.; Lacher, T. (1999). "Parrot Conservation and Ecotourism in
the Windward Islands" (https://semanticscholar.org/paper/e4d3dd05caa5e0ddd29491bb7cace
7df093fc521). Journal of Biogeography. 23 (3): 387–393. doi:10.1046/j.1365-
2699.1996.00041.x (https://doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.1365-2699.1996.00041.x). S2CID 59582818
(https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:59582818).
51. Kakapo Recovery Programme (2010). "Then and Now" (http://www.kakaporecovery.org.nz/inde
x.php?option=com_content&view=section&id=9&Itemid=237). Kakapo Recovery Programme.
Retrieved 1 April 2010.
52. Barré, Nicholas; Theuerkauf, Jörn; Verfaille, Ludovic; Primot, Pierre; Saoumoé, Maurice (2010).
"Exponential population increase in the endangered Ouvéa Parakeet (Eunymphicus
uvaeensis) after community-based protection from nest poaching" (https://hal.archives-ouverte
s.fr/hal-00574835/file/PEER_stage2_10.1007%252Fs10336-010-0499-7.pdf) (PDF). Journal of
Ornithology. 151 (3): 695–701. doi:10.1007/s10336-010-0499-7 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs1
0336-010-0499-7). S2CID 20411641 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:20411641).
53. Cooney, Stuart J. N. (2009). Ecological Association of the Hooded Parrot (Psephotus
dissimilis) (https://digitalcollections.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/49290/4/02whole.pdf) (PDF)
(Thesis). Australian National University. p. 13.
54. BirdLife International (2013). "'Charmosyna diadema'" (https://www.iucnredlist.org/details/226
84689/0). IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2013. Retrieved 8 August 2016.
55. A group of 226 non-governmental organisations (2005-05-19). "The European Union Wild Bird
Declaration" (http://www.birdsareforwatching.org/WBDecFinal.pdf) (PDF).
birdsareforwatching.org.
56. "CITES Information" (https://web.archive.org/web/20170414222827/http://www.afabirds.org/cite
s_intro.shtml). American Federation of Aviculture. Archived from the original (http://www.afabird
s.org/cites_intro.shtml) on 14 April 2017. Retrieved 6 August 2016.
57. https://www.northernparrots.com/world-parrot-day-blog277
Cited sources
Cameron, Matt (2007). Cockatoos (https://books.google.com/books?id=u9qSHzxWdy0C).
Collingwood, VIC, Australia: CSIRO Publishing. ISBN 978-0-643-09232-7.
External links
Parrot videos (http://ibc.lynxeds.com/family/parrots-psittacidae) on the Internet Bird Collection
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Parrot&oldid=1017618383"
This page was last edited on 13 April 2021, at 19:28 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this
site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia
Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.

Parrot: Parrots Parrots, Also Known As Psittacines

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Parrot: Parrots Parrots, Also Known As Psittacines

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Parrot

Parrots, also known as psittacines /ˈsɪtəsaɪnz/,[1][2] are

Characteristic features of parrots include a strong, curved

Origins and evolution

Psittaciform diversity in South America and Australasia suggests that

A single 15 mm (0.6 in) fragment from a large lower bill (UCMP

Several fairly complete skeletons of parrot-like birds have been found

Superfamily Psittacoidea: true Bolbopsittacus

Subfamily Psittacellinae: one genus (Psittacella) with

Cockatoo species have a mobile crest

Distribution and habitat

Several parrots inhabit the cool, temperate regions of South America

Geographical range and body size predominantly explains diet

Some parrot species prey on animals, especially invertebrate larvae.

Intelligence and learning

Learning in early life is apparently important to all parrots, and much

Sound imitation and speech

Many parrots can imitate human speech or other sounds. A study by

Relationship with humans

Parrots invariably require an enormous amount of attention, care, and

The popularity of parrots as pets has led to a thriving—and often

Different nations have different methods of handling internal and

Escaped parrots of several species have become established in the

One of the largest parrot conservation groups is the World Parrot

World Parrot Day

Every year 31 May, World Parrot Day is celebrated.[157]

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Parrot&oldid=1017618383"

This page was last edited on 13 April 2021, at 19:28 (UTC).

You might also like