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1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x Ok t t 1 1
1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |U w x = Q = Q
} v t v @ u @R = J 21
3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . R Q ?Y Q
Q= i=s v v R ] 3 1
3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........=| y W 41
4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x_i=L =}
QO < W= uO m h L w Q P CUQyi 'O =H}= 141
5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... R = = u @R | y QoW}=Q} w 241
7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..............R QO =yxO=O 341
9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ R = = u @ R QO xO t | yxO=O = 441
9 . . . . . . . . . . R =
u @ RQO =yxO=O R= |DtUk V}=tv 1441
10 . . . . . . . . . . .. ................ =yxO=O O}rwD 541
10 . . . . . . . . . . .. =yxO=O R= s_vt = x =@
| y r vO O =H}= 1541
11 . . . . . . . . . . .= yxO=O R= |iO=YD = x =@
| y r vO O =H}= 2541
12 . . . . . . . . . . .. ................. =yxO=O uDWwv O w

w u v= N 51
12 . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . p= = } i R= yxO=O u v= N O w 151
hr=
12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . read.table O w wD u v= N Q UO 1151
13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p = |r =a uD = } i t D i } 2151
14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . scan O w wD u v= N Q UO 3151
15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p= = uD w } i |wQ yxO=O W v 251
16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p= =iD = uD w
} i R= xO O w pL U= @ W v w u v= N t 351
17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................... = =D =
yxO=O Q N U 61
18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................. = Q yQ=O @ 161
18 . . . . . . . . . . . . =yQ=OQ@ |wQ |=} Q C U =@ =Lt 1161
21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . which() ` = @ D 2161
22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............... =yT} QD=t 261
27 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | l =D = O =W
W } Q N U x y t 1261
27 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. =}rt
u C T Q= a w } D t 2261
29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . |]N CqO =at x=oDUO pL 3261
29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xrt Ov x =a p
|= H J rO t L 4261
30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........... w =
Q=O? JQ J | yxO=O = 361
30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . w =
Q=O? JQ J | yxO=O X= N = w 1361
31 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . w =
Q=O? JQ J | yxO=O O = =H}= 2361
32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ factor() ` = @ D 461
33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |= Q v tR | U | y = C}OwHwt 561
33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ .. =yCUQyi 661
34 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C Qy =H U i O }= 1661
37 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . O l wD pw H } QO u U w Q]U P =
|Q= os v 761
38 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ . . = QD =
y m =Q m R= |= xDWQ =@ Q=m 71
40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ . . . xD Q WQ } R 171
40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ . R = u @ R QO u tR w= M} Q=D 8 1
41 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... = M u tR w }Q D= =@ C U =@ =Lt 181
43 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Excel = M = QO u tR w }Q D 1181
44 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ ...R = u @R =@ |U} wvxt=vQ@ 91
44 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ .... Q \ W 191
45 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ . . . . xkr L 291
50 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . apply ` w w = @= D xO= v N 1291
54 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . with ` = @ D 2291
54 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ .... `@=wD 391
56 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |Q =}DN= =@
w |Q H= u t oQ = w 1391
56 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... : : : u t oQ = w 2391
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56 . . . . . . .. ............= = w
yu t oQ s v = 3391
57 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . |rL t | y = Q}eDt 4391
58 . . . . . . .Q =
@Q m x W O h} QaD |}=DwO Qorta l} CN=U 5391
59 . . . . . . .. . . w Q
u u= N= i w x W O xDWwv `@=D xQ}NP 6391
60 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |DW = |U w x = Q oR @ } v t v @ 491
62 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . p}U Qi =a
v= QoD jDW
}O CqO t w p= v= ' t x@U=Lt 101
62 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . jDW t 1101
63 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . QoD p= v= 2101
63 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . xv=oOvJ p= QoDv= 12101
63 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p}U Qi x v= }O rO=at 3101
66 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . ............ R Q
|Q= i=s v | y = xDU@ 111
69 Q=Owtv sUQswO pYi

69 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............... |Q=O wtv `@=wD 12
71 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . curve() ` = @ D 112
73 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... = wt ` w |Q t |Q=O v @= D 212
74 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . s}UQD xLiY uwo =vwo | y = CtUk 312
75 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... s y x@ C@Uv Q=O wtv OvJ C}aw 2 2
75 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RH = t x QHvB OvJ O=H}= 122
76 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . =yQ=Owtv xOW R=@ | yx= QHvB uDU@ 222
76 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xLiY l} |wQ = RHt Q=O wtv OvJ 322
77 . . . . . . . |w =Ut | y = CtUk x@ Q=O wtv xLiY s}UkD 1322
77 . . . . . . |w =Ut=v | y = CtUk x@ Q=O wtv xLiY s}UkD 2322
80 . . . . . . . . . .= yQ=O wtv u=mt u}}aD =@ xLiY s}UkD 3322
82 . . . . . . . . . .O L=w xLiY QO |r@k Q=O wtv |wQ Q@ O}OH Q=O wtv s}UQD 422
82 . . . . . . . . . ... . .... |HQ=N | y = s}_vD 1422
83 . . . . . . . . . ... . Q=O wtv l} | y = QDt=Q=B s}_vD 2422
85 . . . . . . . . . ... . . u}}=B K]U `@=wD R= |=xQ B = 3422
99 . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . O} x rwS | yQ=O = wtv 4422
101 . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . | =] a k | yQ=O = wtv 5422
103 . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . | Oa)@ xU =

| yQ=O wtv 6422
105 . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . = wt wt Q} yQ=O v uO v x NP 522
107 . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . = wt wt Q} yQ=O v uO v x NP 622
107 . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Trellis =

| yQ=O wtv 32
108 . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . Trellis = wt Q Q Ov `t | yQ=O v t= o | @ H 132
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108 . . . . . . . . = w wL yp ] Q | = Q}eD = = wt
t |wQ } y t @ yQ=O v 1132
109 . . . . . . . ....................... =yQDt=Q=B 232
109 . . . . . . . ................ w `= v= 1232
109 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = wL yQ t 2232
116 p=tDL= w Q=tswU pYi
116 . . . ...... ........................ |Q t = x}=B `@=wD 13
116 . . . ...... ................ = Q = =`w O }R | @Q m @ @= D 113
118 . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . | =Y O | =tD = ` w iO D O= a= w r L= | y } R D 213
120 . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . Q wDU} s= o y 1213
121 . . . ...... ........... qT= C B m @ 2213
124 . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . . . table() ` = @ D 3213
127 . . . ...... . . . . . . = Q =tD | =o ` =

p t v p L= r J @ D 4213
128 . . . qqplot() w qqline() qqnorm() |m} Q ` w

' i= o @= D 5213
130 . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . . . ecdf() ` = @ D 6213
132 . . . ...... . . . . . . = = =tD | =o ` =t o p L= r J @ D 7213
135 . . . ...... . . . . . u Q} =tD | =o ` =

U B p L= r J @ D 8213
137 . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | =Y Q} x wt iO D | o v v 313
138 . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . . =tD ` = l = QD = Q p L= @ D } | y t=Q B OQw @ 413
138 . . . ...... ................. = = |Q t | yVwQ 513
138 . . . ...... . . . . . . txQ l w i ] wO w } u tR 1513
142 uw}UQoQ |=ypOtsQ=yJ pYi
142 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |] w} N u Q =
U oQ | yp t O 14
142 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... wQ =C w w p t i | y }O H t 114
144 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... = O `w |R Up t @= D 214
149 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . O X}NW
p t D 1214
151 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . =v}t xr =
u ]= Y i 2214
152 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Q=O wtv xLiY sUQ 3214
152 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... u w}UQoQ QO x OWto =

| yxO=O 314
154 . . . . . . . . . . . xO=O l} = Q
| yxw o | yQ=O = wtv sUQ 1314
155 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |vLv Q t VR= @ w |R UQ= = wty '|@=}uwQO 24
157 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = wt | = |R UQ= y w @ }uwQO 124
158 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |vLv t VR= @ Q 224
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160 |YYND w |vi Q=Owtv OvJ s}UQDsHvB pYi
160 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . =tD p = P = s}UQD
L= | y e m 15
161 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p@ = =tD P t o p L= =
e m 115
162 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | Q O O P = s}
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U D 215
164 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |= x}W=L `@=wD =@ x=Qty uw}UQoQ s}UQD 315
164 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .w D QO wD =
| yQ=O wtv s}UQD 415
166 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . wtv l}
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167 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Q=O wtv l} QO CQ= LQ xHQO wO s}UQD 615
168 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... u w}UQoQ xLiY s}UQD 715
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version 2.6.2 (2008-02-08)

version 2.7.0 (2008-04-22)
version 2.7.1 (2008-06-23)
version 2.7.2 (2008-08-25)
version 2.8.0 (2008-10-20)
version 2.8.1 (2008-12-22)
version 2.9.0 (2009-04-17)
version 2.9.1 (2009-06-26)
version 2.9.2 (2009-08-24)
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version 2.10.0 (2009-10-26)

version 2.10.1 (2009-12-14)
version 2.11.0 (2010-04-22)
version 2.11.1 (2010-05-31)
version 2.12.0 (2010-10-15)
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Qo = "O Q}o|t Q=Qk R h L Q pmW x@ wm l =t Q w}B = desktop

u }
} W D ?Y ptt m == T w | |wQ v a u } B R= B "O W t
Q= Okt l} xLiY u}= QO "OQ=O s v = R Console x w | = xLi O}v l}r = R Q

m O W t R @ |= Y ' m m Q @ wO h L |wQ
Q_v w
OQ t C =}rta w |t
u= D u
p@=kt QOx w | x_ q 6 > C q
m O W t L T t w | =L} w t a u
R= B w OQ=O O Hw D D
"CU= Q} R KQW x@ Ctqa Q}}eD x-wLv "O=O Q}}eD =Q Ctqa u}= w |t xD@r=
u= D "O=O s =Hv= =Q
> options(prompt="R > ")

R >
=y|W 4 1
xQ}NP s=v l} =@ <=}W= pmW x@ QDw}Bt=m p =ai x_i=L QO ::: w G}=Dv '`@=wD '=yQ}eDt 'OO o Q |t =QH= R |D kw
=}
< W= < H u WO NR = w xm `@=wD w |k]vt w |@Uv '|@=UL =yQorta R= xO =iDU= =@ =}
w < W= |wQ Q@ Q=m "OvwW|t
%R= CUDQ=@a C}=U |v=Wv "O Q}o Q=Qk =tW T QDUO QOO
QO | D } H | xNUv CU= umtt pta u}= u}L QO xm CU= |QwO } = x@ sRq "5
http://CRAN.R-project.org
6. prompt
" Ovm|t pta OvDUy

'hw L Q Ov=wD|t u
=yQDm =Q=m x}k@ Q
w OO o `w W Q a-z = A-Z } w hw L Q =@ O}=@ ,=tDL |W l} s=v QDm =Q=m u}rw=
u}=Q@=v@ "O W w |t p=k l}miD lJwm R
w nQ @ hw L Q u} R = @ O =
u @R " W @ _ \NQ} R w . x]kv 0-9 =
' s kQ=
"OQ=O O Hw Cw w =iD X x u}w @
x_i=L QO <=}W= uOQm hPL w CUQyi 'O=H}= 141
<; QDm w
J m w =yvt = Ctqa
| y R= u= D w |t Q=m u}= Q
|= @ "O W O w =H}= uO=O C@Uv Qorta =@ Ov=wD|t |W l}
" O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "Owtv xO =iDU= R=
> n { 15<
n | wDLt Q=vm "O}vR@ =Q Enter O}r m w xO wtv A}=D =Q n x C | = O}v O

m U= i m m x y =Wt =Q n Q= Okt O}y=wN@ Qo =
=
A J u t i = Q l} `k=w QO QwDUO u}= "OyO|t u=Wv =Q n | QYv u} x W a rw= m OO o Q |t Qy=_ xWwQm pN=O 1s kQ
=}
< W= A J R= u= D = w |t p=Ft u= wvax@ "Ov=wN=Qi ,=L} QY =Q `@=D u}= O}=@ |OQ= t QO w xD@r= "CU= print() |vt
Q
"O @ s v = `@=D l} =} w xkrL QO
> n
1] 15
xHwD O}=@ =t= wtv
"O xO =iDU= R}v =
Qorta R= |U} wvxt=vQ@ |=yu=@ R Q}=U Ovv=t u= D w |t uO=O C@Uv |= @ Q xD@r=
O
" W Oy=wN =
xQ W= =yT} QD=t EL@ QO 'u
xvwtv l} x@ xm '7 OQ=O | D Q `}Uw Q@ Q=m <; Ctqa xm CW=O
> n { 15 <
> n
1] 15
P |t
"OQ= o Cw =iD nQ @ wR lJwm hw L Q u}@ R =
u @R ' W O xDio xm Qw]u=ty
> x {1 <
> X { 10 <
> x
1] 1
> X
1] 10
"O=O C@Uv |W l} x@ =Q CQ a =@ l} u= D w |t
> n { 10+2 <
> n
1] 12
"O=O s =Hv= R}v |W R= xO =iDU= O
uw @ u= D w |t =Q |=} Q C =}rta xm O}vm xHwD
> (10+2) 5
1] 60
O
"OQ= v =Q C}Y=N u}= |w =UD Ctqa xm |DQwY QO 'O Q}o Q=Qk xO =iDU= w `@=D l} u=twoQ
OQ t wva x@ Ov=wD|t xm |vat u}O@
u= "7
5 R |U w x = Q} v t v @ u @R = =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
=@ =Q Q m= xt=O= R =
u @ R '| Oa@ = Q]U =} w Q]U
| y QO x =ov
w A}=D Q]U l} R= QDW}@
'O W QO Q_v w
OQ t Q wDUO Qo =
" CU= Q} R CQ Y @w x xH}Dv w
'O W A}=D Q]U wO QO Q}N= p=Ft xm O}vm Q
Z i " yO O |t u=Wv + Ctqa
> (10+2)
+5
1] 60
"O}vm x_Lqt =Q | Qo}O p=Ft
> (10+2)*
+ 5/
+ 10 -
+1
1] 5
"OQ= vO |twRr C=Q wDUO |y=Dwm Cra x@ | Oa@ | y = Q]U x@ uDiQ 'Q}N= p=Ft wO QO
xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "OOQo|tv O=H}= Q=Okt uw @ O |W ,qY= uwJ 'OwW|t pY=L =]N OW=@ xDW=Ov Q=Okt |W Qo =
"O}vm
> x {3 <
> x+y
Error: object 'y' not found
R u @R | y
= = QoW}=Q} w 241
QoW}=Q} w l} R= xm CU= ?U=vt w CU= xOvvmxDUN C=QwDUO lDlD |=QH= 'Ow@ |vqw] xt=vQ@ l} |=yO)m Qo =
u}= O Q Q
QO " vO o = H=
8 |ywQo w x
CQ Y @ C=Q wDUO xm CU= Q=Qk Cr=L u}= QO ' Qo}O CQ a =@ x@ w
"O W xO =iDU=
"CU= QQmt |@=} R=@ w uOW xQ}NP p@=k xm OvwW|t O=H}= r OvwUB =@ C=QwDUO xawtHt R= |}=yp}=i =yQoW}=Q} w
O w |t s}UkD xDUO
" v W wO x@ =yQoW}=Q} w
l}rm R u wm}
R
|wQ 'Q= i=s v Q ?Yv xrLQt R= TB Q=m u}= Q CU=
|= @ " RGui O N w pN=O QoW}=Q} w l}
w xOR =Q New script xv R File wv xLi } o = wv | t R= Y |q @ | t QO TBU w Q
w O W = H= Q= i=s v R Q =D xO wtv
u= D w |t u wv Cm= " O xD w R Untitled - R Editor
U= x W W v u
|q @ = xm OwW|t R=@ | } H OO xLiY
=yO)m Q Q
|= H= |= @ "O m = H= Q Q Oa@ w Owtv xQ}NP TBU w CWwv OvDUy xm =DOvJ Qy =Q OwN Q_v w
OQ t | y )
m = O
O}rm w xO wtv A}=D =Q Q} R QwDUO 'OQ=O O Hw w > Ctqa xm |}=H |va} R Console QO xm CU= |i=m
"O}vR@ =Q Enter
> source("le name")
=F
p t u= wva x@ "O wtv xi== R}v =Q Q}Ut TQO
O}=@ p}=i s=v Q@ xw qa x=ov
'O w@v |Q H = xWwB QO p}=i Qo =
> source("E:/users/test.r")
8. Batch
R}v script OwN |wQ R= xm CU= |QwQ xDmv u}= Qm P "O}vm xHwD Q}Ut u=}@ |=Q@ / x@ \ Ctqa Q}}eD x@
w xDW=O xov =Q Ctrl O}r m w xO wtv ? =NDv= = O
=Q y )
m R= |WN@ w s =tD xm CU= |i=m "CU= =QH= p@=k xt=vQ@
Q Q
"OO o = H= xt=vQ@ =D O}vR@ =Q R O}r m
xm CU= |i=m Q=m u}= Q O}vm xQ}NP

|= @ " =Q =yv
O}v=wD|t OwN = O |DUQO
| y )
m R= u =v}t]= pwYL R= TB
u= D w |t xm OwW|t Qy=_ Save script as = x s v @ |=x QHvB x=ov
'O}vR@ =Q S O}rm w xDW=O xov =Q Ctrl O}rm
=Q Save O}r m w xO wtv XNW w script
t =Q O N s v = TBU 'O wtv ? =NDv= =Q x Q}NP |= @Q Q_v OQ t w Q}Ut
x Q}NP Q_v OQ t w Q}Ut | =ND = R O wU
QO @ v= s v w v B =@ p}=i l} QO =tW | y )
m= O ?}DQD u}= x@ xO wtv l}rm
R xLi =
Y |q @ Q= @= Q= v R=R w p}=i | wvt ? =NDv= =@ O}W=@ xDW=O R=}v u
x@ x=o Qy Oa@ x@ u}= R= "OO o Q |t
" O}vm R=@ =Q u
w O}vR@ =Q Open script xv R } o
qkDUt O}=@
, w OvDU}v Q=Ri=sQv pN=O xm OvDUy |}=yv
=yQoW}=Q} w u}= R= Q w_vt %|HQ=N = QoW}=Q} w
| y
=yQoW}=Q} w R= xDUO u}= u}@ R= " OvDUy |Q =HD =yv

R= |=xQ B w u = download
=o}=Q =yv
R= |
a@ "OvwW
"Owtv =
xQ W= XEmacs RWinEdt Tinn-R x w |
w ' @ u= D t
x =ov
O
'OR = Y u
pN=O =Q R R
Q= i=s v u= D Q w |t u
?Yv R= TB w CU= u=o}=Q %9 Tinn-R QoW}=Q} w
Q
= H= =Q x W O xDWwv | y )= O
m u= D w |t w O W w |t s}UkD |w =Ut CtUk wO@ QDw}Bt=m xLiY OwN@OwN
"O wtv
"O wtv |] =Q Q} R pL=Qt O}=@ RWinEdt QoW Q }= } w R= xO =iDU= |= @ Q % RWinEdt QoW}=Q} w
" CU= |Q=HD Q=Ri=sQv u}= xm OwW|t u=Wv Q]=N xD@r= 'OQm ?Yv =Q WinEdt Q=Ri=sQv O}=@ =OD@= {
u
TBU w xO wtv download =QRWinEdt = x@
s v |= xDU@ =} w package O = } @ xrLQt u}= QO {
" CU= u=o}=Q =Pr w O =| R
W @ t R
|Q= i=s v | y Q = xDU@ <RH j i w xDU@ "O}vm ?Yv =Q
" O}vm =QH= Q=@m} Q

|= @ =Q Q} R QwDUO ' R R
Q= i=s v QOQ TBU {
> library ("RWinEdt")
w |t O=H}= QDw}Bt=m
"O W desktop |wQ RWinEdt u= wva CLD uwm}
l} '=QH= R= TB
q@k xm
, OR U = |t u=Wv Q]=N "Owtv =QH= w CWwv w QoW}=Q} w
j i QO u= D w |t =Q Q_v w
OQ t | y )
m = O {
O = O
" W @ x W R @ = RGui O = } @
w x QoW}=Q} w u}=
Q ] @ "O wtv ?Yv =Q QoW}=Q} w u}= u= D w |t R R
Q= i=s v Q ?Yv TB % RStudio QoW}=Q} w
CUOx@ Q CU=
|= @ " Matlab R
Q= i=s v Q x}@W QoW}=Q} w u}= \}Lt "OO o Q |t pYDt Rx = w
@ Q mO N
"O wtv xaH=Qt Q} R TQO

x@ w |t QoW}=Q} w u}=
u= D uOQw
http://www.rstudio.org/download/desktop
7 R |U w x = Q } v t v @ u @R= =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
R QO =yxO=O 341
u}vJsy "OvwW|t XNWt | wDLt = \UwD =yu

OwN xm Ovm|t Q=m =y|W =@
w s v RO W x_Lqt xm Qw]v=ty
% CU= C}YwYN wO |=Q=O =y|W s=tD "OO o Q |t u}at 10 C}YwYN =@ OQ=O Q= k Q |W QO xm xO=O ` v w
' QDm =Q=m O

'|O a %OQ=O O Hw w mode |r Y= ` v Q w =yJ "Ovm|t XNWt =Q |W l} QY=va `wv %mode
=F
p t |= @ "OwQ Q |tv Q=mx@ data w OQ t QO xm OQ=O O Hw w R}v | Qo}O =
| y mode xD@ r= " |k]vt w \rDNt
Q =
"O @ s v CQ a =@ =} `@=D R= u= D w |t
O
" yO |t u=Wv =Q |W l} QY=va O= OaD length
% p ] w
"O}vm xHwD Q} R =
| yp t =F x@ uwvm =
> x {1 <
> mode(x)
1] "numeric"
> length(x)
1] 1
> A { "Auchland" compar { TRUE z { 1i
< < <
> mode(A) mode(compar) mode(z)

1] "character"
1] "logical"
1] "complex"
O w |t wQ@ wQ Q} R s=e}B =@ xvQow OwW xDWwv
" } W R
nQ @ hw L @ Q = O}=@ ,=tDL TRUE xS=w xm O}W=@ xDW=O xHwD
R= V}@ Q]U l} QO xm O}y=wN@ Qo = =t= "O}
|t QwDUO l} Q]U Qy QO OW x_Lqt ,q@k xm Qw]u=ty %xHwD
=@ CQ Y w u}= Q}e Ow
QO ' v W = H O Qo}Om} R= Ctqa =@ 'Q]U l} C=Q wDUO O}=@ x=ov
'OQ}o Q=Qk QwDUO l}
O
" W O}y=wN xH=wt =]N
Error: object "true" not found

w |t
"O W xO=O u =Wv 11 NA CQ Y w x@ xOW Owkit =
| yxO=O OQ t QO w mode C} Y wYN
O =@
=Q u
' W v O a Q= O Okt Qo = "OyO|t u=Wv -Inf Inf = w @ C@ wv x@ =Q 1 pFt 'u}at=v |OOa Q}O=kt R u=@ R
"O}vm xHwD Q} R =
| yp t =F x@ "OyO|t V}=tv 12 NaN =@
> x { 5/0 <
> x
1] Inf
> exp(x)
1] Inf
> exp({x)
1] 0
> x{x
1] NaN
10. attribute 11. Not Available 12. not a number
O}vm xHwD Q} R
" =
| yp t =F x@ "O}yO Q=Qk quotes wO } w= l} pN=O =Q u
xm CU= |i=m xDWQ O=H}= Q
|= @
> x { "This is a test."

<
> x
1] "This is a test."
> x { 'This is a test.'
<
> x
1] "This is a test."
pN=O QO Qo = uwvm = "CU= quotes wO CQ Y w x@ pY=L 'O}vm pta quotes wO } w = l} =@ xJ xm O}vm xHwD
quotes l } R= Qo = =t= O
'OQ= v O Hw w |rmWt quotes wO R= xO =iDU= w
CQ Y QO ' CW=O OwHw hQ wDU=B
xDWQ
"O}}=tv xO =iDU= n R= O}=@ w O}
|t V}B =]N w
'O W xO =iDU=
> x { "Ali's apple"

<
> x
1] "Ali's apple"
> x { 'Alin's apple'
<
> x
1] "Ali's apple"
" O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "Owtv pQDvm =Q |Q =Wa= s=kQ= O= OaD w |t
u= D digits QwDUO =@
> print(1/1:5, digits=2)

1] 1.00 0.50 0.33 0.25 0.20
O =@ wDUO Qy
" W v Q QO =yv
s}_vD Q
|= @ |R v =} Qo}O xm Owtv u}at |rm Qw]x@ =Q Q =Wa= =
sQ kQ= O= OaD u= D w |t xD@r=
"O W w |t xO =iDU= options ` = @ D R= Q m = u}= Q
|= @
> options(digits = 3)
> print(1/1:5)
1] 1.000 0.500 0.333 0.250 0.200
l} R= V}@ xm O}W=@ p}=t xJv=vJ w Ovm|t =
A J =Q |W l} \ki print() ` = x O} @ D m = xDW=O xHwD ,=vt
W @
" O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "O wtv =iD cat() ` =

xO U= @ D R= O}=@ Q
OO o A J = |W
> x { 1:10
<
> cat('x=', x, '\n')

x= 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Z} waD Q]U =} w \N CtQi u}= QDj}kO CQ a =@ x@ "OQ wNv sy x@ > | H = xm CU= u}= Q '\n' CtUk
|= @
" O}vm pta Q} R CQ Y w x@ O}=@ OvwW =

A J = H O Q]U O
wO QO O= a= w x= CtUk xm O}y=wN@ Qo = Ovm|t
> x { 1:10
<
> cat('x=', '\n', x, '\n')

x=
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
9 R |U w x = Q
} v t v @ u @R = =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
R u @ R QO xO t | yxO=O
= = = 441
xO =iDU= u
R= R}v Q=DWwv u}= QO xm CU= xOW xO=O Q= kQ =yp=Ft QO xO =iDU= Q =
|= @ xO t
xO=O |O= OaD R =
u @ R QO
xO =iDU= =@ =Q =yu
pt=m CUQyi w |t xD@r=
u= D : : : trees Nile LakeHuron iris cars Ov =
w ' ' ' ' v t "O Ww |t
C= R Q " i } QO }R QwDUO R=
> data()
O w Q
" v= N= i =Q u
x= Qty =
| yxO=O u= D w |t Q} R QwDUO =@ 'OW xO =iDU= package l } R= Qo = ,=vt
> library(gstat)
"O wtv x_Lqt Q} R QwDUO \UwD =Q gstat xDU @ QO GQ Ovt =
| yxO=O CUQyi u= D w |t uwvm =
> data(package="gstat")
C=Q wDUO =@ =Q meuse.alt x w Q =
@ \ @ t | yxO=O 'x W O CUQyi =
| yxO=O |t=U= u=}t R= u= D w |t p=Ft u= wva x@
"Owtv x_Lqt Q} R
> data(meuse.alt)
> meuse.alt
R u=@ RQO =yxO=O R= |DtUk V}=tv 1 4 4 1
u= Dw |t Q=m u}= Q
|= @ "O wtv xOy=Wt =Q =yv
R= |DtUk w |t '=yxO=O
u= D uO @ w |vqw] ?@U x@ =
C kw= R= |=xQ B QO =
"O wtv xO =iDU= tail() head() ` = w @ D wO R=
= =F
| yxO=O p t |= @ "O W Q w |t xO =iDU= head() ` = @ D R= xO=O Q]U 6 x}rw= | y = Q]U uO=O u =Wv Q
|= @
"O Q}o Q_v QO R QO =Q trees

> data(trees)
> head(trees)
Girth Height Volume

1 8.3 70 10.3
2 8.6 65 10.3
3 8.8 63 10.2
4 10.5 72 16.4
5 10.7 81 18.8
6 10.8 83 19.7
"OO o Q O}k ,=L} QY Q_v w

OQ t O= OaD O}=@ 'OW=@ sRq Q]U 6 R= QDtm =} w Q]U 6 R= V}@ x@ Qo =
> head(trees, 8)
Girth Height Volume

1 8.3 70 10.3
2 8.6 65 10.3
3 8.8 63 10.2
4 10.5 72 16.4
5 10.7 81 18.8
6 10.8 83 19.7
7 11.0 66 15.6
8 11.0 75 18.2
trees = =F
| yxO=O p t |= @ "O WQ w |t xO=iDU= tail() `@=D R= xO=O Q]U 6 QN=w= |=yQ]U uO=O u=Wv |=Q@
"O Q}o Q_v QO R QO =Q
> tail(trees)
Girth Height Volume

26 17.3 81 55.4
27 17.5 82 55.7
28 17.9 80 58.3
29 18.0 80 51.5
30 18.0 80 51.0
31 20.6 87 77.0
" Ovm|t pta head() ` =@ D Ovv=t tail() ` =

@ D ' Q]U 6 R= QDtm w QDW}@ = Q]U
| y O= OaD E}L R=
=yxO=O O}rwD 5 4 1
"OvW=@|t Q} R KQW x@ xm 'OvDUy O}rwD p@=k CQ Y wOw x@ =yxO=O
=yxO=O R= s_vt |=yxr=@vO O=H}= 1 5 4 1
O Q}o@ Q_v
" } QO =Q 30 = 1D =
| yxO=O , qFt 'K}LY O
O= a= R= s_vt xr=@vO
11 R |U w x = Q
} v t v @ u @R = =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
> x { 1:30
<
"OQ=O C} wrw= O
|O a | y = Qorta u}@ QO ' : Qorta "CU= QYva 30 = x
@ |= }=Q
l} w
j i Q wDUO xH}Dv
> 1:10-1
1] 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
> 1:(10-1)
1] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
=F
%p t u= wva x@ "Ovm O}rwD =Q |k}kL O
O= a= R= |= r vO x =@ Ov=wD|t seq() ` = @ D
> seq(1, 5, 0.5)

1] 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
O
" yO |t u=Wv =Q V}=Ri= u= R}t OOa u}twU w xr=@vO xtD=N OOa u}twO 'xr=@vO Q
`w W O a O u}rw= '`@=D u}= QO
" CWwv u= Dw |t u}vJsy
> seq(from=1, to=5, length=9)

1] 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
"CU= xOW s}UkD |w =Ut CtUk 9 x 5 = 1 u}
@ D @ xrY=i =Hv}= QO
combine ` = c() x@ D @ "OQw

QO xr=@vO l} CQ Y w x@ Q sy Q=vm
w O=O Q= k =Q Q_v w
OQ t O= a= u= D O w |t c() ` = @ D @=
" Ov} wo|t R}v
> c(1, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 3.5, 4.0, 4.5, 5.0)
1] 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
QY=va Q=QmD O= OaD = w
u
u t oQ
u}twO Q
w Q=O @ u
u t oQ
= w u}rw= xm OQ=O O Hw w rep() u= wva CLD | Qo}O `@=D
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "CU= = w
pw= u t oQ
> rep(1:4, 4)
1] 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
u}= QO " CU= = w
pw= u t oQ
Q=O @ Q QY=va O= OaD =@ Q@=Q@ u
QY=va O=OaD xm OW=@ Q=O @ Q Ov=wD|t R}v swO u t oQ
= w
O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ uwvm = "Ovm|t u}at =Q pw= u=twoQ
QY=va Q=QmD O=OaD 'swO u=twoQ
Q=OQ@ QYva Qy Cr=L
"
> rep(1:4, c(2,2,2,2))

1] 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
"O}vm xHwD rep() ` = @ D R= Q} R =
xO U p t =F x@
> rep(' ', 3)

1] " "" "" "
=yxO=O R= |iO=YD |=yxr=@vO O=H}= 2 5 4 1
R = Q|
u @ R "OO o t Qm P xQ=@ u}= QO |QYDNt KQW u}=Q@=v@ "CU= O}rwD p@=k |Q=t
|=y`} RwD \UwD xr=@vO `wv u}=
rfunc(n, w CQ Y x@ `@=wD u}= |twta pmW "CU= p=tDL= |r=oJ w sQH `@=wD R= |=x_Lqt p@=k O=OaD pt=W
O
|O= a= O= OaD n =yu
QO "CU= xOW PN= |iO=YD |=vat x@ random xS=w R= r hQL xm CU= p1, p2, : : : )
O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "OyO|t u=Wv =Q `@=D |=yQDt=Q=B Q}O=kt
" p1, p2, Q
hw L "O W w O}rwD CU= Q=Qk xm CU=
> rnorm(1)
1] 1.358007
" CU= xOW O}rwD l} Q=}at h= QLv= w QiY u}ov=}t O =D
OQ= v U= p t v = Q |iO=YD OOa l} =Hv}= QO
=yxO=O uDWwv w uOv=wN 5 1
O N w C}ty= |Dkw ?r]t u}= XNq=@ "CU= u

QO =yxO=O GwQN w OwQw Q=Ri=sQv Qy |U=U= |=yVN@ R= |m}
syt u}= KQW Q=m xt=O= QO "OO o x Q Q}NP p}=i l} |wQ =} w O w
w O W x v= N p}=i l} =
R= yxO=O xm OyO|t u=Wv =Q
O
" t
Oy=wN
p}=i R= =yxO=O uOv=wN 1 5 1
"O wtv xO =iDU= VwQ wO R= u= D w |t Q=m u}= Q O w |t p}=i

|= @ " v= N |wQ R= =Q text |vDt =
| yxO=O R =
u @R
read.table uOv=wN QwDUO 1 1 5 1
QO w cw }=QO QO , qFt w OW=@ data.txt |r = } i s v= Qo = "CU= read.table() ` = @ D xO =iDU= w

OQ t Q wDUO u}rw=
" Ovm|t pta Q} R CQ Yw x@ uOv=wN QwDUO x=ov
'OW=@ xOW xQ}NP test = x@
s v |= W Bx w
> mydata { read.table("c:/test/data.txt")

<
pt=a sDU}U QO xm |DQwY QO ' CU= xOW XNWt /

=@ p}=i TQO
=} w Q}Ut xm O}W=@ xDW=O xHwD
nn wO R= O}=@ O}vm xO=iDU= n O=tv R= O}y=wN@ xJ=vJ "OOQo|t xO=iDU= n O=tv R= Q=m u}= |=Q@windows
w |t |U} wvR=@ Q}N=
"O W w x
CQ Y @ q @ p t u = =F wvm = Q
"O m xO =iDU=
> mydata { read.table("c:nntestnndata.txt")

<
w x CU= s=v |=Q=O u

Q}eDt Qy xm OwW|t p}mWD mydata s=v x@ =yxO=O R= |rwOH l} jwi QwDUO |=QH= =@
Q ] @ "
mydata$V1, mydata$V2, = w x = x | QD w | O} = V1, V2,

| yCQ Y Q V}
@ yu
@ U UO w O W t x t v Z i B
wD
Q O = | mydata, 1], mydata, 2], mydata"V1"], mydata"V2"], : : : =
UO " W @ t w } w
wt =iD w ?U"O w| x C
v xO =}D =} wY p = read.table
U= u
R= OQ t L u= D t m U= |Q N= C Y N t W
C O Q} data.txt Q w x |r = O}v x w Q
" U= x W x NP =F x wv } R CQ Y @ } i " m H D }R p t @ u m=
Author: John Davis

Date: 18-05-2007
13 R |U w x = Q} v t v @ u @R = =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
Some comments...
Col1, Col2, Col3, Col4
23, 45, A, John
34, 41, B, Jimmy
12, 99, B, Patrick
R = = "O Ww |t xOv=wN=Qi u @ R QO q L
> mydata { read.table("c:/test/data.txt", skip=3, sep=",", header=T)

<
> mydata
= w
u t oQ
wOv | w@ C =L} w w Q x p =
m t Q a U= C Q] x skip = w read.table() ` =
D \ @ t m } i pw= U U R= u t oQ
@ D QO
T =Hv C |k]v w
}= QO w x header = w
U= Q = O =t |
t ` v R= P m = u} w Q sep u t oQ
x Nq @ w } v t h L =Q yxO=O @ p o }w
O}v x w | Q x wv Ov | î
" m H D Hw N = @ u| = u Q =v O Q C TRUE hiN x
m= " m t L =Q yxO=O t U= }= @ @ 'x W mP U= t m
Col1 Col2 Col3 Col4

1 23 45 A John
2 34 41 B Jimmy
3 12 99 B Patrick
O w
u v= N x@ = |}=yvD x@
QO k R =
u @R " CU= xOW xQ}NP Excel R Q
Q= i=s v QO , q@k =yxO=O R= |Q =}U@ Q=L p=L QO
xU |}=yxO=O u}vJ uOv=wN |= @ " Q CU}v *.xlsx =} w *.xls = O wUB |va}

| y v Excel = p}=i s}kDUt
| y
"OQ=O O Hw w pL x=Q
|vDt p}=i =yv

read.table() `@=D =@ TBU 'Owtv xQ}NP *.txt CtQi x@ Excel =
QO =Q yxO=O u= D w |t 1
O w
" v= N =Q *.txt
read.csv("p = } i TQO
w s v = ") `@=D =@ TBU 'Owtv xQ}NP *.csv CtQi x@ Excel QO =Q =yxO=O u=wD|t 2
O w
" v= N =Q =yv
O w |t
" v= N =Q Excel | y = p}=i ,=t}kDUt R =
u @ R 'u
R= xO =iDU= =@ xm x]w@ Qt package R= xO =iDU= 3
=
| yxO=O p}=i u=wD|t 'OOQo|t pYw R x@ xm foreign |Q=Ri=sQv xDU@ ltm x@ =t= s}kDUt CQwYx@ xv R QO
" CU= read.spss("p = =
} i s v w Q}Ut") w x
CQ Y @ u v= N Q O w wDUO "Ov=wN =Q spss R
Q= i=s v Q
p}=i |rt=aD uDi=} 2 1 5 1
u}= |HwQN "O@=}@ =Q u

w xO wtv wHDUH |rt=aD w x
CQ Y @ =Q =tW Q_v w p}=i Ov=wD|t
OQ t le.choose() ` = @ D
" O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ uwvm = "OyO|t u=Wv =Q u

x@ w Q Q}Ut
\ @ t w p}=i s=v `@=D
> le.choose()
1] "D:\\R_les\\data\\debit.txt"
u
Q}Ut w p}=i s=v OwQw x@ =} Qo}O
|R v 'O Q}o Q=Qk read.table() ` = = w
@ D u t oQ
u= wvax@ Q}N= `@=D Qo = u wvm =
"O=O s =Hv= =Q wHDUH pta O}=@ xt=vQ@ Q
|= H= Q @ = Qy QO =t= 'CU}v
> read.table(le.choose())
=Q p}=i OvJ TQO
w s v = Ov=wD|t `@=D u}= "OQ=O s=v choose.les() xm OQ=O OwHw xO=wv=N u}ty R= | Qo}O `@=D
O}rm uDW=O xov =@ O}v=wD|t =tW "O W w |t xO wWo Select les = x@
s v |=x QHvB `@=D u}= Q
|= H= @ " yO = O CUOx@
| y = p}=i s=v w TQO
x =ov
"O}vm l}rm =Q Open O}r m TBU w xO wtv ? =NDv= =Q O N w Q_v w
OQ t | y = p}=i Ctrl
" O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ uwvm = "OO o Q |t Qy=_ xOW ? =NDv=
> choose.les()
1] "D:\\R_les\\data\\boise.txt" "D:\\R_les\\data\\airpass.txt"
`@=D |HwQN =yv
=
| yTQO
w airpass.txt boise.txtw =
| ys v = x@ p}=i wO O W w |t x_Lqt xm Qw]u=ty
" OvDUy xOW xDio
=yv
R= = RHt Qw]x@ R
sw r CQ Y QO ww CW=O xov x = x@ ,qFt |W l} pN=O
s v u= Dw |t =Q =yp}=i s=v w TQO
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "O wtv xO =iDU=
> x { choose.les()
<
> x
1] "D:\\R_les\\data\\boise.txt" "D:\\R_les\\data\\airpass.txt"
> x1]
1] "D:\\R_les\\data\\boise.txt"
> x2]
1] "D:\\R_les\\data\\airpass.txt"
CU= Q_v Kt]t |}=yp}=i ,qFt O}vm Z i "O Q wtv QDr}i u=WOvwUB ?UL Q@ =Q =yv
w |t =yp}=i
u= D ? =NDv= QO
" O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "OyO|t s=Hv= Q}N= `@=D QO QDr}i u=twoQ
=Q xi}_w u}= 'OW=@ txt =y v
OvwUB xm
> choose.les(lters = Filtersc("txt", "All"), ])
scan uOv=wN QwDUO 3 1 5 1
R}v Q@ Q=m xr}Uw x@ Ov=wD|t `@=D u}= "Ovm|t xO =iDU= scan() = x@

s v Q u}}=B K]U `@=D
| D R= read.table ` = @ D
xO =iDU= O
u
R= ' UQ |tv Q_v x@ ?U=vt read.table O Qmrta xm = =
C kw= R= |=xQ B QO w O W x v= N= i , w O w Q =t}kDUt
" CU= Q} R KQW x@ u
|twtta pmW w |t
"O W
> scan(le=" ")

p}=i Q=DN=U Qo = xm O}W=@ xDW=O xHwD "OOQo|t GQO u
TQO
w p}=i s=v 'uW}Dwm pN=O 'p}=i u=twoQ
|wrH xm
w x
CQ Y @ =Q p}=i C=} wDLt xm u}= |=Q@ w Ov=wN|tv pwOH pmW x@ =Q u
scan() ` = w
@ D 'O @ pw H O l} CQwYx@
15 R |U w x = Q =
} v t v @ u @R =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
O
" W Oy=wN xO=O K}wD =yT} QD=t CtUk QO xm Owtv xO =iDU= matrix() ` = @ D R= O}=@ O} Q=O xov pw H O
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "Ov=wN@ O}rm xLiY |wQ R= =Q =yxO=O Ov=wD|t scan() ` = @ D
> x { scan()
<
1: 10
2: 11
3: 12
4: 13
5: 14
6: 15
7: 16
8:
Read 7 items
=yxO=O OwQw xrLQt R= u=wD|t Enter O}rm uOR =@ 'O}OH OOa OwQw uwO@ =yxO=O s=tD= R= TB xrLQt u} QN
QO
=tW =
| yxO=O Qo = w CU= umtt O =
|O a | yxO=O OwQw \ki xOW xDio `@=D R= xO =iDU= pmW u}= O
QO " W GQ N =
" O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "CU= what="" = w
u t oQ
OvtR=}v scan() ` = @ D OW=@ =yQDm =Q=m R= |= xDWQ w x
CQ Y @
> scan(what="")
1: 1Jan2000
2: 5Mar2001
3: 1May2002
4: 10Jun2003
5: 11Sep2004
6:
Read 5 items
1] "1Jan2000" "5Mar2001" "1May2002" "10Jun2003" "11Sep2004"
=yxDWQ sy w O=Oa= sy `@=D u}= xvwoJ xm OW Oy=wN xQ=W= xDmv u}= x@ CUQyi =} w CU}r x@ \w@ Qt CtUk QO
O w
" v= N Oy=wN w w x
s-= D Q ] @ =Q
p}=i |wQ =yxO=O uDWwv 2 5 1
"OU} wv|t p}=i |wQ =Q =yxO=O write.table QwDUO
> write.table(x, le=" ")

xQ}NP u
QO =yxO=O xm CU= |r}=i s=v le=" " w
QO w O W x Q}NP CU= Q=Qk xm CU= |}=yxO=O x u
QO xm
" CU= xHwD QwNQO xm w
OQ=O O Hw u t oQ
= w OvJ write.table() ` = @ D QO "O Q}o|t Q=Qk OvwW|t
=yuwDU |t=U= QwO Cr=L u}= QO w CU= T Z i Q V}B CQwYx@ xm OQ=O O Hww quote |k]v = w
t u t oQ
"OO o Q |t h L y P = uW}Dwm OwW quote=F x m |DQwY QO w O Q}o|t Q=Qk uW}Dwm =yh}OQ xQ =tW w
R= h}OQ Qy Q
|= @ w CU= CUQO T Z i Q V}B w x xm
CQ Y @ w
OQ=O O Hw row.names |k]v = w
t u t oQ
"OO o Q |t h L y P = h}OQ xQ=tW Q

OO o row.names=F x m |DQwY QO " yO O |t Q=Qk xQ =tW =yxO=O
w sy Q=vm =yxO=O uwDU OwWv xO =iDU= u

R= Qo = xm OQ=O O Hw xw Ovvm =OH =} sep = x@
s v | Qo}O u=twoQ
"O wtv xO =iDU= u= D w |t sep="\t" = w

u t oQ
R= Q m = u}= R= | Q}owrH Q
|= @ "O W w |t xDWwv p}=i QO ?DQt=v
"O Ww |t xDWwv p}=i QO ?DQt w sy R= u}at xrY=i l} =@ =yxO=O uwDU CQ Y w u}= QO
CtQi R= Q m= u}= Q O =
|= @ " W @ Excel Q
|= @ u v= N O w p@=k xm Owtv xQ}NP R =
u @ R QO |= v o @ =Q xw x p}=i l} u= D w |t
"CU= Q} R KQW x@ QwDUO |rm CQ Y "O Ww w |t xO =iDU= *.csv
> write.csv2(x, le=" .csv")

OQ=O O Hw w row.names |k]v = w
t u t oQ
, =vt "OW=@|t |HwQN p}=i |= @Q =tW x=wNrO s=v xm O}vm xHwD
xm |DQwY QO " yO O |t Q=Qk xQ=tW =yxO=O R= h}OQ Qy Q
|= @ w CU= CUQO T Z iQ V}B CQ Y @w x xm
"CWwv u= D w |t |va} Q |t
"OO o P
h L y = h}OQ xQ =tW Q
OO o row.names=F
> write.csv2(x, le=" .csv", row.names=F)
p}=i R= xO=iDU= =@ uDWwv w uOv=wN pLt 351
u
x@ xm OQ=O O Hww |Qi V}B TQO
' p}=i l} |wQ Q@ uDWwv w p}=i l} |wQ R= u v= N |= @ O w R = Q u @ R QO
Q} R OQ tw x@ "O Ww |t xO =iDU= getwd() ` = @ D R= u

TQO
uOQw
CUOx@ Q Ov} wo
|= @ " working directory
"O}vm xHwD
> getwd()
1] "C:/Documents and Settings/shahin/My Documents"
w}=QO '=tW Q_v w
OQ t TQO
xm O}vm Q qFt
Z i, "O wtv xO =iDU= setwd() ` = @ D R= u= D w |t TQO
u}= Z} waD Q
|= @
"CU= Q} R w x wDUO u}=Q@=v@ 'OW=@

CQ Y @ Q R_les x W B ww D
> setwd("D:/R_les")
"O}vm pQDvm w
=Q O N O}OH TQO
getwd() Q wDUO =@ O}v=wD|t uwvm =
> getwd()
1] "D:/R_les"
u
u}=Q@=v@ 'OO o Q |tQ@ Z i Q V}B TQO
x@ O}OH TQO
" O}vm R=@ =Q R ,=O OHt w O} wW =
GQ N R R= |Dkw =yDvt
O}vm pta Q} R
" w x w
CQ Y @ O W Q= } B TQO
O= Z} waD xm u}= Q CU= |Dkwt s}_vD
|= @ "
x@ \ @ t w Q 2.14.0 =
s kQ= xm O}W=@ xDW=O xHwD "OO o Q Qy=_ |=x QHvB =D 'O}vm CU=Q l}rm uwm}
Q@
s =Hv= =Q Q m = u R }= R= | Qo}O xNUv =@ =tW xm CU= |a}@] ,qt=m u}=Q@=v@ "CU= xO @ w R |Q H = xNUv
" Ovm|tv =i}= |Wkv xHwI}y x@ pta xH}Dv QO Qt= u}= =t= "O}yO
Q_v w
OQ t TQO
Start in: CQ a =@ p@=kt x@aH QO " O}vm l}rm =Qproperties xv R } o Q=L xQHvB QO
O Oy=wN O}OH TQO

=tW ZQi V}B TQO
?}DQD u}= x@ "
' W O} R ok O}r TB
v @ =Q m U w O}vm OQ=w =Q O Nw
O}vm
" w
Z a =Q u
,=O OHt xm u
Qot
17 R |U w x = Q } v t v @ u @R= =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
l} QO xm u}at xWwB l} x@ =tW =t= 'Ov=t@ |k=@ OwN w x@ O}OH

C k TQO
O}y=wN|t xm O}vm Z i u Q wvm =
"O}W=@ xDW=O s}kDUt |UQDUO xv=o =OH R}v TQO
u
x@ O}r}=t w O} Q=O QQmt xaH=Qt 'OQ=O Q= k Q |Y=N Q}Ut
"O}vm pta Q} R w x = u}=
CQ Y @ Q m Q
|= @
Ow
" } W R OQ=w = OD@=
? =NDv= =Q Change dir xv} Ro Q=L xQHvB QO TBU "O}vR@ File =@ =Q CQ a xLiY |q @ |= wvt R=
"OO o Q |t R=@ Browse For Folder = s v x@ |=x QHvB x=ov

'O}vm
getwd() wDUO
Q R= Q}Ut ? =NDv= |DUQO R= u =v}t]= Q O}vm ?}kaD Q_v
|= @ " w xWwB =D
OQ t =Q O N w Q}Ut
O
" yO u =Wv =Q x W Q O =}DN= Q}Ut O}=@ O}vm xO =iDU=
x =ov
'O}vm ?=NDv= =Q Save Workspace xv} Ro TBU "O}vR@ =Q File =@ xLiY |q=@ |wvt
CQ a R=
w |t R=@
"O W Save image in = x@
s v |=x QHvB
" O}vR@ =Q Save O}r m 'u

QO | Q}}eD I}y O O
uw @ " yO |t u=Wv =Q x W Q O =}DN= Q}Ut u=ty Q=L xQHvB
OvwUB =Hv}= O}vm|t xOy=Wt

QO " =Q u wm}
x=ov
"O} wQ@ u=DQ_v OQ t w xWwB x@ TBU "O}Ov@ R =Q
=@ w xO wtv ? =NDv= x=wNrO x@ sU= l} O}v=wD|t u}=Q@=v@ O w

"OQ= v O Hw u
|= @ Q |tU= =t= CU= RData
POT.RData xH}D v OW=@ POT Q_v OQwt sU= Qo = ,qFt "O}vm xi== =Q u
Rename VwQ R= xO=iDU=
"OO o Q |t
u}= R= " Desktop xLi

O}vm O=H}= OwN Rw Ov} w Y |wQ shortcut l} u
R= O}v=wD|t =tW u wvm =
xrt R xLi = H Y | y xDWwv Q]U u} QN
QO ,qw= " } W Ow R OQ=w shortcut
Previously saved workspace restored]
"O W w |t x_Lqt Q_v w
OQ t TQO
u =ty 'O}vm =QH= =Q getwd() QwDUO Qo = ,=}v=F "OO o Q |t Qy=_
=yxO=O Q=DN=U 6 1
"O wtv |Q= Oyov Q} R =

| yCQ Y w x@ =Q =yxO=O u= D w |t R =
u @ R QO
(vector) Q=O @ Q
(matrix) T Q = } D t
(array) x }=Q
(data frame) w =
Q=O? JQ J | yxO=O =
(time series) | = Q
v tR | U | yxO=O =
(list) C U Qyi
w |t xDN=OQB =yu
"O W R= l} Qy |= RHt KQW x@ uwvm =
=yQ=OQ@ 161
OvDUy u=Um} `wv =@ xO=O OvJ pt=W xm CU= |W Q=OQ@ "OvDUy =yQ=OQ@ 'R u=@ R QO =yxO=O Q=DN=U u} QDxO=U
'
" CN=U =Q Q=OQ@ c() `@=D =@ u=wD|t OW x_Lqt R}v ,q@k xm Qw]v=ty "OvW=@|t ::: w |k]vt ,=t=tD =} w OOa ,=t=tD
" O}vm xHwD Q} R p=kt x@
> x { c(10,5,3,6)
<
> x
1] 10 5 3 6
=} w
> y { c(x, 0.55, x, x)

<
> y
1] 10.00 5.00 3.00 6.00 0.55 10.00 5.00 3.00 6.00 10.00 5.00 3.00
13] 6.00
" O}vm xHwD | QDm =Q=m p=Ft l} x@ uwvm =
> pets { c("cat","dog","gerbil","terrapin")

<
> length(pets)
1] 4
O |t CUOx@ Q} R
" }
w x xDWQ Qy pw] =t=
CQ Y @ "OQ=O O Hww xDWQ Q=yJ xm OyO|t u=Wv length() ` = @ D

<
> nchar(pets)
1] 3 3 6 8
=yQ=OQ@ |wQ |=} Q C=@U=Lt 1 1 6 1
=Q x Q QYva Qy xx p=Ft

Q=O @ Q
|= @ "O W w |t s=Hv= V QYva Qy |wQ ,q wtat O =
|O a | yQ=O @ |wQ C U Q =@ =Lt
"Ovm|t `@ Qt
> x
1] 10 5 3 6
> z {x x<
> z
1] 100 25 9 36
"O wtv p=ta= x Q
Q=O @ |wQ =Q s}DQ=or `@=D ,qFt "O=O QF= Q l} QY=va
Q=O @ |wQ =Q `@=wD w |t
u= D
> log(x)
1] 2.302585 1.609438 1.098612 1.791759
19 R |U w x = Q =
} v t v @ u @R =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
QD|vqw] Q O x@ = D
Q=O @ xR= v= Q |t Q=QmD QOkv
QDx=Dwm
OO o Q OvW=@v u=Um} pw]
Q=O @ ' Q
|=Q=O Q=O @ wO xm |Dr=L QO
O Q}o Q_v
" } QO =Q O aO l} Q =
w Q=O @ xO U p t "O W =F w
> sqrt(x) + 2
1] 5.162278 4.236068 3.732051 4.449490
`tH 2 OOa =@ Q QYva Qy TBU
Q=O @ Q
w OO o x Q w
Q=O @ p ] xR= v= O x@ =D CU= xOW Q=QmD Q=@ Q=yJ 2 O =Hv}=
O a QO
" OvW=@ Q=O @Q Ovwrta wO Qy xm xm O}vm xHwD |r=Ft x@ uwvm = "O W w |t
> x { c(1,2,3,4)
<
> y { c(1,2,3,4,5,6)
<
> z {x y
<
Warning message:
In x y : longer object length is not a multiple of shorter object length
> z
1] 1 4 9 16 5 12
Q=OQ@ Q} R O=H}=
"O wtv O=H}= Q Q

=Q Q=O @ } R l} w |t
u= D w
CQ Y wO x@
=F
p t " O}vm XNWt w
=Q O W ? =NDv= O}=@ xm Q =v
| Y a xQ =tW
> x { c(3,11,8,15,12)
<
> xc(2,4)]
1] 11 15
"Owtv P
h L =Q sRq Q}e QY=va u= D w |t QY=va xQ =tW |ivt O
O= a= R= xO =iDU= =@
> x { c(3,11,8,15,12)
<
> x-c(2,3)]
1] 3 15 12
O}vm xHwD
" w |t s=Hv=
'O W u
|wQ C =}rta u= wva x@ xm |OQ= t w x@ "CU= Zw Qit Q} R w x
CQ Y @ x Q=O @Q
> x { c(1,3,6,10,15)
<
> x1]
1] 1
> x5]
1] 15
> length(x)
1] 5
> dim(x)
NULL
> nrow(x)
NULL
> ncol(x)
NULL
|vwDU Q=O @ Q l} xx m O}y=wN@ Qo = "CU}v O=a@= |=Q=O T} QD=t h qN Q@ Q O}vm|t x_Lqt xm Qw]u=ty
Q=O @ '
" O}vm xHwD Q} R | y )

m= O x@ "O wtv h} QaD T} QD=t l} w x
CQ Y @ =Q u
O}=@ Q
'OO o
> x { as.matrix(x)
<
> dim(x)
1] 5 1
=@ =yu
R =
u @ R QO CQ Y w u}= QO "OvW=@ xOW 13 Owkit |}=yxO=O =} xO=O xm CU= umtt =yxO=O Q
| U QO
=
u @R | =tvy=Q x@ O}=@ xm 'CU= Cw=iDt =yNA w
OQ t QO R` w pta
@= D |x wLv "OvwW|t xO=O u=Wv NA C q t a
"OO o Q |t Qm P p=Ft u= wva x@ `@=D xU =Hv}= QO "O wtv xaH=Qt
" Ovm|t pkDvt | UQ QN

x@ =Q NA =
| yxO=O order() ` = @ D 1
> x { c(1, 20, 2, NA, 22)

<
> order(x)
1] 1 3 2 5 4
> xorder(x)]
1] 1 2 20 22 NA
" Ovm|t P w x w
h L O N @O N =Q NA =
| yxO=O sort() ` = @ D 2
> x - c(1, 20, 2, NA, 22)

<
> sort(x)
1] 1 2 20 22
=
=Q Q m na.rm=T |DUO CQ Y @w x O}=@ w Ovm|tv pta j iw `@=D wO R= l}I}y pFt mean() ` = @ D 3
"O=O s =Hv=QU
> x { c(1, 20, 2, NA, 22)

<
> mean(x)
1] NA
> mean(x, na.rm=T)
1] 11.25
"O wtv xO =iDU= R}v Q} R pL x=Q R= u= D w |t xD@r=
> x { c(1,2,NA,3,4)
<
> y { x!is.na(x)]
<
> mean(y)
1] 2.5
"O m Q pta Q} R w x
CQ Y @ u= D w |t "O}vm Z aw -999 Q= Okt =@ =Q NA qF , t O}y=wN@ Qo = uwvm =
> xis.na(x)] { -999 <
> x
1] 1 2 -999 3 4
13. missing data
21 R |U w x = Q
} v t v @ u @R = =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
"O Ww |t =yQ=OQ@ x@ w Q xm O}vm xHwD Q} R ?r=H p=Ft x@ uwvm =

\ @ t
> x { 0:10
<
> x
1] 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
> sum(x)
1] 55
Qo = =t= w |t x@U=Lt
"O W sum() ` = @ D =@ =yv
`wtHt TBU w xO wtv Q=}DN= =Q 10 = 0 D O= a=O x Q}eD t
xm OUQ|t Q_v x@ Qt= =

|O @ QO " O}vm `tH sy =@ =Q xQ }O =kt R= |WN@ O}y=wN@
> sum(x 5) <
1] 5
" CU= xO wtv pta Q} R w x
CQ Y @ R = Q
u @R = }R " CU}v CUQO ?= H w xD@r= xm
> x 5<
1] TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
x@ p}O@D =Q =yFALSE w 1 O x@ p}O@D
O a =Q =yTRUE w xDiQo Q_v QO =Q x<5 |k]v t CQ a =@ |va}
xr=Ut pL |=Q@ xQNq=@ =t= "CU= xOW x@U=Lt 5 OOa |va} =yTRUE `tH TBU "CU= xOwtv 0 OOa
"O wtv pta CQ Y @ w x O}=@
> sum(xx 5]) <
1] 10
cumsum() `@=D
u
QYva u}t=i w CU= |OwQw | yxO=O = x}rw= Q Q@=Q@
Q=O @ u
p ] w xm Ovm|t O=H}= =Q |Q=O @ Q cumsum() ` = @ D
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "CU= =

|OwQw | yxO=O pw= QYv i `t Q Q
a H @= @
> cumsum(rep(2,10))
1] 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
which() `@=D 2 1 6 1
xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ uwvm = "OO oQ |tQ@ which() ` = @ D \UwD u

T}Ov= OW Q=QkQ@ Q=O @ Q l} QO |Y=N \ W Q Qo =
"O}vm
>vals { c(1,3,2,68,11,13,19,8,49,4)
<
>my_max - max(vals) <
>which_val { which(vals == my_max)

<
>cat(c("Max =", my_max, "Val#", which_val, "\n"))

Max = 68 Val# 4
O
" t
CUOx@ u
T}Ov= w QFm =OL QYva w = O
j i | y m |= H= @ O W Q = w |t x_Lqt xm Qw]u=ty
=yT} QD=t 261
Q CU= u=Um}
|= @ " = w
| yxO=O ` v |=Q=O T} QD=t l} QY=va s=tD Q=O @Q Ovv=t "CU= Q=OQ@ \U@ T} QD=t `k=w QO
ncol = nc
} w u wDU O=OaD w nrow =} w nr Q]U O=OaD w c() ` = @ D QY=va Q CU= |i=m T} QD=t uDN=U
|= @
" O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ uwvm = "O wtv h} QaD
> A - matrix(c(1,2,3,4), nr=2, nc=2)

<
> A
,1] ,2]
1,] 1 3
2,] 2 4
=F
%p t "O Ww |t xO =iDU= Ai,j] R= ' O}vm =O}B CUO T} QD=t R= x}
QO l} x@ xm O}y=wN@ Qo = uwvm =
> A1,2]
1] 3
%p t "=F Ci=} CUO T} QD=t R= |v}at |vwDU =} Q]U x@ w |t
u= D
> A,1]
1] 1 2
> A2,]
1] 2 4
w x xH}Dv OwW xO=iDU= dim() uw}Uv=t}O `@=D R= Qo = w CU}v x}=Q
l} A,1] OwW|t x_Lqt xm Qw]v=ty
CQ Y @
" CU= Q} R
> dim(A,1])

NULL
O}OH OQ@ Q=m =@ p@k p=Ft x@ "OO Qov P
h L x}=Q
C}Y=N =D Owtv xO =iDU= drop s v = x@ |v=twoQ
R= u= D w |t =t=
" O}vm xHwD
> A,1,drop=F]
,1]
1,] 1
2,] 2
> dim(A,1,drop=F])
1] 2 1
Q} R p=Ft x@ "OvwW|t xQ}NP Z i Q V}B |vwDU w x
CQ Y @ R =
u @ R QO T} QD=t QY=va xm O}W=@ xDW=O xHwD
"O}vm xHwD
> xx { matrix(1:6,ncol=3) # Equivalently, enter matrix(1:6,nrow=2)

<
> xx
,1] ,2] ,3]
1,] 1 3 5
2,] 2 4 6
23 R |U w x = Q
} v t v @ u @R = =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
w |t
"O W xO =iDU= 14 |L}wD C qtH Q
uO=O Q= k |= @ Q R =
u @ R QO # Ctqa R= %xHwD
Q} R p=Ft x@ "Owtv xO=iDU= byrow=T =@

CQ a R= O}=@ OW=@ |Q]U pmW x@ uOW xQ}NP |xwLv xm O}y=wN@ Qo =
"O}vm xHwD
> xx { matrix(1:6, ncol=3, byrow=T)

<
> xx
,1] ,2] ,3]
1,] 1 2 3
2,] 4 5 6
x@ |}=yxO=O p}=i xm O}vm Q
Z i " v= N O w |tv O w x
pw H CQ Y @ =Q =yxO=O scan() ` = @ D OW xDio ,q@k xm Qw]u=ty
O = Q} R
" W @ w x
CQ Y @ try.txt s v =
123
456
789
" CU= Q} R w x |HwQN
CQ Y @ w |t xOv=wN
"O W scan() ` = @ D R= xO =iDU= =@ uwvm =
> scan( "D:\\R_les\\try.txt")

Read 9 items
1] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
O
" W Oy=wN îL O
pw H CQ Y @ w x |HwQN xm OwW|t xOy=Wt "OO o Q |t xO =iDU= T} QD=t `@=D =
R= q L
> matrix(scan("D:\\R_les\\try.txt"), byrow=T, ncol=3)

Read 9 items
,1] ,2] ,3]
1,] 1 2 3
2,] 4 5 6
3,] 7 8 9
"O}vm xHwD Q} R x}=Q
Q} R x@ uwvm =
> B { matrix(1:6, nr=2)

<
> B
,1] ,2] ,3]
1,] 1 3 5
2,] 2 4 6
> B,2:3]
,1] ,2]
1,] 3 5
2,] 4 6
" O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "O}vm xO =iDU= as.vector ` = @ D R= O}
QO Q
Q=O @ CQ Y w x@ T} QD=t l} xm O}y=wN@ Qo =
> xx { matrix(1:6, ncol=3)

<
O Q}o|t Q=Qk
" v =iDU=
xO OQ tw OvQ=O h}YwD x@ R=}v xm |r=ta= =} w C=Q wDUO KQW Q
|= @ w OvwW|tv =QH= C qtH xvwou}= "14
> xx
,1] ,2] ,3]
1,] 1 2 3
2,] 4 5 6
> x { as.vector(xx)
<
> x
1] 1 2 3 4 5 6
dim() uw}Uv=t}O `@=D \UwD Q=m u}= "O=O Q}}eD O
=Q O= a= R= | UQ l} pmW w |t xvwoJ xm O}vm xHwD uwvm =
u= D
" O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ Q}o|t

"O CQ Yw
> x { 1:24
<
> dim(x) { c(2,12)<
> x
,1] ,2] ,3] ,4] ,5] ,6] ,7] ,8] ,9] ,10] ,11] ,12]
1,] 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23
2,] 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ q=L
> x { 1:24
<
> dim(x) { c(3,4,2)<
> x
,,1
,1] ,2] ,3] ,4]

1,] 1 4 7 10
2,] 2 5 8 11
3,] 3 6 9 12
,,2
,1] ,2] ,3] ,4]

1,] 13 16 19 22
2,] 14 17 20 23
3,] 15 18 21 24
=F
pw= p t " yO O |t u=Wv =Q <;
Ctqa w = Ctqa OQ@ Q=m Cw =iD xm O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft wO x@ uwvm =
Q |t xH=wt =]N =@ xm 'CU= T} QD=t u=twoQ
"OO o QO |w=UD Ctqa OQ@ Q=m
> matrix(a = 10, 5, 5)

Error in matrix(a = 10, 5, 5) : unused argument(s) (a = 10)
"CU= T} QD=t u=twoQ
QO <; Ctqa OQ@ Q=m =F
swO p t
> matrix(a { 10, 5, 5)

<
25 R |U w x = Q
} v t v @ u @R = =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
,1] ,2] ,3] ,4] ,5]

1,] 10 10 10 10 10
2,] 10 10 10 10 10
3,] 10 10 10 10 10
4,] 10 10 10 10 10
5,] 10 10 10 10 10
" CW=O R}v =RHt Qw]x@ =Q a Q= Okt w |t xD@r= "OyO|t u=Wv
u= D =Q 55 T Q= } D t l} xm
> a
1] 10
pYDt Qo}Om} x@ uwDU =} w Q]U ?UL Q@ =Q T} QD=t wO =} w x}=Q
wO Ovv=wD|t cbind() rbind() ` w w
@= D
O Q}o@ Q_v
" } QO =Q T} QD=t u}rw= p=Ft u=wva x@ "Ov}=tv
> m1 { matrix(1, nr=2, nc=2)

<
> m1
,1] ,2]
1,] 1 1
2,] 1 1
" CU= Q} R CQ Y w x@ p=Ft T} QD=t u}twO
> m2 { matrix(2, nr=2, nc=2)

<
> m2
,1] ,2]
1,] 2 2
2,] 2 2
" CU= Q} R w
CQ Y x@ xH}Dv x=ov
'O Ww |t p=ta= m1, m2 = T} QD=t
| y |wQ rbind ` = @ D u wvm =
> rbind(m1, m2)

,1] ,2]
1,] 1 1
2,] 1 1
3,] 2 2
4,] 2 2
" CU= Q} R CQ Y w x@ xH}Dv x=ov
'O W w |t p=ta= m1, m2 | y= T} QD=t |wQ cbind ` = @ D Qo =
> cbind(m1, m2)

,1] ,2] ,3] ,4]
1,] 1 1 2 2
2,] 1 1 2 2
|U} wvxt=vQ@ x@ =}
|R v w O wtv p=ta= uwDU w Q]U =} w Q]U 'u wDU |wQ =Q `@=D l} u= D w |t apply() ` = @ D =@
MARGIN T Q = X ' } D t u
QO xm 'CU= apply(X, MARGIN, FUN,...) CQ Y w x@ |rm wLv "CU}v
... Q =t C Q
w OO o p a= U= Q= k xm CU= |a = FUN c(1,2)
@ D Q = ' wD wO y } w 2 u U ' 1 Q]U xOvyOu=Wv
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "CU= `@=D |Q =}DN= =
| yu t oQ
= w
> x { rnorm(10, -5, 0.1)

<
> y { rnorm(10, 5, 2)
<
> X { cbind(x, y)
<
> apply(X, 2, mean)

x y
-5.027833 4.617558
> apply(X, 2, sd)
x y
0.1023305 1.8215198
=F
p t u= wva x@ apply() `@=D "CU= uwDU xU pt=W w |t xO}t=v
w O W trees x w
m OQ=O O Hw |=xO=O ' R =
u @ R QO
"OO o Q |t p=ta= u
|wQ
> apply(trees, 2, sum)

Girth Height Volume
410.7 2356.0 935.3
pta Q} R w
CQ Y wO x@ u= Dw |t 'O}vm x@U=Lt =Q Height u wDU l} `tH ,qFt \ki xm O}y=wN@ Qo = uwvm =
"Owtv
> sum(trees,2])

1] 2356
=} w
> sum(trees$Height)
1] 2356
u= Dw |tv trees =
| yxO=O u wDU s=v R= \ki : : : u}o =}
w v t ' `tH x@U=Lt Q w
|= @ j i CQ Y wO w Qy Q
QO x Nq @ t= = =
`@=D =@ = OD@=
=Q xO=O s v = "O wtv =iDU=
xO w | attach()
u= D t = x@
s v R =
u @ R QO |a@=D = u}=
R= Q m Q
|= @ "O wtv xO =iDU=
"O=O s =Hv= =Q j i Cw =}rta =yuwDU s=v =@ w |t TBU
u= D w O}v=wN|t =Qi Qwm Pt
> attach(trees)
> sum(Height)
1] 2356
xO =iDU= names() ` = @ D R= u= D w |t trees =
| yxO=O xawtHt pN=O QO =yQ}eDt |t=U= w O= OaD q]=
R= ` |= @ Q
"Owtv
> names(trees)
1] "Girth" "Height" "Volume"
=
| yu t oQ
= w x@ p=Ft u=wva x@ "OyO u=Wv =tW x@ =Q `@=D l} |=yu=twoQ
Ov=wD|t args() `@=D R u=@ R QO %xHwD
" O}vm xHwD apply() ` = @ D
> args(apply)
function (X, MARGIN, FUN, ...)
NULL
27 R |U w x = Q
} v t v @ u @R = =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
|W l} Q=DN=U xOy=Wt 1 2 6 1
=
s v "O Ww |t xO}t=v str() x m O wtv xO =iDU= |a@=D w |t
R= u= D args() names() ` w Q q R =
w @= D @ xw a u @ R QO
=
' yxO=O R= sa= |W Qy Q=DN=U Ov=wD|t `@=D u}= "OOQo|t | = =D = =va x structure xtr
W v Q N U | t @ str ` = m R= @ D
"O}vm x w Q
H D =F x O
}R p t =W : : : ` w = Q}eD
@ " yO u v =Q w @= D ' y t
> str(trees)
'data.frame': 31 obs. of 3 variables:
$ Girth : num 8.3 8.6 8.8 10.5 10.7 10.8 11 11 11.1 11.2 ...
$ Height: num 70 65 63 72 81 83 66 75 80 75 ...
$ Volume: num 10.3 10.3 10.2 16.4 18.8 19.7 15.6 18.2 22.6 19.9 ...
Q}eDt Qy =
| yxO=O R= |DtUk w =yxO=O O= OaD '=yxO=O `wv u= D w |t =yQ}eDt |t=U= w O= OaD Q@ xwqa =Hv}= QO
"O wtv xOy=Wt =Q
" O}vm x=ov 'Gw NQ `@=D |va} q() ` = =D =

@ D Q N U x@ p=Ft u= wva x@ =} w
> str(q)
function (save = "default", status = 0, runLast = TRUE)
u C=}rta w T} QD=t 2 2 6 1
m1, m2 T Q = Q pY=L x@ p=Ft

} D t wO ? Q
|= @ "O W w |t xO=iDU= %*% Qorta R= T} QD=t wO ? |= @ Q Q
"O}vm xHwD
> rbind(m1,m2) %*% cbind(m1, m2)

,1] ,2] ,3] ,4]
1,] 2 2 4 4
2,] 2 2 4 4
3,] 4 4 8 8
4,] 4 4 8 8
=} w
> cbind(m1, m2) %*% rbind(m1, m2)

,1] ,2]
1,] 10 10
2,] 10 10
=} w |Q]k = x
| y }
QO Q}}eD =} w G= QNDU= Q
|= @ diag() ` = @ D "OO o Q |t pY=L t() ` = @ D \UwD x}=Q
l} xO =yv=QD
"OwQ |t Q=mx@ | Q]k T} QD=t l} uDN=U
> diag(m1)
1] 1 1
> diag(rbind(m1, m2) %*% cbind(m1, m2))

1] 2 2 8 8
> diag(m1) { 10<
> m1
,1] ,2]
1,] 10 1
2,] 1 10
> diag(3)
,1] ,2] ,3]
1,] 1 0 0
2,] 0 1 0
3,] 0 0 1
> v { c(10, 20, 30)
<
> diag(v)
,1] ,2] ,3]
1,] 10 0 0
2,] 0 20 0
3,] 0 0 30
u}}=B ErFt T} QD=t =} w q @= ErFt T} QD=t 'u
| y = T}Ov= w T} QD=t l} uwDU w Q]U R= xO =iDU= =@ u= D w |t
"O wtv O=H}=
> A { matrix(1:9, nc=3)

<
> Arow(A) col(A)] { 0

> <
> A
,1] ,2] ,3]
1,] 1 4 7
2,] 0 5 8
3,] 0 0 9
solve() QwDUO 'u=v}tQDO x@U=Lt Q
|= @ det() Q wDUO "OQ=O |U} QD=t C U =@ =Lt Q |Y=N `@=wD
|= @ R =
u @R
"OwQ |t Q=mx@ xS} w =

| yQ=O @ wQ Q}O=kt uOQw
CUO@ Q
|= @ eigen() Q wDUO w T} QD=t uO wtv T wmat |= @ Q
"OO o Q |t Twmat Q} R T} QD=t =Hv}= QO %p=Ft
> x {2
<
> y {3
<
> z {3
<
> t {4
<
> m { matrix(c(2 x, y, z+1, t+1), 2)

<
> solve(m)
Q |t pY=L Q} R xH}Dv Q}N=
"OO o | y )= O
m |= H= Q =@
,1] ,2]
1,] 0.625 -0.5
2,] -0.375 0.5
29 R |U w x = Q =
} v t v @ u @R =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
|]N CqO=at x=oDUO pL 3 2 6 1
xHwD Q} R pwyHt wO xrO=at wO pL x@ p=Ft Q

|= @ "Owtv pL =Q p wyHt OvJ xrO=at OvJ u= D w |t solve() ` = @ D @ =
8 "O}vm
>
<x1 + 2x2 = 1
>
:3x1 + 4x2 = 1
" }
O |t QO Q} R CQ Yw x@ O}U} wv@ |U} QD=t sQi x@ =Q u
Qo =
0 10 1 0 1
@1 2A @x1A = @1A
3 4 x2 1
"O}vm xHwD u
R | y )
m= O x@ uwvm =
> A { matrix(c(1, 3, 2, 4), ncol = 2)

<
> b { c(1, 1)
<
> solve(A, b)
1] -1 1
|=xrtHOvJ xrO=at pL 4 2 6 1
u
w CU= zx = w
m OQ=O u t oQ
l} `@=D |= "O Ww |t xO =iDU= polyroot() ` = @ D R= CqO =at `wv u}= pL |= @ Q
Q} R x]@=Q x@ wvm =
u "OO oQ |t s}_vD =
u
| yu= D w V}=Ri= w x xm
CQ Y @ |= xrtHOvJ ?}=Q Q
Q=O @ R= CUDQ=@a
"O}vm xHwD
p(x) = z1 + z2 x + z3 x2 + + zn xn;1
O}vm xHwD p=Ft OvJ x@ q=L "CU=
" z1 : n] Q w x Q=O @ CQ Y @ |= xrtHOvJ ?}=Q
x2 ; 0:3x ; 1:8 = 0 swO xHQO xrO=at pL
> polyroot(c(-1.8,-0.3,1))
1] 1.5+0i -1.2+0i
"CU= QiY Q@=Q@ u
pw= xHQO ?} Q xm 2 ; 4 x =0 swO xHQOxrO=at pL
> polyroot(c(-4,0,1))
1] 2+0i -2+0i
x3 + 6x2 + 11x + 6 = 0 w
s U xHQO xrO=at pL
> polyroot(c(6,11,6,1))
1] -1+0i -2-0i -3+0i
w
|OQ= t QO t= " = CU= \rDNt O=Oa= CQwYx@ CqO=at xW} Q V}=tv OW x_Lqt Q}N= |=yp=Ft QO xm Qw]u=ty
" CU= QiY =@ Q}=Q@ i | w w O ? Q OvDU
t y t O a } y |k}kL =} w K}LY =yxW} Q xm
"O}vm xHwD x3 ; x2 + 1:5x ; 1:5 = 0 s U w xHQO xrO=at pL x@ xQNq=@
> polyroot(c(-1.5,1.5,-1,1))
1] 1+0.000000i 0+1.224745i 0-1.224745i
15 Q=O?wJQ=J |=yxO=O 361
hrDNt =
| yxO=O ` v w =@ =
| yu wDU w
|=Q=O Q=O? JQ J | yxO=O "= = CU= T} QD=t \U@ =yxO=O `wv u}= `k=w QO
= =
u @ R QO |Q t
| yp=wQ = QFm = '`k=w O = |t
QO " W @ R QO p}rLD w x} RHD QO =yxO=O Q=DN=U u} QD?U=vt w CU=
" O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ uwvm = "CU= CUO u}= =
R= |OwQw | yxO=O OvtR=}v R
> mtcars
mpg cyl disp hp drat wt qsec vs am gear carb
Mazda RX4 21.0 6 160.0 110 3.90 2.620 16.46 0 1 4 4
Mazda RX4 Wag 21.0 6 160.0 110 3.90 2.875 17.02 0 1 4 4
Datsun 710 22.8 4 108.0 93 3.85 2.320 18.61 1 1 4 1
Hornet 4 Drive 21.4 6 258.0 110 3.08 3.215 19.44 1 0 3 1
Hornet Sportabout 18.7 8 360.0 175 3.15 3.440 17.02 0 0 3 2
=yuwDU w wQO N w l} xOv}=tv Q]U Qy q=@ O
pw H QO " CU= hrDNt =
| ywQO N C a w = q]= pt=W =yxO=O u}=
O
" yO |t u=Wv wQ =
=Q Q D= @ Q m O a O carb Q}eD t p t=F u}= QO " CU= =yQ}eDt xOvyOV}=tv
Q=O @ Q l} u
u wDU Qy "CU= 16 xOQDUo xLiY l} pFt w =
Q=O? JQ J | yxO=O = xm O}vm QwYD O}v=wD|t =tW
=
| y` v @ w = |}=yxO=O |=Q=O Cw =iDt = Q
| yQ=O @ |wQ Qyx@ =t= "OvQ=O u=Um} `wv QY=va s=tD Q Qy pN=O "CU=
Q=O @
OvW=@|t Q@=Q@ pw]

" |=Q=O Q N U =D = u}= QO =yQ=OQ@ s=tD "OvDUy uwo =vwo
Q=O?wJQ=J |=yxO=O X=wN 1 3 6 1
w =yuwDU |t=U= pt=W |t=U= C}Y=N "OvW=@ =yQ]U s=v w |t=U= X= N |=Q=Ow Ovv=wD|t =yxO=O `wv u}=
" O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "OvW=@|t =yQ]U |t=U= V}=tv =yQ]U s=v C}Y=N
> rownames(mtcars)1:5]

1] "Mazda RX4" "Mazda RX4 Wag" "Datsun 710"
4] "Hornet 4 Drive" "Hornet Sportabout"
=} w
> names(mtcars)
1] "mpg" "cyl" "disp" "hp" "drat" "wt" "qsec" "vs" "am" "gear"
11] "carb"
15. data frame 16. spreadsheet
31 R |U w x = Q =
} v t v @ u @R =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
Q=O?wJQ=J |=yxO=O O=H}= 2 3 6 1
CU= p}=i l} j} Q]
" R= =yxO=O uOv=wN =yu
R= |m} w
"OQ=O O Hw |irDNt =
| yx=Q =yxO=O `wv u}= O=H}= |= @ Q
"O}vm xHwD Q} R =
| yp t=F x@ "OW=@|t data.frame() ` = @ D R= xO =iDU= Qo}O VwQ
> my.logical { sample(c(T,F), size = 5, replace = T)

<
> my.numeric { rnorm(5)

<
> my.df { data.frame(my.logical,my.numeric)

<
> my.df
my.logical my.numeric
1 FALSE -0.05643126
2 FALSE 0.21557811
3 FALSE -0.04023551
4 TRUE -0.50746280
5 FALSE -1.63608548
=} w
> test - matrix(rnorm(21),7,3)

<
> test - data.frame(test)

<
> test
X1 X2 X3
1 -0.9247492 0.18698082 -1.39943435
2 -0.6256957 0.86310566 0.91401401
3 -0.3338215 -0.74399557 0.08866272
4 0.7411739 -0.61656031 0.18208417
5 0.3436381 -0.64038437 -0.76397593
6 -1.0379184 -0.49068270 0.21339323
7 -0.5624376 -0.01380767 -1.69015277
"O}vm xO =iDU= = =F
q @ p t QO |t=U= C}Y=N R= uwvm =
> names(test)
1] "X1" "X2" "X3"
w
=Q O N x= wNrO |t=U= O}v=wD|t =tW "CU= xO}t=v X1, X2, X3 =Q =yuwDU |t=U= Q=mOwN w x
CQ Y @ R =
u @R
"O}yO Q=Qk
> names(test) { c("Price", "Length", "Income")

<
> row.names(test) { c("Ali","Abas","Hamid","Saeed","Amir","Mehdi","Majid")

<
> test
Price Length Income

Ali -0.9247492 0.18698082 -1.39943435
Abas -0.6256957 0.86310566 0.91401401
Hamid -0.3338215 -0.74399557 0.08866272
Saeed 0.7411739 -0.61656031 0.18208417
Amir 0.3436381 -0.64038437 -0.76397593
Mehdi -1.0379184 -0.49068270 0.21339323
Majid -0.5624376 -0.01380767 -1.69015277
w =
Q=O? JQ J | yxO=O = =@ xm O=O s =Hv= =yT} QD=t =@ w |t
u= D =Q |Dw=iDt C =}rta OW x_Lqt ,q@k xm Qw]u=ty
"O wtv xO=iDU= as.matrix() `@=D R= u=wD|t 'T} QD=t x@ Q=O?wJQ=J |=yxO=O p}O@D |=Q@ "OQ=Ov OwHw u
u=mt=
R w
sw r CQ Y QO w 'O wtv x_Lqt xO QDUo xLiY l} CQ Y w x@ w =
=Q Q=O? JQ J | yxO=O u= D= w |t R =
u @ R QO
"O W w |t xO =iDU= edit() = x() `

} w w
@= D R= Q m = u}= Q
|= @ "O m Q V}=Q} w =Q =yv
factor() `@=D 461
" OvyO|t u=Wv factor = R @ =

u @ R QO =Q =yv
xm OvwW|t u=}@ |= r x wkt =} |= xDUO CQ Y w x@ =yQ}eDt R= |
a@
"?DQt w ?DQt Q}e %OvwW|t u=}@ CQ Y wO w x@ =yQ}eDt u}=
=t= "OvDUy ?DQt Q}e QwDm =i xm ::: w |UQ '|=xU=t '|vW ,qFt 'O} Q}o@ Q_v QO = =
=Q yl N `= v= p t u= w =F wva x@
QO O}vm|t x_Lqt xm Qw]v=ty "CU= ?DQt QwDm =i u}= 'O}vm s}UkD w |r}N w
| k | k 'w h}a x@ =yl =N Qo =
O}vm xHwD Q} R
" | y )
m= O x@ uwvm = O w
"OQ= v O Hw pw= VN@ QO xm OwW|t T =UL= |a}@] ?}DQD l} Q}N= CtUk
> soil.types { c("clay","loam","sand","loam","clay")

<
> soil.types { factor(soil.types)

<
> soil.types
1] clay loam sand loam clay
Levels: clay loam sand
x@ xm O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ q=L "CU= xO=O u =Wv =Q l N = K]U xU =} =
w l N ` v w xU levels CtU k QO
"CU= ?DQt CQ Y w
> soil.degrees { c("weak","average","stronge","weak","stronge")

<
> soil.degrees { ordered(soil.degrees,levels=c("weak","average","stronge"))

<
> soil.degrees
1] weak average stronge weak stronge
Levels: weak average stronge
< <
"O=O u =Wv R}v O

|O a CQ Y w x@ =yv
u= D w |t xm "OyO|t u=Wv =Q K w]U ?}DQD QN
Q]U
> soil.numeric { as.double(soil.degrees)

<
> soil.numeric
1] 1 2 3 1 3
33 R |U w x = Q =
} v t v @ u @R =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
|v=tR |QU |=yC}OwHwt 561
w
"OQ=O O Hw =yu
QO xirw-t Q |t O=H}=
wO "OO o ts() ` = = |v=tR
@ D @ =
| y| U < Q |W R =
u @ R QO
O
" yO |t p}mWD =Q =RHt |v=tR Q l} uwDU Qy xm CU= |OOa
| U =
| yxO=O R= |U} QD=t =} Q =
Q=O @ ' yxO=O
"CU= |N} Q=D |w =Ut pY=wi '=yxO=O M} Q=D
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ uwvm =
> my.ts - ts(matrix(rnorm(30), ncol = 2), start = c(1987), freq = 12)

<
> my.ts
Series 1 Series 2
Jan 1987 -0.39579521 -0.9026295
Feb 1987 -0.36649473 0.2915367
Mar 1987 -0.40674973 -1.8566028
Apr 1987 0.32428545 -0.3488452
May 1987 0.55310221 -1.6910047
Jun 1987 -1.03032817 1.3434787
Jul 1987 0.70500090 1.4546442
Aug 1987 -1.47332244 1.6205861
Sep 1987 0.58314662 0.6378932
Oct 1987 1.55713060 -1.9681021
Nov 1987 0.74596283 0.8186411
Dec 1987 0.16404647 -1.1321248
Jan 1988 -0.03516499 -0.1627264
Feb 1988 -0.18482688 -1.2735001
Mar 1988 -1.16434845 -1.0717075
17 =yCUQyi 661
=D = Q
|Q N U y w ` v y w Q pt=W xm OW=@ |W Ov=wD|t CUQyi l} QYva Qy =t= "CU= Q=OQ@ x}@W CUQyi =} w CU}r
hrDNt |=yQ=DN=U |=Q@ u=wD|t u}=Q@=v@ 'OW=@ |Qo}O CUQyi pt=W Ov=wD|t OwN CUQyi l} xH}Dv QO "CU=
"OwQ |t Q=mx@ R = =
u @ R QO |Q t
|HwQN = Q =@ = CUQyi =}
| yp=wQ |= @ , r e w CU}r wtv
"O xO =iDU= u
R= =yxO=O
O = |t xQ}e w xOW |v}@V}B Q}O=kt '=yxOv=t}k=@ '=yQDt=Q=B OQw
Q@ R= |=xawtHt pt=W ,=@r=e |HwQN C}OwHwt
" W @
" CU= uw}UQoQ Q

|= @ C =a@ Qt pk=OL `@=D sQi u} QDxO=U xm 'O}vm xHwD lst() ` = @ D |HwQN x@ p=Ft Q
|= @
> x { 1:5
<
> y { x + rnorm(5,0,0.25)
<
> z { lst(x,y)
<
> z
Intercept X
-0.1150539 0.9848682
17. Lists
1] 0.259665308 -0.339443370 -0.001599916 -0.017131291 0.098509268

1] TRUE
u
xirw-t u}rw= xm CU= CUQyi l} u}= "CU= xOW xO=O C@Uv z x lst(x,y) |
@ Q
Hw N Q= Okt p=Ft u}= QO
OyO|t u=Wv OL=w pw] =@ swU Q=OQ@ "CU=yxOv=t}k=@ R= |Q=OQ@ swO xirw-t "CU= <=O@t R= Z a w Q ?}W Q=OQ@
# Q}N =} CU= xOW xO =iDU= <= O@t R= Z a R= Q =}
xm
% CU= G= QNDU= p@=k hrDNt =
| yVwQ x@ CUQyi l} QY=va
=t= w |t
"O W xO =iDU= ] xDU = xWwQm l}
@ w R @ R= x}=Q
l} QY=va x@ |UQDUO Q q@k %xirw-t
|= @ , xQ =tW
u= wvax@ "OO o Q |t xO =iD ]] w
U= DQO wD xWwQm wO R= CU}r =} w CUQyi l} | y = xirw-t x@ |UQDUO |= @ Q
O
" yO |t u=Wv =Q z xi wr -t u}rw= z1]] p t =F
CU}r =} w CUQyi s=v pw= Q m= u}= Q

|= @ "O wtv xO =iDU= R}v xirw-t s=v R= u= Dw |t |UQDUO Q xirw-t s=v
|= @ %
|= xirw-tz$name =F
p t u= wvax@ "OOQo|t O}k Q_v OQwt xirw-t s=v xQNq=@ w $ Ctqa x=ov
'OwW|t xOQw
CU= xDiQ Q=mx@ s=v CtUk

" QO xm OyO|t u=Wv =Q z R=
CiQo xQy@ z$r R= u=wD|t z$residuals |=H@ ,qFt "Owtv xO=iDU= R}v u
QYDNt R= u=wD|t s=v uOQ@ Q=mx@ |=Q@
"
> test { z$r<
> test
1] 0.259665308 -0.339443370 -0.001599916 -0.017131291 0.098509268
> z$r4] # fourth element of the residuals
1] -0.01713129
CUQyi O=H}= 1 6 6 1
CUQyi | y = xirw-t |= wDLt w CUQyi | y= xirw-t |t=U= "O wtv xO =iDU= list() ` = @ D R= O}=@ CUQyi O=H}= Q
|= @
"OvDUy CU}r `@=D =

| yu t oQ
= w
> x1 { 1:5<
> x2 { c(T,T,F,F,T)
<
> y { list(numbers = x1, wrong = x2)

<
> y
$numbers
1] 1 2 3 4 5
$wrong
1] TRUE TRUE FALSE FALSE TRUE
R =
u @R < |W l} u
CU=Q Q
h ] w CU= xirw-t s=v Qorta AJ CtU O}vm|t x_Lqt xm Qw]u=ty
xirw-t wrong |k]v t < |W q=@ p=Ft QO " CU= CU=Q x@ AJ R= =yu
uDiQo Q=Qk ?}DQD x@ xirw-t x@DQt "CU=
"CU= y swO
35 R |U w x = Q =
} v t v @ u @R =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
> y2]]
"O=O Q}}eD =Q CUQyi |t=U= w |t "Ovm
u= D QNDU=
G= =Q CUQyi | y= xirw-t |t=U= Ov=wD|t names() ` = @ D
> names(y)
1] "numbers" "wrong"
> names(y) { c("lots", "valid")
<
> names(y)
1] "lots" "valid"
R
"Ow i= | Qo}O = xirw-t
| y u= Dw |t |r@k CUQyi x@
> y3]] { 1:30

<
> y$test { "hello"

<
> y
$lots
1] 1 2 3 4 5
$valid
3]]
1] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
26] 26 27 28 29 30
$test
1] "hello"
"O}vm xHwD xWwQm wO w xWwQm l} u}@ Cw =iD x@ uwvm =
> y1]
$lots
1] 1 2 3 4 5
> y1]]
1] 1 2 3 4 5
R= xm |t=ovy =t= "CU= CUQyi l} OwN Q |t pY=L xm
OO o |= xirw-t w |t
'O W xO =iDU= xWwQm l} R= |Dkw
O |t CUOx@ xirw-t OwN \ki OwW|t
" }
xO =iDU= xWwQm wO
O
" yO |t u=Wv =Q CU}r l} xm O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ uwvm =
> x { list(1, c(2, 3), c(4, 5, 6))

<
> x
"CU= Q} R w x
CQ Y @ x |= wDLt
1]]
1] 1
2]]
1] 2 3
3]]
1] 4 5 6
%p=Ft
> x1 { 1:5
<
> x2 { c(T,T,F,F,T)
<
> x3 { matrix(c(0,2,3,5,7,9), nr=2)

<
> y { list(numbers=x1, wrong=x2, mat=x3)

<
> y3]]
" CU= Q} R w x
CQ Y @ q @ = O)m MU=B
,1] ,2] ,3]

1,] 0 3 7
2,] 2 5 9
w x
CQ Y @ =Q QN
QwDUO \ki 'O}W=@ xDW=O =Q u
swO u wDU CU= T} QD=t xm swU xirw-t R= O}y=wN@ Qo = uwvm =
"O}yO Q}}eD Q} R
> y3]],2]

1] 3 5
" CWwv Q} R CQ Y @ =Qw x Q}N= QwDUO u= D w |t =}
> y3]],2, drop=F]

" CU= Q} R w x
CQ Y @ q @ = O)m MU=B
,1]
1,] 3
2,] 5
G}=Dv u=ty xm Owtv xO=iDU= y$mat,2, drop=F] Q wDUO R= u= D w |t =} w y$mat,2] Q wDUO R= u= Dw |t =}
"OO o Q |t pY=L |r@k
"O wtv p}O@D Q l} x@
Q=O @ =Q CU}r l} w |t
u= D unlist() ` = @ D =@ uwvm =
> x { list(1, c(2, 3), c(4, 5, 6))

<
> unlist(x)
1] 1 2 3 4 5 6
37 R |U w x = Q
} v t v @ u @R = =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
O wN@
" v= = QDm =Q=m
=Q y xDWQ
R= |= O
w O= a= Ov=wD|t =RHt w x
CQ Y @ scan() ` =@ D xm OW x_Lqt uOv=wN CtUk QO
" O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ w O w

"O W x v= N sy =@ =yv
wO Qy xm OwW|t |aU CUQyi =} w CU}r ltm x@ uwvm =
> names { scan(what=list(a=0, b="", c=0))

<
1: 1 dog 3
2: 2 cat 5
3: 3 duck 7
4:
Read 3 records
O =Wt
x y = Q]U
=Q y |wDLt O}=@ uwvm = "CU= xOW xOv=wN Q]U xU =} w
w OQ mQ xU OwW|t x_Lqt xm Qw]u=ty
wtv
"O
> names
"CU= Q} R CQ Y @ w x xH}Dv
$a
1] 1 2 3
$b
1] "dog" "cat" "duck"
$c
1] 3 5 7
pwOH l} QO uwDU w Q]U |Q=Pos=v 761
P =
|Q= os v =Q yu
u= D= w |t OW=@v x=wNrO s=v =
|=Q=O } w OvW=@ s=v Ok=i Q_v w =
OQ t | yxO=O | yu = wDU w =yQ]U Qo =
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ wtv
"O
> x { 1:3 <
> names(x)
NULL
> names(x) { c("a", "b", "c")
<
> x
a b c
1 2 3
> names(x)
1] "a" "b" "c"
> names(x) { NULL <
> x
1] 1 2 3
u}= "OvDUy P = p@=k
|Q= os v colnames() rownames() `
w @= Dw \UwD =Q =yQ]U w =yuwDU '=yT} QD=t |= @Q
"O W w |t s=Hv= dimnames() QwDUO \UwD Q=m
> x { matrix(1:4, 2)
<
> rownames(x) { c("a","b")

<
> colnames(x) { c("c","d")

<
> x
c d
a 1 3
b 2 4
> dimnames(x)
1]]
1] "a" "b"
2]]
1] "c" "d"
"O W w |t s=Hv= R}v dimnames() ` = @ D \UwD w
j i OQ t w xD@r=
> x { matrix(1:4, 2)
<
dimnames(x) { list(c("a","b"), c("c","d"))

<
c d
a 1 3
b 2 4
xHwD OW Oy=wN ?UJQ@ wO |=Q=O xm w
j i p t =F x@ "O wtv x}=Q= =Q ?UJQ@ R= K]U wO u= Dw |t R =
u @ R QO |DL
"O}vm
> x { matrix(1:4, 2)
<
dimnames(x) { list(rows = c("a","b"), cols = c("c","d"))

<
cols
rows c d
a 1 3
b 2 4
=yQDm =Q=m R= |=xDWQ =@ Q=m 7 1
C =}rta s=Hv= xOya R= |@ wN@ =t= 'CU= xOW |L=Q] |O a CO =}rta w C U =@ =Lt s=Hv= Q
|= @ R R Q w
Q= i=s v ,q Y=
O |t ,q}P
" }
Q
u
K W xm OwW|t xO =iDU= `@=wD |QU l} R= xOW xDio Qt= s=Hv= Q =a@] "O}
|tQ@ R}v =yxDWQ =@
|= @ ,
O=OaD |= @Q |rw "O W w |t xO=iDU= length() ` = @ D R= Q=O @ Q l} QY=va O=OaD uOQw

CUOx@ |= @ Q % nchar()
" O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ uwvm = w |t
"O W xO =iDU= nchar() ` = @ D R= xDWQ l} | y = QDm =Q=m
O |t CUOx@ Q} R
" }
w x xDWQ Qy pw] =t=
CQ Y @ "OQ=O O Hw w xDWQ Q=yJ xm OyO|t u=Wv length() ` = @ D

<
39 R |U w x = Q
} v t v @ u @R= =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
> nchar(pets)
1] 3 3 6 8
=F x@ uwvm = "Ov=OQo|t pYDt sy x@
p t = xDWQ `k=w
=Q y QO t== Ovm|t pta print() ` = @ D x}@W `@=D u}= % cat()
" O}vm xHwD Q} R
> x {7 <
> y { 10
<
> cat("x should be greater than y, but x=", x, "and y=", y, "\n")
x should be greater than y, but x= 7 and y= 10
"CU= O}OH \N x@ uDiQ w \N Z} waD Q
|= @ "\n"
`@=D u}= w |t
"O W xO =iDU= paste() = x@ |a@=D
s v R= ' y s x@ =yxDWQ p=YD= |wQ QDW}@ pQDvm Q
|= @ % paste()
Z i Q V}B w x
CQ Y @ w OyO|t s=Hv= =Q p=YD= pta =yxDWQ x}k@ =@ Q P |t Qr=mU=
w O } B Ow OLt=v O= OaD x@
qFt
, "OQ= oP |t =yxDWQ u}@ |r=N | H = l}
> paste("one",2,"three",4,"ve")
1] "one 2 three 4 ve"
paste() ` = @ D QO sep = w
u t oQ
R= O Q}o Q=Qk =yxDWQ u}@ |Qo}O QDm =Q=m |r=N |=H Q}e xm O}y=wN@ Qo = =t=
qFt
, w |t
"O W xO =iDU=
> paste("one",2,"three",4,"ve", sep="_")

1] "one_2_three_4_ve"
O Q = xDWQ u}@
" yO Q= k y =Q Q_v w QDm =Q=m Ov=wD|tv sep u=twoQ
OvW=@
OQ t Q l} CQwYx@ =yxO=O Qo = =t=
Q=O @
" O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ uwvm =
> paste(c("one","two","three","four"), sep=" ")

" CU= xOWv Qw_vt =yxDWQ u}@ |r=N =
| H l} xm OwW|t x_Lqt 'Q}N= QwDUO |= H= Q =@
1] "one" "two" "three" "four"
"OO oQ |t =QH= O}OH u=twoQ

=@ Q}N= QwDUO ,=OOHt w |t
"O W xO =iDU= collapse = w
u t oQ
R= Cr=L u}= QO
> paste(c("one","two","three","four"), collapse=" ")

1] "one two three four"
xO =iDU= ,=t=wD collapse w sep |=yu=twoQ
w |t "OwW xO=iDU= u=twoQ
OvJ R= paste() `@=D QO Qo =
R= u= D
" O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ uwvm = "O wtv
> paste(c("X","Y"),1:5, sep="_", collapse="|")

1] "X_1|Y_2|X_3|Y_4|X_5"
xDWQQ} R 171
xO =iDU= substring() substr() `

w w
@= D R= xDWQQ} R uDN=U Q
|= @ R QO " Ovt=v xDWQQ} R =Q xDWQ l} R= |WN@
" O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ uwvm = "OQ=O substr() ` = @ D x@ C@Uv | QDW}@ OQ@ Q=m Q}N= `@=D xD@r= "O Ww |t
> substr("Tehran", 2, 5)
1] "ehra"
l} x@ uwvm = "Ovm|t u}at =Q xDWQQ} R xtD=N 5 Q= Okt w xDWQQ} R Q
`w W 2 Q=Okt OwW|t x_Lqt xm Qw]u=ty
"O}vm xHwD QDpYit p=Ft
> province { "Abadan" <
> Len { nchar(province)

<
> Len
1] 6
> Ltr { substring(province, 1:6, 1:6)
<
> Ltr
1] "A" "b" "a" "d" "a" "n"
> which(Ltr == "a")
1] 3 5
Qo}Om} R= sWW QDm =Q=m =D pw= QDm =Q=m R= substring() `@=D QO "Ov=OQo|tQ@ =Q xDWQ pw] nchar() `@=D %K}wD
"OO o Q |t XNWt Abadan xD WQ QO a QD = uDiQo Q=Qk pLt
m =Q m which() ` = @ D QO " v W O w | t =OH
> mystring { "karoon karkheh"

<
> substring(mystring,4, 7) { "aje" <
> mystring
1] "karaje karkheh"
Q |t u} Ro}=H
"OO o aje | y = QDm =Q=m oon | y = QDm =Q=m = x xm OwW|t x_Lqt
| H @
R u=@ R QO u=tR w M} Q=D 8 1
"O W w |t `w W Q hrDNt = =
| yx t w =yRwQ R= |r=wDt =} =
u r U = }R " Q CU= |YNW ,qt=m Q
| t= u tR | = Q}oxR=Ov=
O =
" W @ Cw =iDt Ov=wD|t x=t w RwQ uDWwv ?}DQD "OQ=O O Hw w xU}@m p=U "OvDUy hrDNt =
| yRwQ |=Q=O | yx t = =
" CU= p} Qw
x=t sQ =yJ RwQ | =vat x@ 3/4/2006 qF , t
sDU}U R =
u @ R QO xv=DN@WwN "CU= w
|Q= WO , =D@Uv Qt= =
u tR w M} Q=D QY=va =@ Q=m j i w ?D=Qt x@ xHwD =@
" CU= xOW x}@aD xO}J}B pt=wa u}= =@ Q=m Q
|= @ |Q= wDU=
" CU= |@D=Qt xrUrU ,qt=m u
MU=B xm CU= Sys.time() `@=D OyO|t CUOx@ =Q u=tR w M} Q=D xm |a@=D u}rw=
sy R= x Q}D \N Ctqa =@ xm Q =
=Q RwQ x Nq @ w x t 'p U = = |va} T =}kt u} QDoQR@ CU=Q x@ AJ R= xm |vat u}O@
Ca=U ?}DQD x@ xm OUQ|t u=tR x@ C@ wv u
|B QO w |r=N |=H l} TBU "OyO|t CUOx@ =Q Ov=xOW =OH
'
41 R |U w x = Q } v t v @ u @R = =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
=Q y = QDm =Q=m R= xDWQ l} xrLQt u} QN

O O
QO " v=x W = H O sy R= : Ctqa =@ xm OyO|t CUOx@ =Q x}v=F w xk}kO
"O W w |t xDWwv 'OyO|t u=Wv =Q |rLt u=tR xm
> Sys.time()
1] "2012-04-12 16:50:49 IRDT"
"OO o Q |t xO =iDU= xDWQ Q} R `@=D R= Sys.time() ` = @ D R= M} Q=D G= QNDU= Q
|= @
> substr(as.character(Sys.time()),1,10)
1] "2012-04-12"
"O wtv xO =iDU= Sys.Date() ` = @ D R= u= D w |t RwQ M} Q=D \ki u=Wv |= @ Q xD@r=
> Sys.Date()
1] "2012-04-12"
u=tR w M} Q=D =@ C=@U=Lt 181
Q=O @Q l} `@=D u}= Qo}O CQ a =@ x@ "OO o Q |t xO =iDU= as.Date `@=D =

R= u tR w M} Q=D |W uDN=U Q
|= @
"year-month-day" CQ Y @w x xDWQ l} = w
u
u t oQ
u}rw= "Ovm|t p}O@D |N} Q=D Q=O @Q l} x@ =Q | QDm =Q=m
"year-month-day w x
CQ Y @ j i w xDWQ 'OW=@ Q_v QO u tR w = M} Q=D Qo = "CU= "2007-09-24" Ov = v t
=
=Q u tR w M} Q=D p}O@D xm CU= format O
x W xDio `@=D u=twoQ
u}twO "CU= hour:minutes:seconds"
" Ovm|t u=}@ Cw =iDt | y= xDWQ CQ Y @ w x
"O wtv s}UkD Q} R OQ= t w x@ u= D w |t =Q C U =@ =Lt u}= "O=O s =Hv= |irDNt C U =@ =Lt u= D w |t u=tR w M} Q=D =@
time + number
time - number
time - time
time1 'logical operation' time2
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft OvJ x@ uwvm =
> as.Date("2007-10-18", format = "%Y-%m-%d")

1] "2007-10-18"
w
"O W x= Qty =
RwQ w x t 'p U | y = = Ctqa =@ O}=@ % OYQO Ctqa xm O}W=@ xDW=O xHwD
> as.Date("02/27/92", "%m/%d/%y")

1] "1992-02-27"
CU= |tkQ Q=yJ p=U
" Q
|= @ YCq t a w CU= |tkQ =
wO p U |= @ Q yCq w | t a O W t x y O =Wt xm Qw]u=ty
R= M} Q=D QO Qo = =t= "CU= u=ty Ctqa sy CtQi w |t
QO O W xO =iD - Ovv O
U= x m = H R= M} Q=D QO Qo = ,=vt
" Ovm|t |w Q}B Ctqa u=ty R= sy CtQi OO o Q |t xO=iDU= /
x Ovvm =OH Ctqa
> as.Date("2007oct18", format = "%Y%b%d")

1] "2007-10-18"
'p U = u}@ uwJ ,=vt "CU= = =
x t s v pw= h L Q xU hw L Q ?UL Q@ x=t s=v xOvyOu=Wv b |Q =YDN= Ctqa
"CU= xOWv O}k |Dtqa R}v CtQi O w
QO 'OQ= v O Hw |=x Ovvm =OH =
RwQ w x t
QO Windows p = t a sDU}U Control Panel QO xm Ovm|t Q=m |Dkw =yv

Q}=_v w CtQi u}= %xHwD
Standard and = QO m QO ' Regional Options x = v @ R QO 'Regional and Language Options VN @
"O wtv O}y=wN Ci=} QO NA s =e}B CQ Y w u}= Q}e O = O

QO " W @ x W GQO |U}ro = = x@a formats
v= u @ R 'u @ R H QO '
> as.Date("October 18, 2007", format = "%B %d, %Y")

1] "2007-10-18"
CtQi QO , xOvvm =OH Ctqa u}vJty "CU= hwQL ?UL Q@ x=t pt=m s=v xOvyOu=Wv B |Q=YDN= Ctqa
" CU= xOt
> x { seq.Date(from = as.Date("2007-10-18"), to = as.Date("2007-10-30"),

<
+ by = "3 days")
> x
1] "2007-10-18" "2007-10-21" "2007-10-24" "2007-10-27" "2007-10-30"
> x + 10
1] "2007-10-28" "2007-10-31" "2007-11-03" "2007-11-06" "2007-11-09"
> x - as.Date(c("2006-01-10", "2007-08-15", "2005-06-24", "2004-12-30",
+ "2005-04-05"))
Time dierences in days
1] 646 67 852 1031 938
> x as.Date("2007-10-21")
>
1] FALSE FALSE TRUE TRUE TRUE

" CU= Q} R w x CtUk u}=
CQ Y @ QO p t =F u} QN
xQNq=@ w
> format(Sys.Date(), "%a %b %d")

1] "Fri Apr 20"
CU=
" u
h LQ xU ?UL Q@ = OvyOu=Wv
'RwQ s v x a |Q =YDN= Ctqa
> as.Date(format(Sys.Date(), "%a %b %d"), "%a %b %d")

1] "2012-04-20"
"O}vm xHwD Q} R w x@
OQ t "O=O s =Hv= C =}rta w |t
u= D u
=@ uwvm =
> as.Date(format(Sys.Date(), "%a %b %d"), "%a %b %d") - 7

1] "2012-04-13"
43 R |U w x = Q =
} v t v @ u @R =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
Excel QO u=tR w M} Q=D 1 1 8 1
Excel QO RwQ u}rw= M} Q=D "OOQo|t |UQQ@ |OwOL =D Excel Q=Ri=sQv w R QO u=tR w M} Q=D \=@DQ= VN@ u}= QO
w
O Hw |UQDUO u
R= p@k M} Q=D x@ ,qta u}=Q@=v@ "CU}v |D}OwHwt M} Q=D u}= R= p@k w CU= 1900-01-01 Q@=Q@
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "CU}v O}k u}= Ov@ QO R =t= O
"OQ= v
> as.Date(35981, origin="1899-12-30")

1] "1998-07-05"
w |t
"O W R |rY= M} Q=D x@ xm CU= |}=yRwQ
xOw i= O= OaD 35981 O
O a
"O wtv O}y=wN xOy=Wt =Q u

R= |DtUk TBU w |t xOv=wN |OwQw p}=i =OD@= "O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ uwvm =
w O W
> STEP 1: SETUP - Source File

#
> link= "D:\\R_les
Date.txt"
> # STEP 2: READ DATA
> my_data { read.table(link,
<
+ sep = ",", dec=".", skip = 1,

+ row.names = NULL, header = FALSE,
+ col.names = c("char_date", "T_anom", "Enso_f"))
> head(my_data)
char_date T_anom Enso_f

1 5/15/1951 0.02 2
2 6/15/1951 -0.03 2
3 7/15/1951 -0.01 3
4 8/15/1951 0.12 3
5 9/15/1951 0.09 3
6 10/15/1951 0.14 3
R= |DtUk TBU "O}vm xHwD =yO)m xr=@vO x@ q=L "CU= Excel C Qt i x@ =yxO=O M} Q=D xm OwW|t x_Lqt
"O}vm xOy=Wt =Q |HwQN
# STEP 3:Convert character date to Date, then get month value

r_date <{ as.Date(my_data$char_date, "%m/%d/%Y")
r_mo <{ months(r_date)
# new data.frame - add r_mo vector
my_data_1 <{ data.frame(my_data, r_date)
head(my_data_1)
char_date T_anom Enso_f r_date

1 5/15/1951 0.02 2 1951-05-15
2 6/15/1951 -0.03 2 1951-06-15
3 7/15/1951 -0.01 3 1951-07-15
4 8/15/1951 0.12 3 1951-08-15
5 9/15/1951 0.09 3 1951-09-15
6 10/15/1951 0.14 3 1951-10-15
R sDU} U x@ xDi=} p}O@D uwDU r_date |va} QN
uwDU w CU= Excel M = x@
}Q D \ @ tw Q chart_date u wDU
"CU=
R u=@ R =@ |U} wvxt=vQ@ 9 1
"O wtv =QH= w CWwv u

QO =Q |=xO U C=Q = wDUO w |t xm CU= u}= OwN x@=Wt
u= D = R
| yQ= i=s v Q Q@ R =
u @R | D @ QQ
|U} wvxt=vQ@ xm CU= |=xS} w C=}YwYN |=Q=O =t= 'CU= QDDUt u
QO |U} wvxt=vQ@ u=@ R l} |=y|oS} w |va}
= |t QDu=U
XYNDtQ}e O=Qi=
"OR U |= @ =Q Q
"CU}v C =
u @R u}t=Qi x@ Cy=@W |@ xm CU= |rQDvm Q=DN=U |=Q=O R= =
yu @ R Q}=U Ovv=t
\QW 191
C=Q wDUO 'O wWv Q=QkQ@ \ W Q u}= Qo = Q Q Q |]QW xm OwW =QH= O}=@ QwDUO l} |Dkw `k=wt
w OO o Q= k @ R= |=xQ B QO=
"O}vm xHwD Q
\ W Q wDUO |twta pmW x@ "OW Oy=wN =QH= | Qo}O
if (logical exp.)
{
then do this
g else f
do this
g
"O W w |t A J = T Q
h L w O W w |t GwR s}UkD xOv=t|k=@ 'OW=@ GwR x Q}eD t Q= Okt Qo = Q} R p=Ft QO
> x {8 <
if (x %% 2 == 0) print("T")
1] "T"
Q
K W "O W w |t xO=O u =Wv ifelse() ` = @ D CQ Yw x@ xm Owtv xO =iDU= |y=Dwm |rw =Q=m QwDUO R= u= D w |t =Hv}= QO
"CU= Q} R CQ Y w x@ `@=D |rm
ifelse(test, yes, no)

= = w
% yu t oQ
"CU= |k]vt CQ a =@ l} % test

45 R |U w x = Q =
} v t v @ u @R =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
w |t =QH=
"O W yes x =ov
w CUQO |k]vt
'O @ CQ a=@ Qo = % yes
Q |t =QH=
"OO o no x =ov
w CUQO=v |k]vt
'O @ CQ a =@ Qo = %no
> x { c(2:-2)
<
> sqrt(ifelse(x = 0, x, NA))

>
1] 1.414 1.000 0.000 NA NA
xkrL 2 9 1
"CU= Q} R KQW x@ u
|rm QwDUO w |t Q=QmD Q=@ u}OvJ xm CU= |D=}rta
"O W Q xkrL
|= @
for (i in start:nish) f
execute task
g
xkrL xm CU= swrat p@k R= Qo}O =@ x@ "CU= XNWt xkrL
CQ a | =yDv= OwW|t x_Lqt xm Qw]u=ty xD@r=
"O Ww |t Q=QmD Q=@ OvJ Q_v OQ t w
R= p@k O}=@ u
QO xO =iDU= w
OQ t | y = Q}eDt =Pr "OvwW|t T}Ov= |=Q=O p wtat h qN Q@ =yx}=Q
'xkrL QO %xHwD
|a@=wD R= Q m= u}= Q
|= @ "O W w |t xH=wt =]N =@ xt=vQ@ xvQow OvwW Q=Okt =
|=Q=O } w XNWt | wLv x@ xkrL `w W Q
Q = x@ Q} R
O @Q m = =F
| yp t QO "O W w |t xO=iDU= c() = matrix()
} w ' |k]vt w QDm =Q=m O
'|O a vector() Ov = v t
w
"O W CkO =yv
> y { vector(mode = "numeric")

<
> for (i in 1:10) f

+ yi] { ig<
> y
1] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
" CWwv R}v Q} R = w x
| yCQ Y @ u= D w |t w
=Q j i p t =F
> y { c()
<
> for(i in 1:10) f

+ yi] { ig<
> y
1] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
> y { c()
<
> for(i in 1:10) f

+ yi] { i <
+ print(yi])
+g
1] 1
1] 2
1] 3
1] 4
1] 5
1] 6
1] 7
1] 8
1] 9
1] 10
> y { c()
<
> for(i in 1:10) print(yi] { i) <
1] 1
1] 2
1] 3
1] 4
1] 5
1] 6
1] 7
1] 8
1] 9
1] 10
OQmrta xm CU= |r=Ft ?r]t u}= xm 'O=O Oy=wN =]N xt=vQ@ 'OW=@ print(yi]=i) QwDUO Qo = |QN
CQwY QO
CU}v u=Um} =H xty
" QO <; =w ?=UDv= Qorta wO
-1 ` k=w QO | Oa@ = =
| ys o CQ Y w u}= O = QDoQR@
QO ' W @ u
|}=yDv= Q=Okt R= Ov=wD|t xkrL xOvQ=tW Q
`w W Q= Okt
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "CU=
> y { c()
<
> for(i in 10:5) print(yi] { i) <
1] 10
1] 9
1] 8
1] 7
1] 6
1] 5
u= Dw |t Cr=L u}= QO "O wtv xO=iDU= m:n Qt=Qo w |tv Qo}O Ow@v 1 Q@=Q@ V}=Ri= |=ys=o Qo = xm CU= K=w
R= u= D
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "CiQo ltm seq() ` =

@ D R=
> y { c()
<
> for(i in seq(1,5,0.5)) print(yi] { i) <
1] 1
1] 1.5
1] 2
1] 2.5
47 R |U w x = Q =
} v t v @ u @R =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
1] 3
1] 3.5
1] 4
1] 4.5
1] 5
|ivt s=o O}=@ w QDoQR@
'O @ u
|}=yDv= Q=Okt R= xkrL xOvQ=tW Q
`w W Q= Okt Qo = seq() ` = @ D R= xO =iDU= w
CQ Y QO
" O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ O

"OQ= v O Hww |QiV}B Cr=L u}= Q
QO = } R O wtv u=}@ ,=L} QY =Q
> y { c()
<
> for(i in seq(5,1,-0.5)) print(yi] { i) <
1] 5
1] 4.5
1] 4
1] 3.5
1] 3
1] 2.5
1] 2
1] 1.5
1] 1
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "CW=O wD QO wD | y= xkrL u= Dw |t
> z { matrix(2, 4)
<
for(i in 1:2) f
+ for(j in 1:4) zi,j] { i+jg <
> z
,1] ,2] ,3] ,4]
1,] 2 3 4 5
2,] 3 4 5 6
QmD
Q= O= OaD xm CU}v uWwQ p@k R= |va} "CU}v XNWt =yv
| =yDv= p@k R= xm CW=O |}=yxkrL w |t =t=
u= D
w |t
"O W xO=iDU= repeat while w QwDUO wO R= Q m = u}= Q CU= =D OvJ xkrL
|= @ "
Qo = "CU= f (x) = 0 | Q@H xrO=at xW} Q uDi=} Q

|= @ |Q wyWt VwQ xm O} Q}o@ Q_v QO =Q uDw}v VwQ u wvm =
x0 x m O}vm Q
Z i " W O Oy=wN =Qoty xrO=at xW} Q CtU x@ Q} R Q=QmD x=ov
'OW=@ f (x) ` = @ D jDWt f 0(x)
u}=Q@=v@ 'OW=@ x}rw= T L O
xn = xn;1 ; ff0((xxn;1))
n;1
"CU= Qwr}D ?} QkD Q@ |vD@t xO}= u}=
f (xn) f (xn;1) + (xn ; xn;1 )f 0(xn;1)

O Q}o@ Q_v
" } QO =Q Q} R `@=D p=Ft u= wvax@ uwvm =
f (x) = 5x3 ; 7x2 ; 40x + 100

CU= Q} R
" w x |DWoR=@ xrO=at x=ov
CQ Y @
3 2
xn = xn;1 ; 5x 15;x72x; ;1440 x + 100
x ; 40
"CU= Q} R = O
| y ) w x
m CQ Y @ while Q wDUO =@ xOW xDio xrO=at pL uwvm =
> x { 0.5
<
> f { 5 x^3 - 7 x^2 - 40 x + 100

<
> tolerance { 1e-6

<
> n {0
<
> while (abs(f) tolerance) f

>
+ f.prime { 15 x^2 - 14 x - 40
<
+ x { x - f / f.prime
<
+ f { 5 x^3 - 7 x^2 - 40 x + 100

<
+n {n+1
<
+g
> cat("number of iterations:",n,"\n")
CU= Q} R
" CQ Y @w x pY=L w = O
j i | y )
m |= H= Q =@
number of iterations: 10
> x
1] -3.151719
w =F O
j i p t QO " yO |t xt=O= OwN Q=QmD x@ xkrL 'CU= CUQO RDv=QB pN=O |k]vt CQ a =@ =D while Q wDUO QO
"CU= xDiQo w
CQ Y Q= QmD x@DQt 10
"OO o Q |t =QH= repeat Q wDUO =@ p=Ft u}ty uwvm =
> x { 0.5
<
> tolerance { 1e-6

<
> n {0
<
> repeat f
+ f { 5 x^3 - 7 x^2 - 40 x + 100
<
+ if (abs(f) tolerance ) break

<
+ f.prime { 15 x^2 - 14 x - 40
<
+ x { x - f / f.prime
<
+n {n+1
<
+g
> cat("number of iterations:",n,"\n")
" CU= Q} R CQ Y @w x pY=L w = O
j i | y )
m |= H= Q =@
number of iterations: 10
> x
1] -3.151719
49 R |U w x = Q
} v t v @ u @R= =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
x=ov
'OO o Q CUQO=v if p N=O |k]vt =@ =
CQ a D O W w |t Q=QmD QOkv
repeat = Q =
u t i | yOq m
w pN=O C=Q wDUO
"CU= 10 Q Q QmD
@= @ Q= OaD OwW|t x_Lqt xm Qw]u=ty
O= Q |t
"OO o =
GQ N xkrL R= p QDvm break = Q =@
u t i
"CU= repeat QwDUO R= | Qo}O p=Ft xm O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ uwvm = %p=Ft
> i {0 <
> repeat f
+ if (i 10) >
+ break
+ if (i 2 && i > < 5) f
+i {i+1 <
+ next
+g
+ print(i)
+i {i+1 <
+g
x@ w Ovm|tv =QH= =Q u
u}t=Qi x}k@ OUQ@ u
x@ xkrL Qo = xm OQ=O O Hw w next s v= x@ |Q wDUO Q}N= xkrL QO
| y )
m= O pY=L Q |t R=e
,=OOHt xkrL VOQo w OOQo|t R=@ 'CU=
"OO o repeat QwDUO =Hv}= QO xm xkrL |=OD@=
" CU= Q} R w x
CQ Y @ q @ =
1] 0
1] 1
1] 2
1] 5
1] 6
1] 7
1] 8
1] 9
1] 10
x}=Q
=
|=Q m Q =}U@ C}Y=N R= w O wtv |Q=OO N w xkrL Q Q =x
w \ W uO @ Q m @ R= O}=@ 'OQ=O u =mt= xm =Hv
=D =t=
CUO@ =Q 10 = 1 u}
D @ GwR O= a= O Q} R =F
p t " W @ O = |t xkrL |awv ut
Dt OwN C}Y=N u}= "O wtv xO =iDU=
O
" yO |t
> x { c(1:10)
<
> y { xx %% 2 == 0]
<
> y
1] 2 4 6 8 10
apply(X, Margin, w x CQ Y @ Q wDUO xwLv "Ovm|t sm Q=}U@ =Q xkrL R= xO =iDU= R

sw r apply Q}_v |a@=wD
OvDU c(1,2)
y Q = (2) =
wO y } w yu wDU '(1) = y Q]U Margin w CU= T} QD=t X u
QO " CU= Function)
Ovv=wD|t =yv
xm Cio O}=@ `@=wD w
OQ t QO "O W w |t p=ta= =yxO=O |wQ xm CU= |a@=D =} w pta Function w
" OvW=@ Q@ Q=m xOW h} QaD =} w xDN=UV}B
> x { rnorm(10,-5,0.1)
<
> y { rnorm(10,5,2)
<
> X { cbind(x,y)
<
> apply(X, 2, mean)

x y
-5.022379 4.021949
> apply(X, 2, sd)
x y
0.07029347 1.73544377
apply `@=wD xO=wv=N 1 2 9 1
x@ |a@=D R= |Q= QmD C =}rta R= | U Q l} s=Hv= |= @ Q xkrL p=ta= R= R}yQB Q OW x_Lqt q=@
|= @ QO xm Qw]u=ty
| D = OvH xm w
"O=O O Hw trees = x@
s v |=xO=O R =
u @ R | yxO=O = CUQyi =F Q O
QO p t |= @ " W xO =iDU= apply() s v=
" CU= "OW=@|t Q]U 31 u
pm Q} R CQ Y w x@ u
pw=
> head(trees,7)
= CU= Q@=Q@ pY=L xm
% @
Girth Height Volume

1 8.3 70 10.3
2 8.6 65 10.3
3 8.8 63 10.2
4 10.5 72 16.4
5 10.7 81 18.8
6 10.8 83 19.7
7 11.0 66 15.6
"OO o Volume Height Girth

Q x@U=Lt w ' =
| yu wDU R= l} Qy u}ov=}t xm CU= Q=Qk uwvm =
> apply(trees,2,mean)
" CU= Q} R w x pY=L u}=Q@=v@
CQ Y @ "O W w xDiQo u}ov=}t =yuwDU R= xm OwQ |t Q=mx@ u}= Q
|= @ 2 O
O a
51 R |U w x = Q =
} v t v @ u @R =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
Girth Height Volume

13.24839 76.00000 30.17097
"O}vm xHwD Q} R QwDUO x@ "O=O s =Hv= R}v sapply() ` = =

@ D @ u= Dw |t =Q Q m = u}ty uwvm =
> sapply(trees,mean)
w
OQ= t CiQo Q=mx@ |}=y=H QO u= D w |t =Q sapply() ` = = @ D t= "OO o Q |t pY=L p@k xH}Dv u=ty u
|= H= Q =@
x@ "Ovm|t (O" }
|t simple xtr m pw= R= s) Q = x =U
DxO U =Q r t u}=Q@=v@ O
"OQ= v O @ Q m Q = apply() ` = @ D xm QDxO}J}B
" O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft
w x
Q ] @ =Q p} QwDm =i `@=D R =
u @R xD@r= "OyO|t s=Hv= =Q p} QwDm =i x@U=Lt pta xm OwW|t xDN=U `@=D l} =OD@=
"OQ=O xDN=U V}B
fact { function(x) f
<
f {1
<
if (x 2) return (1)
<
for (i in 2:x) f
f {f ig
<
fg
" O}vm xHwD Q} R QwDUO x@ "OO oQ x@U=Lt 5= 0 D O
O= a= p} QwDm =i xm CU= Q=Qk uwvm =
> sapply(0:5,fact)
= CU= Q@=Q@ pY=L
% @
1] 1 1 2 6 24 120
CU}r =} CUQyi CQwYx@ xm OwQ|t Q=mx@ |}=}W= |=Q@ w OQ=O O Hw |w Qo}O `@=D apply() ` = w = @ D xO= v N R=
l} =OD@= "O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ uwvm = "O W w |t xO}t=v lapply() ` = @ D u}= "OvDU ( O | list xtr
y " }
t m pw= R= l)
w |t xDN=U Q} R
"O W = O \UwD
| y )
m =
xO U CU}r
> a { c("a","b","c","d")
<
> b { c(1,2,3,4,4,3,2,1)
<
> c { c(T,T,F)
<
> list.object { list(a,b,c)

<
> list.object
= CU= Q@=Q@ pY=L
% @
1]]
1] "a" "b" "c" "d"
2]]
1] 1 2 3 4 4 3 2 1
3]]
1] TRUE TRUE FALSE
Q
"OO o p =ta= CU}r QY=va |wQ p ]w `@=D xm CU= Q=Qk uwvm =
> lapply(list.object,length)
% @ = CU= Q@=Q@ pY=L
1]]
1] 4
2]]
1] 8
3]]
1] 3
"O}vm xHwD Q} R w x@ QY=va

OQ t R= l} Qy Tqm uOQw
CUOx@ Q =}
|= @
> lapply(list.object,class)
% @ = CU= Q@=Q@ pY=L
1]]
1] "character"
2]]
1] "numeric"
3]]
1] "logical"
53 R |U w x = Q
} v t v @ u @R= =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
=Q sapply() ` = @ D ?= H uw =ty 'O}vm p =ta= trees =

| yxO=O u}ov=}t |wQ =Q lapply() ` = @ D Qo = u wvm =
"O}vm xHwD Q} R w x@
OQ t Q |t Qy=_
"OO o u
QO CU}r CQ Y w =yDvt OyO|t
> lapply(trees,mean)
= CU= Q@=Q@ pY=L
% @
$Girth
1] 13.24839
$Height
1] 76
$Volume
1] 30.17097
w
O Hw R}v | Ov@xwQo u
QO xm OwQ |t Q=mx@ O Q
pw= H |= @ w OQ=O O Hw | w apply() ` = w =
Qo}O `@=D @ D xO= v N R=
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ uwvm = w | O} = tapply() ` = u

"O W t x t v @ D }= "OQ=O
xO=O V}=tv Q} R QO h}OQ 8 xO=O u}= R= |DtUk xm OwW|t xO}t=v mtcars x w R =

m OQ=O O Hw |=xO=O u @ R QO
C h 32 =
" U= p w
}OQ yxO=O m "O W |t
> data(mtcars)
> attach(mtcars)
> head(mtcars,8)
mpg cyl disp hp drat wt qsec vs am gear carb
Mazda RX4 21.0 6 160.0 110 3.90 2.620 16.46 0 1 4 4
Mazda RX4 Wag 21.0 6 160.0 110 3.90 2.875 17.02 0 1 4 4
Datsun 710 22.8 4 108.0 93 3.85 2.320 18.61 1 1 4 1
Hornet 4 Drive 21.4 6 258.0 110 3.08 3.215 19.44 1 0 3 1
Hornet Sportabout 18.7 8 360.0 175 3.15 3.440 17.02 0 0 3 2
Valiant 18.1 6 225.0 105 2.76 3.460 20.22 1 0 3 1
Duster 360 14.3 8 360.0 245 3.21 3.570 15.84 0 0 3 4
Merc 240D 24.4 4 146.7 62 3.69 3.190 20.00 1 0 4 2
XNWt cyl uwDU w CU= ur=o Qy QO p}=t ?UL Q@ =ywQOwN hQYt xOvyOu=Wv mpg uwDU 'q=@ pwOH QO
Q
|= @ Q Ovr}U 8 64
w ' =
| ywQO Nw CNwU h QYt \UwDt CU= Q=Qk uwvm = "CU= w
wQO N Q Ovr}U O= OaD xOvvm
"OO o Q x@U=Lt =yh}OQ s=tD
> tapply(mpg,cyl,mean)
4 6 8
26.66364 19.74286 15.10000
with `@=D 2 2 9 1
tapply Q}_ v |a@=wD |wQ xOW xDio `@=D =@ O}v=wD|t =tW "Ovm|t pta =yxO=O \}Lt QO R C=Q=@a |wQ `@=D u}=
OvW=@ xDU@ l}
' R= |DtUk w =
Q=O? JQ J | yxO=O= Qo = "O}vm pta OvQ=Ov xO=O Z i Q V}B u=twoQ
xm plot = } w
%R= CUDQ=@a `@=D |rm w

CQ Y " v= N= i O w Q with ` = @ D pN=O ,=t}kDUt O
=Q x W xDio xO=O u= D w |t
with(data, function( )) :::
> library(MASS)
> data(bacteria)
> with(bacteria, tapply((y=="n"), trt, sum))
"O W w |t pY=L xH}Dv q=@ = O
| y )
m |= H= Q =@
placebo drug drug+

12 18 13
`@=wD 391
Q} R KQW x@ `@=D l} uDWwv |twta QwDUO "OyO|t s=Hv= =Q |Y=N xi}_w xm CU= xt=vQ@ R= VN@ l} `@=D
" CU=
functionName { function(arg1, arg2, ) f

<
do thisg
" yOO |t u=Wv =Q EQ e w =F}i x}
k xm CU= |a@=D Q} R p=Ft
> hypot { function(a, b) sqrt(a^2 + b^2)

<
> hypot(3,4)
1] 5
" CU= xHwD QwNQO Q} R w
OQ= t j i w xt=vQ@ QO
"O W w |t xDN=U 3, 4 O
O= a= =@ a, b |D w k t | y = Q}eDt
O |t CUO@
" }
5 O a O sqrt(a^2 + b^2) x@ U =Lt =@
"O W w |t h L P a, b C w k t h} QaD 'OW s=tD x@U=Lt |Dkw
"Ovm|t x@U=Lt =Q =yxO=O Q=}at h= QLv= w u}ov=}t xm O} Q}o@ Q_v QO =Q Q} R `@=D %p=Ft
> mystats { function(x)

<
+f
+ mymean { mean(x) <
+ mysd { sd(x)
<
+ c(mean=mymean,sd=mysd)
55 R |U w x = Q =
} v t v @ u @R =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
+g
"OO o Q |t xH}Dv Q} R Q}O=kt OwW xO=O j iw `@=D x@ Q} R =
| yxO=O Qo =
> my_data { c(1,2,3,4,5)

<
> mystats(my_data)
mean sd
3.000000 1.581139
w |t xDiQo Q=mx@
"O W R =
u @ R QO list() ` =
@ D R= xO =iDU= =@ `@=D u}ty
> mystats { function (x)

<
+f
+ myinput { x <
+ mymean { mean(x)
<
+ mysd { sd(x)
<
+ list(data = myinput, mean = mymean, sd = mysd)

+g
"OO o Q |t xH}Dv Q} R Q}O=kt OwW xO=O j iw `@=D x@ Q} R =
| yxO=O Qo =
> my_data { c(1,2,3,4,5)

<
> mystats(my_data)
$data
1] 1 2 3 4 5
$mean
1] 3
$sd
1] 1.581139
O xDWwv |DWoR=@ CQwYx@ xm O}vm xHwD p} QwDm =i `@=D x@ "CW=O R}v |DWoR=@ |=yxt=vQ@ u=wD|t R u=@ R
x W QO
"CU=
> Fact { function(n) if (n == 1) 1 else n Fact(n - 1)

<
> Fact(5)
1] 120
|Q=}DN= w |Q=@H= u=twoQ 1 3 9 1
l} O =@
s= m w |Q H= u t oQ
s= m = w O xm Ovm|t u}at `@=D h} QaD 'O Ww |t xOv=wN=Qi R =
u @ R QO `@=D l} |Dkw
CU= |Q =}DN= k = w
u t oQ
w OyO|t =]N `@=D OW=@v Qo = w CU= |Q H==@ x = w
u t oQ
Q} R p=Ft QO " CU= |Q =}DN=
"OQ=O =Q 2 Z i Q V}B Q=Okt w
> power { function(x, k=2) f

<
+ x^k
+g
> power(5)
1] 25
> power()
Error in power() : element 1 is empty
the part of the args list of '^' being evaluated was:
(x, k)
"O wtv u}at =Q |Dw=iDt Q=Okt k = w
u t oQ
|= @ u= D Q w |t =t=
> power(5,3)
1] 125
: : : u=twoQ 2 3 9 1
O}y=wN|t O}vm Q
Z i "O W xO w =iDU= Qo}O `@=D x@ `@=D l} = = w
| yu t oQ
p =kDv= Q Ov=wD|t x]kv xU u=twoQ
|= @
"Ovm sUQ xup = 0D R= =Q T wv}U `@=D xm O}U} wv@ |mJwm `@=D
> plotsin { function(xup=2 pi,...)

<
+f
+ x - seq(0, xup, l=100)
<
+ plot(x, sin(x), type="l",...)

+g
> plotsin(col="red")
xm O Q P |t
u
uw @ O } B =Q Q}=U w xlab lwd col Q}_ plot ` =
' ' v @ D QO u= D w |t xm =Q |v=twoQ
Qy plotsin ` = @ D
" O}vm XNWt plotsin ` = @ D QO =Q u

xm O}W=@ Qw@Ht
=yu=twoQ s=v 3 3 9 1
=F x@ ?r]t u}= QD?U=vt

p t lQO |= @ " Q OvW=@ 18 xS=w O}rm =} =
w s v |=Q=O Ovv=wD|t `@=D l} = = w
| yu t oQ
,q Y= w
" O}vm xHwD Q} R
> sumsq { function(a, xv=x, yv=y)

<
+ f yf - exp(-a xv)
<
+ sum((yv-yf)^2) g
18. keyword
57 R |U w x = Q
} v t v @ u @R = =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
=t= OvDUy y x
w = =
| ys v |=Q=O ?}DQD x@ `@=D swU w
w s o | yu t oQ
= = w O}vm|t xOy=Wt j i w `@=D QO xm Qw]u=ty
R}v u=twoQ
wO u}= Qo = xm CU= |Qw Q xDmv u}= Qm P xD@r= "CU= yv xv Ov =
w v t |va} O
'OQ= v s v = a = w
u t oQ
|=Q=O |i== u=mt= u}= =t= "CW=Ov OwHw E}L u}= R= |rmWt w O mQ |t Q=m q=@ `@=D OvOw@ a u t oQ
= w Ovv=t
"O W w |t x@U=Lt sumsq(1,2,3) ` = @ D Q= Okt uwvm = "O W w |t xDN=OQB u
x@ Q} R QO xm CU= Q =
|O @ Q m
> sumsq { function(a,xv=x,yv=y)

<
+ f yf - exp(-a xv)
<
+ sum((yv-yf)^2) g
> sumsq(1,2,3)
1] 8.206304
xm OwQ |t Q=_Dv= w O W w |t w
Z a y xQ
w }O =kt | H = |va} OwW|t x@U=Lt sumsq(1,3,2) ` = @ D Q= Okt uwvm =
" CU= xOW Z a w y xQw }O =kt =
| H u J ' w Ovm Q p@k xaiO x@ C@Uv `@=D xH}Dv
j i

<
+ f yf - exp(-a xv)
<
+ sum((yv-yf)^2) g
> sumsq(1,3,2)
1] 3.80333
"O Q}o|t CQ Y w R}v y x uD Q
w i o Q= k Q pLt Z} waD w O W w |t xO=iDU= swU = = w
w swO | yu t oQ
s v R= u = wvm = =t=

<
+ f yf - exp(-a xv)
<
+ sum((yv-yf)^2) g
> sumsq(1, y=3, x=2)
1] 8.206304
CU=
" sumsq(1,2,3) Ov = v t ?= H w y x w =
| yu t oQ
= w uDiQo Q=Qk pLt | =H@=H seQx@ xm OO o Q |t x_Lqt
O =
uw @ t= " CU}v QFw-t `@=D xH}Dv QO =yv
QN-=D w s OkD =yu=twoQ
s=v Q = x = xm CiQo xH}Dv
uO @ Q m @ @ u= D w |t u}=Q@=v@
Oy=wN Cw =iDt xH}Dv u
C}=aQ sOa w
CQ Y QO w CU= C}ty= R=L =yv
uDiQo Q=Qk ?}DQD =yu=twoQ
s=v Qm P
"Ovvm|t pta xOa=k u}ty =@ R =
u @ R QO xDN=UV}B =} w |= v x =N@=Dm `@=wD s=tD "O @w
|rLt |=yQ}eDt 4 3 9 1
=Q u
CL=QY x@ xm u}= Qot 'CU= |rLt Q}eDt u
O}}=tv ? wUvt =Q |Q= Okt | Q}eDt x@ Qo = `@=D pN=O QO
u} Ro}=H Vt=vsy Q}eDt |wQ VQ=Okt `@=D R= GQ=N '|rLt Q}eDt Qo}O CQ=@a x@ "O}vm h} QaD <<; |v=yH
O =
" W @ ? =UDv= l} `@=D QwDUO u} QN
xm u
Qot OwQ |t u}@ R= u
Q= Okt O@=} xtD=N `@=D Qo = ,=vt "O W w |tv
| Q}F-=D `@=D Q
|= H= "OO o Q |t 3QQ x
@= @ Q= Okt `@=D pN=O QO "O Q}o|t QiY Q=Okt x Q}eD t = OD@= 'Q} R p=Ft QO
P |tv |vwQ}@ |v=yH Q}eDt

"OQ= o QO
> x {0
<
> functionx { function() f

<
+x {3 <
+g
> functionx()
> x
1] 0
w |t h} QaD |v=yH
"O W w
CQ Y x@ q=@ p=Ft uwvm =
> x {0<
> functionx { function() f

<
+x {3 <<
+g
> functionx()
> x
1] 3
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ '`@=D l} |DL 'OW=@ |W Qy Ov=wD|t `@=D u=twoQ
> test { function(n, fun)

<
+f
+ u { runif(n)
<
+ fun(u)
+g
> test(3,sin)
1] 0.7537332 0.8033265 0.3290288
Q@ Q=m xOW h} QaD |}=DwO Qorta l} CN=U 5 3 9 1
xO =iDU= %anything% Ovv=t % Ctqa R= Q=m u}= |=Q@ "CN=U =Q Q_v OQwt |}=DwO Qorta u=wD|t R u=@ R QO
=F Q
%p t |= @ "O Q}o Q=Qk uW}Dwm pN=O = O}=@ 'Qorta h} QaD
QO u
s v =vt
QO , w |t
"O W
"%anything%" { function(x,y) f g
<
" O}vm xHwD setdi() union() `

w w
@= D OQmrta x@ 'Q} R p=Ft Q
`w W R= p@k
> x { c(1,2,5)
<
> y { c(5,1,8,9)
<
> union(x,y)
1] 1 2 5 8 9
> setdi(x,y)
1] 2
> setdi(y,x)
1] 8 9
" Ovm|t x@U=Lt uQ =kDt w
CQ Y x@ =Q xawtHt wO h qDN= xm OwW|t xDN=U | Qorta uwvm =
> "%sdf%" { function(a,b) f

<
+ sdfxy { setdi(x,y)
<
+ sdfyx { setdi(y,x)
<
59 R |U w x = Q =
} v t v @ u @R =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
+ union(sdfxy,sdfyx)
+g
> x %sdf% y
1] 2 8 9
Qy Q=m xwLv Q} R p=Ft '20 |DWoR=@ VwQ w
19 Q=QmD VwQ " CU= swUQt OQm} wQ wO ,q wtat C U =@ =Lt |= @ Q %p=Ft
O
" yO |t u=Wv z>0 Q = Q
|= @ =Q p t v p =tDL= OOa x@U=Lt Q} R pwtQi "OyO|t u=Wv =Q wO
1 p1 X 1
(;1)nz2n+1
(z) = +
2 2 n=0 n!2n(2n + 1)
"CU= Q} R MQW x@ u
| y m= O xm OwW|t p=@vO Q=QmD VwQ pw=
> Phi1 { function(z) f

<
+ sum = z
+ nfac = 1
+ for (n in 1:30) f
+ nfac = n nfac
+ sum = sum + (-1)^n z ^ (2 n + 1) / + (nfac 2^n (2 n + 1))g
+ 0.5 + sum / sqrt(2 pi)
+g
> Phi1(1.96)
1] 0.9750021
w |t x_Lqt Q} R
"O W QO |DWoR=@ VwQ x@ q=@ xr=Ut
> Phi2 { function(z)

<
+f
+ n2p1 = 1 mult = -z^2/2
+ term = z sum = term
+ for (n in 1:30) f
+ n2p1 = n2p1 + 2
+ term = term mult / n
+ sum = sum + term / n2p1
+g
+ 0.5 + sum / sqrt(2 pi)
+g
> Phi2(1.96)
1] 0.9750021
u u=wN=Qi w xOW xDWwv `@=D xQ}NP 6 3 9 1
u= Dw |t x=ov
"OW pY=L u=v}t]= u
|DUQO R= w O}OQo pt=m w OW xDWwv Q@ Q=m xOW h} QaD `@=D xm u}= R= TB
Q
|= @ u wvm = wtv xQ}NP
"O | Oa@ =
| yxO =iDU= Q Q_v
|= @ OQ t w pLt QO x= wNrO |t=v =@ p}=i Rl } u= wvax@ u
O w Q
" v= N= i =Q Q_v w `@=D TBU
OQ t Q Q
w O m = H= =Q source("p = R Q}U
} i t w s v = ") QwDUO O}=@ =OD@= =yv
R= xO =iDU=
"CU= xHwD p@=k xDmv wO =Hv}= QO
19. iteration 20. recursion

=
| ys v @ = = `@=D u}OvJ p}=i R l} QO xm CU= umtt uwJ OW=@v u=Um} `@=D s=v w p}=i R s=v xm u}= pw=
w
"O W x Q}NP uwo =vwo
xO =iDU= source Q wDUO R= O}=@ =yp}=i R R= l} Qy <=R= x@ "OW O=H}= =RHt p}=i Rl } `@=D Qy |= @ Q Qo =
O w Q
" v= N= i =Q Cw =iDt `@=wD TBU w O W w
x@ |r}=i QO ,qFt xm CU= xOW xDWwv Q=}at h= QLv= w u}ov=}t x@U=Lt |= @ Q |a@=D "O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ uwvm =
" CU= xO}OQo xQ}NP mean_sd =
s v
mean.sd { function (x, na.rm = TRUE)

<
f
if (na.rm) x { x!is.na(x)]
<
n { length(x)
<
if (n 2) f <
cat("small number of data", "\n")

return(c(Mean = NA, SD = NA))
g
xbar { sum(x)/n
<
sd { sqrt(sum((x - xbar)^2)/(n - 1))

<
c(Mean = xbar, SD = sd)

g
Q Q
"OO o = H= Q} R QwYx@ source() ` = @ D O}=@ q=L
> source("D:\\R_les\\mean_sd.R")
"O Ww |t xO=O `@=D x@ Q=}at h= QLv= w u}ov=}t x@U=Lt |= @ Q Q_v w
OQ t | yxO=O = TBU
> x { c(1,2,3)
<
> mean.sd(x)
"CU= Q} R CQ Y @ w x x@U=Lt pY=L
Mean SD
2 1
21 |DWoR=@ |U} wvxt=vQ@ 491
Q
|= @ w OvR@ =OY =Q VO Nw Ov=wD|t |DWoR=@ xt=vQ@ "OW=@|t `@=wD QO |}=v=wD l}vmD '|U} wvxt=vQ@ `wv u}=
" CU= O}it 'OvQ=O |DWoR=@ CrYN xm |}=ysD} Qwor=
xHwD "CU= n! = n ((n ; 1)!) Q O = |DWoR=@ \@=wQ j}O=Yt
= }R ' W @ R= |m} Ov=wD|t l} p} QwDm =i %p=Ft
= O x@ uwvm =
| y )
m "O=O CUOx@ =Q `@=D = w =
| yOQ NR @ R= |=xQ B u= D = w |t cat Q wDUO R= xO=iDU= =@ xm O}W=@ xDW=O
"O}vm xHwD Q} R
21. Recursive programming
61 R |U w x = Q
} v t v @ u @R = =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
> nfact { function(n) f

<
+ # calculate n factorial
+ if (n == 1) f
+ cat("called nfact(1)\n")
+ return(1)
+ g else f
+ cat("called nfact(", n, ")\n", sep = "")
+ return(n nfact(n-1))
+g
+g
> nfact(6)
Q |t pY=L Q} R xH}Dv q=@ xt=vQ@
"OO o |= H=Q =@
called nfact(6)
called nfact(5)
called nfact(4)
called nfact(3)
called nfact(2)
called nfact(1)
1] 720
VwQ R= xO =iDU= =@ Q=m u}= "OO oQ |}=U=vW XNWt = l}
xR @ QO pw= O= a= O xm CU= Q=Qk =Hv}= QO %p=Ft
" CU= Q} R w x = sD} Qwor=

CQ Y @ Q m "OQ}o|t CQ Y w |DWoR=@ |U} wvxt=vQ@
CU=
" p=2 pw= s wrat OOa u} QDoQR@ "O}vm `w WQ 2 3 n CU} =
r @ 1
Q |t
"OO o P
h L VO N < Hw R x@ OvDUy p R= |@ Q
t xm Q =v
| Y a s =tD 2
" O}yO V}=Ri= CU= QDoQR@ =

|Q H p R= xm CU}r O = |k=@ OOa u} QDmJwm x@
QO x v t =Q p Q= Okt 3
p
Q |t R=@
"OO o swO s o= x@ xt=vQ@ xvQow O@=}|t xtD=N xt=vQ@ w
'O @ n R= QDoQR@ pQ o = 4
" O}vm xHwD xt=vQ@ = O x@ uwvm =

| y )
m
> primesieve { function(sieved, unsieved) f

<
+ # nds primes using the Sieve of Eratosthenes

+ # sieved: sorted vector of sieved numbers
+ # unsieved: sorted vector of unsieved numbers
+ # cat("sieved", sieved, "\n")
+ # cat("unsieved", unsieved, "\n")
+ p { unsieved1]
<
+ n { unsievedlength(unsieved)]
<
+ if (p^2 n) f
>
+ return(c(sieved, unsieved))
+ g else f
+ unsieved { unsievedunsieved + sieved { c(sieved, p)
< <
+ return(primesieve(sieved, unsieved))
+g
+g
>primesieve(c(), 2:200)
Q |t pY=L Q} R xH}Dv q=@ xt=vQ@
"OO o Q
|= H= =@
1] 2 3 5 7 11 13 17 19 23 29 31 37 41 43 47 53 59 61 67
20] 71 73 79 83 89 97 101 103 107 109 113 127 131 137 139 149 151 157 163
39] 167 173 179 181 191 193 197 199
p}Uv=Qi}O CqO=at w p=QoDv= 'jDWt x@U=Lt 10 1
QO xm Qw]u=ty "O=O s =Hv= =Q p}Uv=Qi}O CqO =at w p= QoDv= 'jDWt Ovv=t |=} Q C =}rta w |t
u= D R =
u @ R QO
p}Uv=Qi}O CqO=at |=Q@ w OwW|t s=Hv= R xDUy QO p=QoDv= w jDWt =yv

R= |=xQ=B x@U=Lt Ot
Oy=wN xr=@vO
"CU= R
|Q= i=s v Q xDU@ l} P = x@ R=}v
|Q= oQ @
jDWt 1101
xO =iDU= D() = x@ |a@=D

s v = u}=
R= Q m Q
|= @ "OQw
CUOx@ |r}rLD w x
CQ Y @ =Q xO U = `@=wD jDWt w |t
u= D R QO
xm CU= | Q}eDt = w
swO u t oQ
w O W w xDiQo jDWt R= CU= Q=Qk xm CU= |DQ=@a = w
u
pw= u t oQ
xm OwW|t
O}vm xHDw Q} R
" =
| yp t =F x@ uwvm = "OO oQ |t s=Hv= u
x@ C@Uv | Q}ojDWt
> D(expression(2 x^3), "x")

2 (3 x^2)
> D(expression(log(x)), "x")
1/x
> D(expression(a exp(-b x)), "x")
-(a (exp(-b x) b))
> D(expression(a/(1+b exp(-c x))), "x")
a (b (exp(-c x) c))/(1 + b exp(-c x))^2
> trig.exp { expression(sin(cos(x + y^2)))
<
> D(trig.exp, "x")

-(cos(cos(x + y^2)) sin(x + y^2))
63 R |U w x = Q =
} v t v @ u @R =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
p=QoDv= 2101
R u @R= xU OwHw `@=D u}= QO "O W w |t xO =iDU= integrate() ` = O

@ D R= |O a CQ Y @ p=w x QoDv= x@U=Lt |= @Q
|q @ = OL |twU QoDv= u}}=B OL
w p= w xDiQo
swO "O W p= QoDv= u
R= CU= Q=Qk xm CU= |a@=D pw= "CU= |Qw Q
"O}vm xHwD Q} R =
| yp t =F x@ uwvm = "CU= p= QoDv=
> f { function(x) fx^2+1g

<
> integrate(f, lower=0, upper=1)

1.333333 with absolute error 1.5e-14 <
> g { function(x) f1/(1+x^2)g

<
> integrate(g, -Inf, Inf)

=
| ys v = uDW=Po xm u}= swO " CU= Q@ Q=m Q=}DN= QO `@=D s=v xm u}= pw= " CU= |Qw Q xDmv OvJ Qm P =Hv}= QO
O}=@ I |va Q
} u
pw= h L , =tDL w CU= C}=yv|@ |vat x@ Inf x m u}= swU "CU= |Q =}DN= upper lowerw
w |t O=H}= =]N xvQow OwW xDWwv

"O W nQ @ R
> h { function(x) f1/(pi (1+x^2))g

<
> integrate(h, -Inf, Inf)

1 with absolute error 1.6e-10 <
xv=oOvJ p=QoDv= 1 2 10 1
p=QoDv= x@ p=Ft |=Q@ "OwW xO=iDU= QQmt CQwYx@ integrate() `@=D R= O}=@ |OOa xv=oOvJ p=QoDv= x@U=Lt |=Q@
Z 3Z 2 " O}vm xHwD Q} R xv=owO
x2 y dy dx
0 1
"O}vm xHwD Q} R = O x@ q=@
| y )
m p= QoDv= O x@U=Lt
|O a |= @Q
> Iterated Integral

#
> integrate(function(x) f
+ sapply(x, function(x) f
+ integrate(function(y) x^2 y, 1, 2)$value
+ g)
+ g, 0, 3)
p}Uv=Qi}O xrO=at 3101
QO "O W w xDN=OQB p}Uv=Qi}O CqO=at pL x@ =yv

QO CU= sRq xm s} wW|t xH=wt |r=Ut =@ |UOvyt w swra QO
Ov=wD|t xm CU= C}r@=k u}= |=Q=O xm OW=@|t OwHwt deSolve s=v =@ |Q=Ri=sQv xDU@ l} R |U} wvxt=vQ@ u=@ R
x@ |R v =} Qo}O w O wtv pL =Q xr=Ut l} |DL=Qx@ w |t

u= D u
ltmx@ w OR=O QB@ p}Uv=Qi}O CqO =at `= v= w pL x@
u}= QO "O @w Oy=wNv 'O Ww |t |vqw] w CNU Q=}U@ =yv
=@ Q=m |y=o xm CqO =at pL | y = sD} Qwor= R= xO =iDU=
|rwtat p}Uv=Qi}O xrO=at l} pL x@ R=}v u
QO xm ?
|UOvyt =@ \@DQt xr=Ut l} |iQat x@ =OD@= CtUk
Q |t K} QWD
"OO o R =
u @ R R= xO =iDU= =@ u
pL |ovwoJ |r=Ft x=Q= =@ TBU w O W w |t CN=OQB 'OW=@|t
=
xR H= w x W O x}@aD u
C=R= t w x@ ==
w p v m xQ m QO=v xm = Q
O=R
u } H =@ R} QQU l} R= CUDQ=@a |Q m =v R} QQU l}
w u}=
` v w =
"O W GQ N u
|wQ R= ?
R= |Q= Okt 'CU= R} QQU =
G D R= QDq=@ ?
` =iDQ= xm |akwt QO =D OyO|t
OQ t w ::: w =y?q}U h= QLv= pQDvm QO '| QyW ?
|Qw
`tH | y = sDU}U QO |i== ?
h= QLv= QO =yR} QQU
O
" vQ=O |v=w=Qi xO =iDU=
=} Q =v
C i |Q m | y } Q U |wQ @ ?
u } H = R Q Q = Q p}iwQB xrO=at uOQw
CUOx@ Q
|= @ 1934 =
p U QO De Marchi
% CiQo Q_v QO =Q Q} R
O =
" W @ |Q wWvt w |r}]DUt p=v=m 1
" CU= C@=F `]kt wO u}@ X wYNt Q w =w

|S v= w xO @ x D m p ] |=Q=O |Q m w =v R} QQU 2
=
GQ N O=R
CQ Y @ ?
w w x xDiQo w
CQ Y pt=m |yO=wy xm xO @w R}D x@r R} QQU l} pO =at |Q m=v R} QQU 3
w |t
"O W
" CU= l} =@ |w =Ut |S v= Q K}LYD ?} Q 4
De Marchi x m |= rO x =at w OO o Q x}@aD OvD w s}qt 'sm Q=}U@ ?}W =@ p=v=m l} Q Ov=wD|t
|wQ @ |Q m =v R} QQU
=@ p}Uv=Qi}O xrO=at l} w x
CQ Y @ w OQ=O Q =@Da= xOW Qm P p=v=m xU R= l} Qy |= @ Q xDi=} CUO O C}=yv
u= @ QO
s w |t u=}@ Q} R x]@=Q
%O W
dy = 4 CM (E ; y)(y ; W )3
dx 3 B 3y ; 2E
q @ = x]@=Q QO xm
" OvW=@|t |YNWt Q=Okt |=Q=O w xO @ w R} QQU `=iDQ= ==
w p v m Z a % Q W B w
R}v u
Q= Okt 'OW=@|t XNWt R} QQU |= OD@= = Q
QO u } H ` =iDQ= xmv}= x@ xHwD =@ w
w xO @ X wYNt Q E
|S v= %
" CU= swrat

XNWt R}v u
Q=Okt w OwW|t u=}@ OwQi OOa ?ULQ@ |=x]@=Q CQwYx@ w OQ=O s=v u=} QH COW ?} Q % M C
O = |t
" W @
j} Q] u}= x@ w x W O u}}aD j i w p}Uv=Qi}O xrO=at pL =@ w

w xO @ p wyHt xm OW=@|t R} QQU Q
|wQ @ ?
` =iDQ= % y
O |t CUOx@
" }
|Q m =v R} QQU Q
|wQ @ ?
p}iwQB
= = l}
p v m Q
|wQ @ x W O x}@aD ' 2.534 w
p ] =@ =v R} QQU l} x@
|Q m \ @ t w Q xm Q} R | y = QDt=Q=B =F
'p t u= wvax@
O Q}o@ Q_v
" } QO =Q OvW=@|t sm Q=}U@ ?}W =@ |r}]DUt
Cm = 0:502 B=2 E = 0:4933 W = 0:33

65 R |U w x = Q =
} v t v @ u @R =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
%O W w |t pta Q} R = =
| ys o CQ Y @ w x R QO p}Uv=Qi}O xrO=at pL |= @ Q
parms { c(Cm, B, E, W)
<
w x
CQ Y @ &OO o Q |iQat p}Uv=Qi}O xrO=at u
QO xm OwW h} QaD function `@=D l} CUtRq Oa@ xrLQt QO
Q
% }R
func { function(x, y, parms) f

<
dy { (4/3) (Cm/B) (((E-y) (y-W)^3)/(3 y-2 E))^(1/2)

<
list(c(dy))
g
%CU= xOW xDiQo Q=mx@ u=twoQ
xU 'j iw x]@=Q h} QaD QO
|va} &OO o Q |t XNWt 'CU= R} QQU |wQ ?

` =iDQ= u=ty xm y Q= Okt u
|=R= @ x xm CU= |rY=wi pw] ' x
p}Uv=Qi}O
' CqO =at pL O =
|O a | yVwQ QO "O W w |t XNWt y Q=Okt 'R} QQU |= OD@= R= x xr =
Y i |=R= @ x
%O wtv xO =iDU= Q} R QwDUO w |t
R= u= D x h Qa } Q
D |= @ "O Q}o|t s=Hv= xm CU= |}=y|Ov@Vt u=ty x Q= Okt
x { seq(0,2.534, 0.1)
<
w |t XNWt
"O W u
Q= Okt 'p}Uv=Qi}O xrO=at pL =@ w CU= xr=Ut pwyHt O
w x W x O}t=v Cr=L Q}eDt y '
"OvW=@|t p}Uv=Qi}O xrO=at | y = QDt=Q=B u=ty ' parms

Q]=Nx@ u}= xm xOW xOv=OQoQ@ list w x
CQ Y @ q @ QO x W = O h} QaD `@=D xH}Dv w |t xOy=Wt xm xvwov=ty
'O W
xrO=at l} xm Q_v w xrO=at pL

OQ t Q =
|= @ p L " W @ O = |t Package QO p}Uv=Qi}O CqO =at pL Z i Q V}B
u= Dw |t ode() ` = @ D R= xO deSolve =
=iDU= =@ =
s v @ |Q= i=s v R Q xDU@ |v=wN=Qi R= TB 'OW=@|t |rwtat p}Uv=Qi}O
"Owt Q} out
v x NP s v = =@ | Q}eDt QO data frame ? = r k QO w xO wtv pL =Q xrO=at
> library(deSolve)
> Cm { 0.502 <
> B {2 <
> E { 0.4933
<
> W { 0.33 <
> y { c(y=0.44)
<
> x { seq(0, 2.534, 0.1)

<
> parms { c(Cm, B, E, W)

<
> func { function(x, y, parms) f

<
+ dy { (4/3) (Cm/B) (((E-y) (y-W)^3)/(3 y-2 E))^(1/2)

<
+ list(c(dy))
g
> out { as.data.frame(ode(y, times=x, func, parms))
<
> head(out)
"CU= Q} R w x
CQ Y @ q @ | y ) =
m |= H= = O Q pY=L
time y
1 0.0 0.4400000
2 0.1 0.4404881
3 0.2 0.4409762
4 0.3 0.4414641
5 0.4 0.4419519
6 0.5 0.4424395
22 |Q=Ri=sQv |=yxDU@ 11 1
R x= } B =} w
24 xDUy x@ xm CU= |v=w=Qi 23 |Q=Ri=sQv = xDU@ uDW=O
| y R u @R= syt Q=}U@ | y = |oS} w R= |m}
|O a O xm w
OQ=O O Hw |Q= i=s v R Q xDU@ 2000 R= V}@ xm Cio O}=@ R=Dtt xirw-t u}= x@ xHwD Q O w |t jrLt
|= @ " v W
CU= u=o}=Q CQwYx@ hwYwt |=yxDU@ s=tD xm CU= u}= O}=Ri=|t C} Rt u}= x@ xm |=xDmv "CU= xHwD QwNQO
O w |t R}v
" v W x =vt "OvDUy 25 R=@ uDt
RwQ @ , |=Q=O w
X wYN QO |i=m K}wD =t= "CU= xOW xQ=W= |}=yxDU@ x@ j} Q=iD x@ O}W=@ xOQm xHwD pYi u}= p qN QO Qo =
w |t xDN=OQB syt u}= x@ uwvm = xm 'CU= xOWv
"O W GQO =yv
=} R
C H Q}=U =@
w \ DQ= ' ?Yv 'uOQw
CUOx@
O w |t ?Yv OwNx@ OwN R}v |Q=Ri=sQvxDU@ |O=OaD `k=w QO 'OOQo|t ?Yv =tW QDw}Bt=m |wQ R Q=Ri=sQv |Dkw
" v W
=Q Packages | wvt 'xLiY = R

|q @ Q= @= Q= v w CtUk QO R QO xm OQ=O C}ty= QOkv
R
|Q= i=s v | y Q = xDU@ EL@
w |t x_Lqt Q} R
"O W CQ Y @ w x =yxv} Ro R= |DUQyi 'O W w l}rm wvt u}= |wQ Qo = "O}vm|t xOy=Wt
Local package
Set CRAN mirror
Select repositories
Install package(s)
Update package(s)
Install package(s) from local zip les
?}DQD ?UL Q@ =tW x@ =Q R O
QO x W |Q= oQ @ | y P = = xDU@ CUQyi 'O}vR@ =Q Local package xv} Ro Qo =
=yv
?Yv Q}Ut u=WDUQyi Q@ xw qa xm Owtv xO =iDU= R}v Q} R `@=D R= u= Dw |t =vt "OyO|t u=Wv <=@ir= hw L Q
O
" yO |t CUOx@ R}v =Q
> library()
The R u
K}wD xm OQ=O O Hw w base = l} xm OwW|t x_Lqt 'O}vm x=ov CkO x@ xDio CUQyi x@ Qo =
s v
Qy =yxDU@ x}k@ =t= w

"OQ=O O Hw |UQDUO u
=
| yxO=O w `@=wD s=tD x@ CQ Y w u}= O = |t
QO " W @ Base Package
22. Packages
" OvW=@|t =yxO=O w `@=wD pt=W xm OvDUy |}=yxv=N@=Dm R Q
'|Q= i=s v | y = xDU@ R= Qw_vt "23
24. core 25. open source

67 R |U w x = Q
} v t v @ u @R = =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
|UQDUO |Q=PoQ=@ seQx@ xm CU= u}= QO x}=B |=yxDU@ =@ =yv

Cw=iD w OvW=@|t XNWt w =RHt s=v |=Q=O s=Om
w
"O W xO =iDU= O}=@ library(xDU @ s v = ) `@=D R= Q}N= OQ=wt x@ |UQDUO Q CU}v QU}t =yv
|= @ " =
| yxO=O w `@=wD x@
"O}vm xLwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "O wtv xO =iDU= u= D w |t R}v library() ` = @ D | =H@ require() ` = @ D R= xD@r=
> library(MASS)
OO o Q |t `]k \=@DQ= O} wW GQ=N R R= Qo = "CU= QU}t MASS xDU@ |=yxO=O w `@=wD x@ |UQDUO Oa@ x@ u}= R=
Q
"OO o Q= k @ x WQQ O xDio \ DQ= =@ library() ` = @ D R= xO =iDU= =@ O}=@ =
xQ @ wO w
| y = xDU@ R=}v ?UL Q@ Q=m w OvwW|tv P =

|Q= oQ @ u
QO Z i Q V}B w x R =
CQ Y @ | y xDU@ s=tD xm CU= K=w
u}= p}YiD =t= = |t Q=QkQ@ R}v =Q
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x}L=v QO ,q@k xm Q=O wtv u}rw= |va} w Oy=wN Tma
"O @ CQ Y w x@ 'V}=tv xLiY =
QO yQ=O wtv uDiQo Q=Qk ?}DQD
"OQ}o|t Q=Qk 3 2 x} =
L v QO u wvm = CiQo|t Q=Qk 11
%3 p=Ft
> m { matrix(1:6, 2, 3)
<
> m
,1] ,2] ,3] 1 3 5
1,] 1 3 5
2,] 2 4 6
> layout(m) 2 4 6
> layout.show(6)
%4 p=Ft
CQ Yw x@ layout = O Qo =
| y m =F
'p t |= @ " Q Ovm p=eW= =Q u wDU =} w Q]U l} R= V}@ CU= umtt Q=O wtv l}
CU= Q} R
> m { matrix(c(1,2,3,3), byrow=F,

<
ncol=2)
> m 1
,1] ,2]
1,] 1 3 3
2,] 2 3 2
> layout(m)
> layout.show(3)
%5 p=Ft
=yZQa =t= "OvDUy u=Um} ZQa |=Q=O =yuwDU s=tD w u=Um} `=iDQ= |=Q=O =yQ]U s=tD 'ZQiV}B CQwYx@
O}B |UQDUO =yv
x@ xm |}=yQ]U `=iDQ= Ov=wD|t heights u=twoQ
= "O wtv Zwa u=wD|t =Q |L=wv |=yuwDU w
T QDUO p@=k = Q
| yZ a |= @ Q |r@k u=twoQ
x@=Wt width = w
u t oQ
u}vJty "Ovm QDoQR@ |D@Uv x@ =Q Ovm|t
"Ovm|t pta
> m { matrix(1:4, 2, 2)
<
> layout(m, widths=c(1, 3), 1 3
+ heights=c(3, 1))
> layout.show(4)
2 4
1
QDmJwm 1+3 = 14 C@Uv x@ =yv
=
R= |=xQ B w
3
OvwW|t QDoQR@ 1+3 = 34 C@Uv x@ =yZQa w =y`=iDQ= |=xQ B=
O Q |t
" vO o
%6 p=Ft
> layout(matrix(c(1,2,1,3),2,2))
> plot(rnorm(100), type="l")
> hist(rnorm(100))
> qqnorm(runif(100))
w |t xH}Dv
"O W 13%2 pmW w
j i C=Q wDUO Q
|= H= =@
=yQ=Owtv u=mt u}}aD =@ xLiY s}UkD 3 3 2 2
=Q Q=O wtv OvJ par() = w

u t oQ
u= wvax@ mfcol mfrow
w C=Q wDUO \UwD w |t OW x_Lqt xm Qw]u=ty
u= D
uDiQo Q=Qk pLt |wQ =Q | QDW}@ p QDvm xm CUy R}v | Qo}O u =mt= =t= wtv s}UQD
"O Q=O wtv xLiY l} |wQ
81 Q=Owtv sUQ 2 pYi
2
1
rnorm(100)
0
−1
−2
−3
0 20 40 60 80 100
Index
Histogram of rnorm(100) Normal Q−Q Plot
1.0
25
0.8
20
Sample Quantiles
Frequency
0.6
15
0.4
10
0.2
5
0.0
0
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 −2 −1 0 1 2
rnorm(100) Theoretical Quantiles
|w =Ut=v | Ov@s}UkD =@ =
|Q t Q=O wtv OvJ V}=tv %132 pmW
O = |t
" W @ par() g QO = w
u t oQ
u
w Ovm|t p=ta= Q=O wtv
w
"O W xO =iDU= Q} R C Q g = w t i R= u t oQ
QO O}=@ 'Q=O wtv pLt s}_vD Q
|= @
c(x_left, x_right, y_left, y_right)

" O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ uwvm = "OvQ=O Q=Qk l} w QiY Q}O=kt u}@ Qwm Pt | y = xirw-t R= l} Qy 'u
QO xm
# Add boxplots to a scatterplot

par(g=c(0,0.8,0,0.8), new=TRUE)
plot(mtcars$wt, mtcars$mpg, xlab="Miles Per Gallon",
ylab="Car Weight")
par(g=c(0,0.8,0.55,1), new=TRUE)
boxplot(mtcars$wt, horizontal=TRUE, axes=FALSE)
par(g=c(0.65,1,0,0.8),new=TRUE)
boxplot(mtcars$mpg, axes=FALSE)
mtext("Enhanced Scatterplot", side=3, outer=TRUE, line=-3)
"OO o Q |t pY=L 14%2 pmW j i w xt=vQ@ Q
|= H= =@
Enhanced Scatterplot
30
Car Weight
25
20
15
10
2 3 4 5
Miles Per Gallon
g Q wDUO \UwD Q=O wtv OvJ V}=tv %142 pmW
OL=w xLiY QO |r@k Q=Owtv |wQ Q@ O}OH Q=Owtv s}UQD 4 2 2
| Qo}O |=yQ=Owtv |rai Q=Owtv |wQ u=wD|t `@=D Q=yJ =@ "CU= xOW s}UQD Q=Owtv l} plot() `@=D =@ O}vm ZQi
"O wtv xi== u
x@ =Q
plot() # draw a graph

points() # adds points
lines() # adds lines
abline(a,b) # Draws a line of slope a and intercept b
abline(h=) # adds horizontal lines
abline(v=) # adds vertical lines
curve() # adds curves
|HQ=N |=ys}_vD 1 4 2 2
plot(x,y, col=2) =F
p t |= @ " yO Q O |t u=Wv =Q =yQ=Owtv R= QD|} RH w QDW}@ = QDt=Q=B 'Q} R CUQyi
| y
Q u}}aD
"O m =Q Q=O wtv \ w]N Ct=N w |t QDt=Q=B u}= =@
u= D %lwd
O Ov=wD|t QDt=Q=B u}= Q=Okt
w O a "O m Q u}}aD =Q =Q Q=O wtv QO xO =iDU= w
OQ t \ w]N `wv u= D w |t QDt=Q=B u}= =@ %lty
lty="dashed" =F
p t |= @ " W @ Q O = QDm =Q=m =}
=F Q O = QDm =Q=m =}
p t |= @ " W @ O Ov=wD|t QDt=Q=B u}= Q=Okt
w O a "O mQ u}}aD Q=Owtv nvQ w |t QDt=Q=B u}= =@
u= D % col
u} w=va nvQ Q}}eD Q
|= @ ' col.sub col.main w R= u= wvaQ} R w u= wva nvQ Q}}eD Q col = "red"
|= @ "
w
"O W | =iD col.axis
t xO U= R= =yQwLt nvQ Q}}eD Q Q
|= @ x Nq @ w = col.lab = wL R= yQ t
83 Q=Owtv sUQ 2 pYi
Ovm|t u}at
" =Q Q=O wtv | y = xDWwv *srk QDt=Q=B u}= O
|O a Q= Okt font %
"O W w p}O@D `@ Qt x@ xQ}=O xv=Wv ,qFt "O wtv u}at =Q Q=O wtv = x =Wv
| y v w |t 3 pch QDt=Q B
u= D = = %pch
@
nvQ w font.main = @ u
xR= v= wO Cvwi Q XNWt
"O m =Q Q=O wtv |rY= wva
u= w |t QDt=Q=B u}=
u= D = %main
@
"OO oQ |t V}=Q} w col.main = @ u
=@ u
nvQ w font.sub = O
@ u
xR= v= w Cvwi "O mQ XNWt =Q Q=O wtv |aQi u=wva u= D w |t QDt=Q=B u}= =@ % sub
"OO oQ |t V}=Q} w col.sub
K]U `@=wD R= |=xQ=B QO xD@r= "OQm XNWt =Q C=YDNt |=yQwLt |t=U= u=wD|t QDt=Q=B u}= =@ %xlab, ylab
"O Ww |t s=Hv= OwNx@OwN pta u}= 'q @ =
Q m = u}= Q
|= @ "O wtv u}}aD =Q y xw = wLt QFm =OL
| yQ w pk=OL Q}O=kt u= D w |t QDt=Q=B u}= =@ % xlim, ylim
Q= Okt low u
QO xm 'Owtv xO=iDU= ylim=c(low,high) xlim=c(low,high) w C=Q wDUO R= u= Dw |t
" yOO |t u=Wv =Q QFm =OL Q=Okt high w pk=OL
R= O}vm R
nQ @ =Q u= wva O O}y=wN@ Qo =
xR= v= "Owtv QDoQR@ =Q Q=O wtv u wDt w =yxv=Wv u= D w |t QDt=Q=B u}= =@ % cex
cex.lab R= =yQwLt |t=U= uO wtv QDoQR@ Q O}vm
|= @ " xO =iDU= cex.sub R= u= wvaQ} R Q
|= @ w cex.main
" CiQo ltm w |t
u= D
|= v x =Wv =} w uDt 'x]kv Qy xm w x OvwW s}_vD

|Q ] @ Q
|Q=O @ CQ Y @ w x Ovv=wD|t |m}i=Qo | y = QDt=Q=B R= |=xQ B =
"O wtv pta u= D w |t R}v xv=o =OH w x =
CQ Y @ t= "OO o Q |t Q=O @Q QY=va pt=W
Q=Owtv l} |=yQDt=Q=B s}_vD 2 4 2 2
nvQ '\N `wv '\w]N Ct=N Q}_v |}=yQDt=Q=B |=Q=O Ov=wD|t Q=Owtv l} "OW xOy=Wt uwvm =D xm Qw]u=ty
'
Q wDUO u=ty |=Q@ \ki 'OwW xOQw

s}UQD QwDUO OwN QO |m}i=Qo |=yQDt=Q=B Qo = uwvm = "OW=@ ::: O Cvwi
w xR= v= '
=
| yQ=O wtv s=tD |wQ =yQDt=Q=B u}= w
'O W xOQw
par() ` = @ D QO |m}i=Qo | y= QDt=Q=B Qo = =t= "CU= p =ta= p@=k
CQ Y @ y w x = QDt=Q=B s}UQD QwDUO l} pN=O =} w OUQ@ |Oa@ par() `@=D x@ =} xmv}= Qot "OOQo|t p=ta= R}v |Oa@
O}vm xHwD Q} R
" =
| yp t =F x@ ?r]t QDy@ Q
lQO |= @ "OO o Q Z} waD |rLt
> plot(x,y,cex.lab=2, main="size of title",cex.main=2,cex.axis=2)

"OQ=O Q= kQ plot() ` = @ D pN=O pmW | y = QDt=Q=B xm OwW|t xOy=Wt w
j i OQ t QO w
> par(cex.lab=2,cex.main=2,cex.axis=2)
> plot(x,y,main="size of title")
" CU= Q} R w x |rLt Z} waD
CQ Y @
> par(cex.lab=2,cex.main=2,cex.axis=2)
> plot(x,y,main="size of title")
3. Plotting character
> plot(x,y,cex.lab=2, main="size of title",cex.main=1,cex.axis=1)

" O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft QO par() ` = @ D ?r=H | y = Z} waD x@ uwvm =
> # Set a graphical parameter using par()

> #par() # view current settings
> opar <{ par() # make a copy of current settings
> par(col.lab= "red") # red x and y labels
> hist(mtcars$mpg) # create a plot with these new settings
> par(opar) # restore original settings
C =mv x@ u}=Q@=v@ "Ovm|t <=i}= =yQ=Owtv V}=Q} w QO |O } R = Vkv par() ` = @ D OW xOy=Wt uwvm =D xm Qw]u=ty
=tW "CU= =R=QO Iv}= 6 w =vyB Iv}= 6 |=Q=O , } =@ QkD pmW l} x}L=v O
xR= v= "O W w |t xDN=OQB = u}=
? @ QO | Qo}O
" O}vR@ lLt x@ R QO =Q Qt= u}= O}v=wD|t
> par("n")
1] 5.781249 5.770832
" CU= Q} R w x
CQ Y @ u
|rm CQ Yw `k=w QO "Ovm|t u}at =Q Q=O wtv |W=wL mar = w
u t oQ
> par(mar=c(bottom, left, top, right))

"O wtv =QH= =Q Q} R QwDUO O}=@ 'u
Z i Q V}B Q}O=kt uOQw
CUOx@ Q
|= @
> par("mar")
1] 5.1 4.1 4.1 2.1
O x@ =yv
OL=w "CU=
xR= v= c(5, 4, 4, 2)+0.1 = c(5.1, 4.1, 4.1, 2.1)} w w x = w
CQ Y @ u t oQ
Q= Okt u}=Q@=v@
" Ovm|t XNWt =Q ?U Q w x x} =
J @ CQ Y @ w] mtext() ` = W L \ =iD N @ D R= xO U= =@ Q} R Om "CU= uDt \N
plot(1:10, ann=FALSE, type="n", xaxt="n", yaxt="n")

for(j in 1:4) for(i in 0:10) mtext(as.character(i),side=j,line=i)
"OO o Q |t pY=L 15%2 pmW q=@ Om Q
|= H= R=
?UL Q@ w |t s=Hv=
w O W mai = w
u t oQ
R= xO =iDU= =@ w CU= OwHwt =yQ=Owtv |W=wL u}}aD Q
|= @ | Qo}O x=Q
"O wtv =QH= =Q Q} R QwDUO O}=@ 'u

Z i Q V}B Q}O=kt uOQw
CUOx@ Q O = |t Iv}=
|= @ " W @
> par("mai")
1] 1.02 0.82 0.82 0.42
=yv
QO xm 'CU= q=@ w AJ 'u}}=B h ] Q x@ jraDt Q}O=kt u} QDoQR@ mai mar |va w = = w
} q @ u t oQ
wO Qy QO
"OO oQ |t pY=L Iv}= 0.2 O

O= a= O}vm ? =UL =Q wO u}= C@Uv Qo = "O Q}o|t Q=Qk =yQwLt w Q=O wtv u} w=va
> par("mai")/par("mar")
1] 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
pmW x}W=L u} w=va \ w]N ?UL Q@ w CU= Q=Okt xU |=Q=O xm CU= |Q=O @ Q par() ` = @ D QO mgp = w
u t oQ
" CU= c(3,1,0) u

Z i Q V}B "Ovm|t u}at O
u
O= a= =D =Q =yQ=Owtv u= wva xrY=i w OW=@|t
3
2
1
0
3
2
1
0
0
1
0
1
2
3
4
?UJQ@ w x x}W=L
CQ Y @ \ w]N V}=tv %152 pmW
> par("mgp")
1] 3 1 0
O = |t
" W @ =Q=O =Q CU=Q = AJ 'u}}=B QYva Q=yJ xm CU=
w q @ ' |Q=O @ Q oma(outer margin area) = w
u t oQ
CU= c(0,0,0,0) u
ZQiV}B w OyO|t CUOx@ uDt \w]N ?UL Q@ =Q |HQ=N x}W=L xR=Ov= u=twoQ
u}=
"
> par("oma")
1] 0 0 0 0
"O}vm xHwD 16%2 pmW x@ Q=O wtv l} |HQ=N x}W=L uOW QDXNWt |= @ Q
u}}=B K]U `@=wD R= |=xQ=B 3 4 2 2
`@=wD \UwD Q=m u}= "O}vm xi== u

x@ w
=Q OQ= t R= |
a@ xm O}y=wN|t TBU 'O}vm|t O=H}= Q=O wtv l} =tW
CU= Q}PBu=mt= u}}=B K]U
"
\w]N uOwRi=
Q
Q=O @ \ =kv lines() ` = w |t
@ D "O W xO =iDU= OwHwt Q=Owtv x@ \ w]N R
uOw i= |= @ Q abline() lines() `
w @= Dw
Ovm|t s}UQD
" =Q u}at <=O@t Q
R= Z a w ?}W =@ CU=Q \ w]N abline() ` = @ D "Ovm|t pYw sy x@ =Q |OwQw
> plot(c(-2,2),c(-2,2))
> lines(c(0,2), c(0,2), col="red")
> abline(a=1, b=2, lty=2) # adds the line y = a + bx
oma = c(2,2,2,2)
mar = c(5.1,4.1,4.1,2.1)
10
8
6
Plot Area
Y
4
2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
X Figure
Outer Margin Area
Q=O wtv |HQ=N x}W=L V}=tv %162 pmW
> abline(v=1, lty=3, col="blue", lwd=3)

\N h QDt=Q=B =@ w |Owta \N v QDt=Q=B =@ abline() `@=D QO "O}
|t CUO@ Q} R Q=O wtv jwi C=QwDUO |=QH= =@
"OO oQ |t sUQ |ki=
C=Q wDUO x@ p=Ft u=wva x@ "OwQ|t Q=mx@ \N xQ=B w u=m}B s}UQD |=Q@ ?}DQD x@ segments() w arrows() `@=wD
"O W w |t xi== Q} R C=Q wDUO p@k
> arrows(
+ c(0,0,0),
+ c(1,1,1),
+ c(0,0.5,1),
+ c(1.2,1.5,1.7),
+ length = 0.1)
`@=D Ovv=t `@=D u}= "O Ww |t xO =iDU= grid() ` = @ D R= Q m = u}= Q
|= @ "Ow i= R 4 =tvy=Q \ w]N u= D w |t =yQ=Owtv x@
=yu=twoQ
u}= Qt=Qo "OW=@|t ::: w u}J\N 'QB\N \N `wv 'Ct=N 'nvQ = = w
| yu t oQ
|=Q=O plot()
?}DQD x@ =Q =tvy=Q \w]N Ow@v w xm
w O @ w
OQ=O O Hw ny nx w = w
u t oQ
wO grid() ` = @ D " CU=plot() ` = Ov = @ D v t
sUQ y= x } w | y = CyH QO \ w]N 'OO oQ NA |w =Ut =yv

R= l} Qy Qo = "Ovvm|t u}at y x = wL
w | yQ t QO
\ w] x x
N @ QwLt CyH QO w O}y=wN|t =tvy=Q \ w]N y Q wLt CyH QO xm O}vm Q
Z i u wvm = Q |tv
"OO o
"O wtv pta Q} R w x O}=@ x=ov

'O} Q=Ov R=}v =tvy=Q
CQ Y @
grid(nx=NA, ny=NULL)
4. Grid lines
2
1
c(−2, 2)
0
−1
−2
−2 −1 0 1 2
c(−2, 2)
CU=Q \N OvJ V}=tv %172 pmW
xm O}W=@ p}=t Qo = =t= 'OvwW|t sUQ w Q

\ @ t | yQ = wLt | y = l}D O= OaD x@ y x Cy
w H wO QO =tvy=Q \ w]N
Q}}eD Q_v w
OQ t Q=O wtv QO ?U=vD x@ =Q =yl}D xm CU= u}= VwQ u}rw= O}yO Vy=m =} w V}=Ri= =Q =yv
O= OaD
Q} R =
| yp t=F x@ uwvm = "OW=@|t abline(h=numeric, v=numeric) ` = @ D R= xO =iDU= swO VwQ =t= "O}yO
"O}vm xHwD
> x { c(1,4,7,8,10)
<
> y { c(2,6,11,15,20)
<
> plot(x,y)
> grid()
Z i Q V}B Q}e w x =tvy=Q
CQ Y @ \ w]N u wvm = Q |t O=H}=
"OO o 19%2 xQ =tW wtv
Q=O w
j i | y )
m |= H== O Q =@
"OO o Q |t p=ta= |WQ=iU
> x { c(1,4,7,8,10)
<
> y { c(2,6,11,15,20)
<
> plot(x,y)
> abline(h=seq(1,20,2),v=seq(1,10,0.5),lty=3,col="gray50")
"OO o Q |t O=H}= 20%2 xQ =tW Q=O wtv w
j i | y ) = O
m |= H= Q =@
=yxv=Wv w \=kv uOwRi=
pmW |r@k Q=Owtv x@ =Q |]=kv Q} R | y )= O O R |t OwHwt

m " }= i= Q=Owtv x@ =Q |i== xv=Wv w \ =kv points() ` = @ D
"Ovm|t xi== 21%2
> points(rnorm(4), rnorm(4), pch=3, col="blue")

2
1
c(−2, 2)
0
−1
−2
−2 −1 0 1 2
c(−2, 2)
=m}B OvJ V}=tv

u %182 pmW
> points(rnorm(4), rnorm(4), pch=4, cex=3, lwd=2)

> points(rnorm(4), rnorm(4), pch="K", col="green")
" yOO |t u=Wv Q
=Q O=O Q= k xO =iDU= w
OQ t u= D w |t xm |}=yxv=Wv R= |DUQyi Q} R xt=vQ@
> plot(0:10, 0:10, type="n", xlab="", ylab="")

> k { -1
<
> for (i in c(2,5,8)) f

+ for (j in 0:9) f
+ k - k+1
<
+ points(i, j, pch=k, cex=2)g

+g
"OO oQ |t O=H}= 22%2 pmW q=@ xt=vQ@ Q
|= H= =@
uDt w u=wva uOwRi=
Ov}=tv|t xi== =Q |vwDt s}UQD x}L=v QO \ki OwHwt Q=Owtv x@ text() w mtext() 'legend() 'title() `@=wD
"
" Ovm|t xi== |r@k Q=O wtv x@ =Q 23%2 pmW |vwDt Q} R | y )

m= O
> title(main="My title", sub="My subtitle")

> text(0,0, "some text")
> text(1,1, "Angular text", srt=45)
" Ovm|t xi== 24%2 pmW OwHwt wtv |W=wL
Q=O R= |m} x@ =Q Q_v w uDt 5 mtext() `@=D
OQ t
mtext("Text in the margin", side=4)

5. marginal text
20
15
y
10
5
2 4 6 8 10
=tvy=Q \ w]N =@ Q=O wtv l} V}=tv %192 pmW
=
w q @ Q wLt 3 O
O a ' AJ QwLt 2 O
O a ' u}}=B QwLt u
|= @Q 1 O
O a " Ovm|t u}}aD =Q Q_v w
OQ t Q wLt :side
"Ovm|t XNWt =Q CU=Q QwLt 4 O
O a x Nq @ Q =
"CU= 0 u
Z i Q V}B "Ovm|t u}at Q_v w
OQ t Q wLt R= =Q xDWwv xrY=i :line
| =@ir= = =
w xO U | yp t i Q=O w Q wtv l} |wQ O}y=wN@ Qo = "OyO|t u=Wv w \N
j i |wQ =Q xDWwv C =YDN :at t
uDi=} Q CU= LATEX

|= @ " C=Q wDUO x}@W u
C=Q wDUO "O}vm expression() ` =
xO =iDU= @ D R= O}U} wv@ =Q |v=vw}
' O}vm xHwD Q} R | y )
m= O x@ uwvm = "O}vm A}=D =Q demo(plotmath) wD R \}L Q UO ' t QO =yu
pt=m CUQyi
"O Ww |t xi== p@k 25%2 pmW Q=O wtv x@ xm
> text(-1,1.5,
+ expression(
+ paste(
+ frac(1, sigma sqrt(2 pi)),
+ " ",
+ plain(e)^frac(-(x-mu)^2, 2 sigma^2))),
+ cex = 1.2)
QO R}v =yv
|HwQN xm Q |t x=Q= CU= xOW xDWwv Q} R
'OO o = O \UwD xm =ypwtQi
| y )
m R= xvwtv OvJ p=Ft Q
|= @
" CU= xOy=Wt p@=k 26%2 pmW
> par(mar = c(1, 1, 1, 1))

> plot(0:10, 0:10, type = "n", axes = FALSE)
> text(1, 10, expression(x %+-% y), cex = 1.5)
> text(1, 9, expression(xi]), cex = 1.5)
> text(1, 8, expression(x^2), cex = 1.5)
> text(1, 7, expression(sqrt(x)), cex = 1.5)
> text(1, 6, expression(sqrt(x, 3)), cex = 1.5)
> text(1, 5, expression(x != y), cex = 1.5)
20
15
y
10
5
2 4 6 8 10
|WQ=iU | =tvy=Q \ w]N =@ wtv l} V}=tv

Q=O %202 pmW
2
1
KK K
c(−2, 2)
0
−1
K
−2
−2 −1 0 1 2
c(−2, 2)
x]kv OvJ V}=tv %212 pmW

91 Q=Owtv sUQ 2 pYi
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
=yxv=Wv V}=tv %222 pmW
My title
2
t
ex
rt
1
la
gu
An
KK K
c(−2, 2)
some text
0
−1
K
−2
−2 −1 0 1 2
c(−2, 2)
My subtitle
uDt OvJ V}=tv %232 pmW

My title
t
t ex
ar
1
l
gu
An
Text in the margin

KK K
c(−2, 2)
some text
0
−1
K
−2
−2 −1 0 1 2
c(−2, 2)
My subtitle
x}W=L |wQ uDt V}=tv %242 pmW
My title
2
1 x2
e 22
 2
xt
te
ar
1
ul
K
g
An
K
Text in the margin
c(−2, 2)
some text
0
K
−1
−2
−2 −1 0 1 2
c(−2, 2)
My subtitle
Q=O wtv |wQ p t i w Q V}=tv %252 pmW

93 Q=Owtv sUQ 2 pYi
> text(1, 4, expression(x = y), cex = 1.5)

<
> text(1, 3, expression(hat(x)), cex = 1.5)

> text(1, 2, expression(tilde(x)), cex = 1.5)
> text(1, 1, expression(bar(x)), cex = 1.5)
> text(1, 0, expression(x % = % y), cex = 1.5)
< >
> text(4, 10, expression(Alpha + Omega), cex = 1.5)

> text(4, 9, expression(alpha + omega), cex = 1.5)
> text(4, 8, expression(45 degree), cex = 1.5)
> text(4, 7, expression(frac(x, y)), cex = 1.5)
> text(4, 5.5, expression(sum(xi], i = 1, n)), cex = 1.5)
> text(4, 4, expression(prod(plain(P)(X == x), x)), cex = 1.5)
> text(4, 2.5, expression(integral(f(x) dx, a, b)), cex = 1.5)
> text(4, 0.5, expression(lim(f(x), x %- % 0)), cex = 1.5)
>
> text(8, 10, expression(x^y + z), cex = 1.5)

> text(8, 9, expression(x^(y + z)), cex = 1.5)
> text(8, 8, expression(x^y + z), cex = 1.5)
> text(8, 6, expression(hat(beta) == (X^t X)^f-1 + g X^t y), cex = 1.5)
> text(8, 4, expression(bar(x) == sum(frac(xi], n), i == 1, n)), cex = 1.5)
> text(8, 2, expression(paste(frac(1, sigma sqrt(2 * pi)), " ", plain(e)^f
+ frac(-(x - mu)^2, 2 sigma^2)
+ g)), cex = 1.5)
> box()
xy  xy  z
xi  xyz
x2 45 xyz
x
x
y
^
3
x n   XtX1Xty
 xi
xy 1
n xi
xy  PX  x x
x i1 n
x^ b
 fxdx
~ a 1 x2
x e 22
 2
x
lim fx
x0
xy
R O
QO x W xDWwv pwtQi OvJ V}=tv %262 pmW
Q=Owtv QO =yCvwi Q}}eD
" O}vm xHwD Q} R = O x@ p=Ft

| y )
m Q
|= @ "O wtv w
Z a =Q u
| y = xDWwv = Cvwi
| y w |t
u= D Q=Owtv l} QO
plot(1:10,1:10,type="n")
windowsFonts(
A = windowsFont("Arial Black"),
B = windowsFont("Bookman Old Style"),
C = windowsFont("Comic Sans MS"),
D = windowsFont("Symbol")
)
text(3,3,"Hello World Default")
text(4,4,family="A","Hello World from Arial Black")
text(5,5,family="B","Hello World from Bookman Old Style")
text(6,6,family="C","Hello World from Comic Sans MS")
text(7,7,family="D", "Hello World from Symbol")
"OO o Q |t xOy=Wt =Q 27%2 pmW w = O
j i | y )
m |= H= R= Q TB
10
8
Hello World from Symbol
Hello World from Comic Sans MS

6
1:10
Hello World from Bookman Old Style
Hello World from Arial Black

4
Hello World Default

2
2 4 6 8 10
1:10
wtv
Q=O |wQ =yCvwi V}=tv %272 pmW
=yQwLt pQDvm
O=H}= =yZQiV}B R= xO=iDU= =@ OwNx@OwN =yQwLt |=y?UJQ@ w =yQwLt 'O}vm|t O=H}= =Q |Q=Owtv =tW |Dkw
=y QwLt axes = F R= xO =iDU= =@ ,qFt "Owtv pQDvm |m}i=Qo | y= QDt=Q=B =@ w |t
u= D =Q C =t}_vD u}= Q |t
"OO o
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "OvwW|t h L P
> x { rnorm(100)
<
> y { rnorm(100)
<
"O Ww |tv sUQ OwNx@OwN =yQwLt

> plot(x,y, axes=F)
95 Q=Owtv sUQ 2 pYi
"O Ww |t OQ=w |DUO Qw]x@ =yQwLt

> axis(side=1)
> axis(side=2)
u =Wv =Q QwLt sUQ pLt side u=twoQ
`@=D u}= QO "Owtv |R=UR=@ axis() `@=D ltm x@ =Q =yQwLt u=wD|t uwvm =
=@ "CU=Q CtU Q
|= @ 4 O Q =
O a x Nq @ w q @ |= @ = Q 3 O
O a ' AJ CtU |= @Q 2 O
O a ' u}}=B |= @ Q 1 O
O a " yOO |t
O}vm xHwD Q} R
" = O x@
| y m " 28%2 pmW Owtv sUQ =Q y x
w = wLt pLt
| yQ u= D w |t pos = w
u t oQ
R= xO =iDU=
> < { rnorm(100)

> y { rnorm(100)
<
> plot(x,y, axes=F)

> axis(side=1, pos=0)
2
1
y
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2
−1
−2
=yQwLt pLt Q}}eD V}=tv %282 pmW
pmW Q |t XNWt
"OO o labels atw =
| yu t oQ
= w =@ =yu
|wQ =y?UJQ@ w =yl}D s}qa uDiQo Q=Qk pLt
O
" yO |t u=Wv =Q =yv
29%2
x W O XNWt u=mt QO =yl}D s}qa uDiQo Q=Qk

> x { rnorm(100)
<
> y { rnorm(100)
<
> plot(x,y, axes=F)

O
" yO |t u=Wv =Q =y?UJQ@ 30%2 pmW
=yl}D s}qa = ?UJQ@ uDiQo Q=Qk

|wQ y
> x { 1:20
<
> y { rnorm(20)
<
> plot(x,y,axes=F)
> xtickplaces { 1:20

<
> ytickplaces { seq(-2,2,l=6)

<
> xlabels { paste("day", 1:20, sep=" ")

<
> axis(side=1, at=xtickplaces, labels=xlabels)

> axis(side=2, at=ytickplaces)
O}y=wN@ Qo = "OvQ}o|t Q=Qk sy |wQ =yu
xm u}= |=Q@ "OwW|tv xO=O V}=tv OwHwt |=y?UJQ@ s=tD R u=@ R QO
QDt=Q=B =@ Q=m u}= " 31%2 pmW Q lJwm =yQDm =Q=m
OO o xR= v= O O}=@ OvwW xO=O u =Wv =yQwLt |wQ =yu
s=tD
"CU= Q}PBu=mt= cex.axis
> x { 1:20
<
> y { rnorm(20)
<
> plot(x,y,axes=F)
<

<

<
> axis(side=1, at=xtickplaces, labels=xlabels, cex.axis=0.5)

xm CU= xOW xO =iDU= box() = x@ |a@=D
s v R= p t=F u}= QO "O}vm xHwD labels at w C=Q wDUO R= | Qo}O p=Ft x@
" 32%2 pmW Ovm|t sUQ Cw =iDt p=mW= x@ |QO m = pmW uwt=Q}B
> plot(1:7, abs(rnorm(7)), type = 'h', axes = FALSE)

> axis(1, at = 1:7, labels = letters1:7])
> box(lty = 'dotdash')
Ovm|t XNWt =Q l}D Ctqa xR=Ov= QDt=Q=B u}= "CU= tck Owtv xO=iDU= u
R= u=wD|t xm |Qo}O O}it QDt=Q=B
"
| Qo}O QDt=Q=B ,=vt " 33%2 pmW Ovm|t sUQ =Q Q=Owtv xm@W \N `k=w QO xm CU= tck=1 u
|OL Cr=L
OW=@ |ivt u
Q=Okt Qo = "OyO|t u=Wv =Q Q=Owtv |=yQwLt |=yl}D CyH xm OwW|t xO}t=v tcl xm OQ=O OwHw
pN=O CtU x@ =yQwLt = l}D OW=@ C@Ft
| y u
Q= Okt Qo = w CU= Q=O wtv uw Q}@ CtU x@ =yQwLt = l}D
| y
" CU= tcl=-0.5 u

Z i Q V}B Q=Okt w Ovy=wN
"O @ Q=O wtv
> x { 1:20
<
> y { rnorm(20)
<
> plot(x,y,axes=F)
<

<

<
> axis(side=1, at=xtickplaces, labels=xlabels, cex.axis=0.5)

> axis(side=1, at=c(5,10,15,20,25), labels=rep("",5), tck=1, lty=2)
wO Qy O}y=wN@ Qo = "O wtv =iDU=
xO log="y" = log="x"
} R= u= D w |t y = x |tD =o
} w }Q r | yQ= wLt sUQ |= @Q
O}vm
" xO=iD log="xy"
U= w
R= O W |tD} Q=or QwLt
97 Q=Owtv sUQ 2 pYi
2.0
1.2
0.4
−0.4
y
−1.2
−2.0
−2.0000000 −0.8571429 0.2857143 1.4285714
QwLt |wQ =yl}D pLt V}=tv %292 pmW

1.2
0.4
y
−0.4
−1.2
day 1 day 4 day 7 day 10 day 13 day 16 day 19
QwLt |wQ =y?UJQ@ pLt V}=tv %302 pmW

2.0
1.2
0.4
y
−0.4
−1.2
day 1 day 3 day 5 day 7 day 9 day 11 day 13 day 15 day 17 day 19
lJwm O =@ QwLt
xR= v= |wQ =y?UJQ@ pLt V}=tv %312 pmW
abs(rnorm(7))
a b c d e f g
1:7
Q
h L CQ Y w x@ QwLt |wQ =y?UJQ@ pLt V}=tv %322 pmW
Q=Owtv lJwm |=yl}D V}=tv
7 lJwm w 6nQR@ VN@ wO x@ =y|Ov@xHQO u}= "OQ}o|t CQwY |}=y|Ov@xHQO =yQwLt |wQ '=yQ=Owtv s}UQD QO
=t= "OvOQo|t O=H}= OwNx@ OwN R

'nQ @ | y| = Ov@xHQO Z iQ V}B w x pmW s}UQD =@ "OvwW|t s}UkD
CQ Y @ '
'Q=O wtv QO lJwm =

| y| Ov@xHQO GQO |= @ " v Q O Q}o|tv w
CQ Y Z i Q V}B w x lJwm
CQ Y @ | y| = Ov@xHQO
u wvm = "OQ=O splines survival w | y = xDU@ x@ R=}v R}v xOW xDio xDU@ =t= wtv
"O xO =iDU= Hmisc xDU @ R= O}=@
library(survival)
library(splines)
library(Hmisc)
plot(0:10,seq(0,20,2),xlab="m.tick of x",ylab="m.tick of y")
minor.tick(nx=2, ny=5)
O |t CUOx@
" }
34%2 pmW w = O
j i | y )
m |= H= Q =@
xOw OLt ,=}v=F "OyO|t CUOx@ =Q =yQwLt |kqD x]kv C=YDNt ,qw= xm OQ=O OwHw R}v |Qo}O u=twoQ
par() QO
x=ov
'O} Q}o@ Q_v QO usr Q }O =kt u= wvax@ =Q c(x1, x2, y1, y2) Q Qo = "Ovm|t u}at
Q=O @ =Q s}UQD x}L=v
=
R= yZ a Q Q wLt w O@=}|t O=ODt= x2 = x1
D R= =ypw] QwLt w CU= (x1,y1) = yQ wLt |kqD pLt C =YDNt
O}vm xHwD Q} R
" = O x@ uwvm =
| y )
m w |t xO}Wm
"O W y2 = y1 D
> plot(0, 0, type = "n", axes = FALSE, xlab = "x", ylab = "y")
> par(usr = c(1, 10, 1, 5))
> axis(side = 1, at = 1:10)
> axis(side = 2, at = seq(1,5,0.5))
> x { c(1.5,2,3,4,5.5,6,7.5,8,9,9.5)
<
> y { c(1.25,1.5,2,2.5,3,3,3.25,3.5,4,4.5)
<
> points(x, y)
> box()
O |t CUOx@
" }
35%2 pmW = O
| y )
m |= H= Q =@
xO}rwS |=yQ=Owtv 4 4 2 2
=
| yxO=O ?@U x@ =t= "Ov=xOW pYw Qo}Om} x@ \N =@ Q=Owtv \=kv 'xOW s}UQD Vvm =QB |=yQ=Owtv R= |=xQ B QO=
xm Owtv xO =iDU= | OviQD w |t
R= u= D R =
u @ R QO " vQ= v O O |@r=H CQ Y w xm 'Ov}
|t QO syQ@ syQO w x =yv
CQ Y @
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ uwvm = Q ìQ

"OO o |Q=O wtv |oO}rwS u}=
> x { c(1,2,1,1.5,4,5,1.5,4,4.5,3)
<
> y { c(1,3,5,1,3,6,3.5,1,5,5)
<
> par(mfrow=c(1,2))
> plot(x,y,type="l", main="messy graph")
> sequence { order(x)
<
6. major tick 7. minor tick

1.2
0.4
y
−0.4
−1.2
day 1 day 3 day 5 day 7 day 9 day 11 day 13 day 15 day 17 day 19
xm@W \ w]N V}=tv %332 pmW

20
15
m.tick of y
10
5
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
m.tick of x
Q=O wtv lJwm | y = l}D V}=tv %342 pmW

101 Q=Owtv sUQ 2 pYi
5.0
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
y
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
usr QD t=Q B= =@ =yQwLt C= Q}}eD V}=tv %352 pmW
> plot(xsequence],ysequence],type="l",main="order graph")

CtU Q=O wtv =t= 'CU= xO}rwS Q=O wtv 'AJ CtU Q=O wtv "O}
|t CUOx@ 36%2 pmW w
j i | y )
m |= H== O Q =@
O = |t xOW ?DQt
" W @ Q=O wtv 'CU=Q
|a=]k |=yQ=Owtv 5 4 2 2
`@=D = u}=
R= Q m Q
|= @ "O Ww |t xO =iDU= u
R= hrDNt = V}=tv
| y QO xm CU= |}=yQ=Owtv xrtH R= |a=]k Q=O wtv
|ivt Q}e Q}O=kt R= xm CU= |Q=OQ@ QDsyt xty R= xm CU= u=twoQ
OvJ |=Q=O `@=D u}= "OOQo|t xO=iDU= pie()
=Q =y`=]k s=v xm CU= =yQDm =Q=m R= |= xDWQ = w
swO u t oQ
" yO O |t u=Wv =Q =y`=]k O
xR= v= w CU= xOW p}mWD
"O}vm xHwD Q} R | y )
m= O x@ uwvm = "O}=tv|t u}at
> pie.sales { c(0.12, 0.3, 0.26, 0.16, 0.04, 0.12)

<
> names(pie.sales) { c("Blueberry", "Cherry","Apple", "Boston Cream", "Other",

<
"Vanilla Cream")
> pie(pie.sales,col = c("purple","violetred1","green3","cornsilk","cyan","white"))
> title(main="January Pie Sales", cex.main=1.8, font.main=1)
> title(xlab="(Don't try this at home kids)", cex.lab=0.8, font.lab=3)
"OO oQ |t pY=L 37%2 pmW q=@ | y )= O
m |= H= Q =@
messy graph order graph
6
5
5
y[sequence]
4
4
y
3
2
2
1
1 2 3 4 5 1 1 2 3 4 5
x x[sequence]
O
x W ?DQt w x O}rwS =
| yQ=O wtv V}=tv %362 pmW
January Pie Sales
Cherry
Blueberry
Apple
Vanilla Cream
Other
Boston Cream
(Don’t try this at home kids)
|a=]k Q=O wtv V}=tv %372 pmW

|Oa)@ xU |=yQ=Owtv 6 4 2 2
R
|Q= i=s v | y Q = xDU@ =@ sy w CU= Q}PBu=mt=R OwN =@ sy Q=m u}= "CW=O R}v |Oa@ xU Q=Owtv u=wD|t R u=@ R QO
Q} R KQW x@ Owtv xO =iDU= u= Dw |t X wYN u}= QO =yv
R= xm |a@=wD "Owtv s}UQD | Oa)@ xU Q=O wtv w |t
u= D u
"CU=
= w
u t oQ
wO " CU= u=twoQ
xU |=Q=O pk=OL w OyO|t s=Hv= =Q |HQ=N ?Q Ovv=t |rta `@=D u}= outer()
u =Wv =Q x,y = Q
| yQ=O @ <= H= R u}@ C@Uv xm CU= |a@=D swU Q OvDUy
Q=O @ " x,y = Q
| yQ=O @ swO w pw=
"O}vm xHwD Q} R =
| yp t =F x@ "OyO|t
> x { 1:3 <
> y { 1:3 <
> z { outer(x,y, FUN="-")

<
> z
,1] ,2] ,3]

1,] 0 -1 -2
2,] 1 0 -1
3,] 2 1 0
> x { c("A", "B", "C", "D")

<
> y { 1:9 <
> z { outer(x, y, paste, sep = "")

<
> z
,1] ,2] ,3] ,4] ,5] ,6] ,7] ,8] ,9]

1,] "A1" "A2" "A3" "A4" "A5" "A6" "A7" "A8" "A9"
2,] "B1" "B2" "B3" "B4" "B5" "B6" "B7" "B8" "B9"
3,] "C1" "C2" "C3" "C4" "C5" "C6" "C7" "C8" "C9"
4,] "D1" "D2" "D3" "D4" "D5" "D6" "D7" "D8" "D9"
" O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ uwvm = "O wtv s}UQD =Q x} wQ =} w | Oa)@ xU | =tv l} w |t `@=D u}= =@
u= D persp()
> x { seq(-4,4,l=50)
<
> y {x <
> myf { function(x,y)f

<
+ sin(x)+cos(y)
+g
> z { outer(x,y, FUN = myf)

<
> persp(x,y,z, theta=45, phi=45, shade = 0.45)

w |t pY=L
"O W 38%2 pmW q=@ = O
| y )
m |= H= Q =@
| Oa)@ xU pmW l} V}=tv %382 pmW
xm CU= Oa@
| = Q
wO p t v p =tDL= |r=oJ `@=D Q=O wtv s}UQD p=Ft "O wtv x_Lqt w |t xm
u= D | Qo}O ?r=H p=Ft
"CU= xOt
Q=O wtv p}P QO R}v w Q
u
p t i
mu1 { 0 # setting the expected value of x1

<
mu2 { 0 # setting the expected value of x2

<
s11 { 10 # setting the variance of x1

<
s12 { 15 # setting the covariance between x1 and x2

<
s22 { 10 # setting the variance of x2

<
rho { 0.5 # setting the correlation coe cient between x1 and x2

<
x1 { seq(-10,10,length=41) # generating the vector series x1

<
x2 { x1 # copying x1 to x2
<
f { function(x1,x2)f
<
term1 { 1/(2 pi sqrt(s11 s22 (1-rho^2)))

<
term2 { -1/(2 (1-rho^2))

<
term3 { (x1-mu1)^2/s11
<
term4 - (x2-mu2)^2/s22
<
term5 { -2 rho ((x1-mu1) (x2-mu2))/(sqrt(s11) sqrt(s22))

<
term1 exp(term2 (term3+term4-term5)) g # setting up the

# function of the multivariate normal density
z { outer(x1,x2,f) # calculating the density values

<
persp(x1, x2, z,
main="Two dimensional Normal Distribution",
sub=expression(italic(f)~(bold(x))==frac(1,2~pi~sqrt(sigma11]~
sigma22]~(1-rho^2)))~phantom(0)~exp~bgroup("",
list(-frac(1,2(1-rho^2)),
bgroup("", frac((x1]~-~mu1])^2,
sigma11])~-~2~rho~frac(x1]~-~mu1],
sqrt(sigma11]))~ frac(x2]~-~mu2],sqrt(sigma22]))~+~
frac((x2]~-~mu2])^2, sigma22]),"]")),"")),
col="lightgreen",
theta=30, phi=20,
r=50,
d=0.1,
expand=0.5,
ltheta=90, lphi=180,
shade=0.75,
ticktype="detailed",
nticks=5) # produces the 3-D plot
# adding a text line to the graph
mtext(expression(list(mu1]==0,mu2]==0,sigma11]==10,
sigma22]==10,sigma12]==15,rho==0.5)), side=3)
s}UQD |= @Q scatterplot3d = x@
s v |=xDU@ l} xD@r= "O}
|t CUOx@ 39%2 Q=O wtv w
j i | y )= O
m |= H= Q =@
Oy=wN x=Q= sQ =yJ pYi QO u
R= |}=yp=Ft "CU= | QDW}@ C v = =mt= |=Q=O xm w
OQ=O O Hw | Oa@ xU =
| yQ=O wtv
O
" W
=yQ=Owtv uOwtv xQ}NP 522
` wvDt | y = CtQi =@ w Q_v OQ tw pLt QO p}=i l} w x

CQ Y @ =Q x W O s}UQD =
| yQ=O wtv u= D w |t R =
u @ R QO
w pdf eps ps ti jpeg png bmp wmf

' ' ' ' ' ' ' R= u= D w |t uwo =vwo = CtQi u}@
| y R= "O wtv xQ}NP |m}i=Qo
Q
"O @ s v = :::
"CU= Q} R KQW x@ OyO s=Hv= =Q x Q}NP pta Ov=wD|t xm |a@=D |rm CQ Y w
savePlot(le="lename",type="formatname",device=dev.cur())
Q
"O m x Q}NP w
j i Q wDUO Q
|= H= @ =Q= |vwo =vwo |=yCtQi u= D w |t type = w
u t oQ
@ O W = w |t xOy=Wt xm Qw]u=ty
O N w x@ w
'=Q O W x Q}NP u
| yQ=O = wtv =} Q=O wtv CU= Q=Qk xm |=x QHvB =tW xm CU= |v=twoQ
xQ device = w
u t oQ
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ uwvm = "OyO|t X =YDN=
> plot(1:10, seq(0,20,l=10))

> savePlot(le="Rplot", type="pdf")
"OO o Q |t xQ}NP Rplot.pdf = x@
s v plot Q wDUO R= |W=v Q=O wtv w
j i | y )= O
m |= H= Q =@
Two dimensional Normal Distribution

1  02  011  1022  1012  15  0.5
0.015
0.010
z
0.005
10
5
0.000
−10 0
−5 x2
0 −5
x1 5
10 −10
1  1 x1 12 x1 1 x2 2 x2 22

fx   exp   2    
2 11221  2 21  2  11 11 22 22 
 
xQ}eDt = Q `} RwD
wO p t v Q=Owtv V}=tv %392 pmW
=yQ=Owtv uOwtv xQ}NP 622
` wvDt | y = CtQi =@ w Q_v OQ tw pLt QO p}=i l} w x

CQ Y @ =Q x W O s}UQD =
| yQ=O wtv u= D w |t R =
u @ R QO
w pdf eps ps ti jpeg png bmp wmf

' ' ' ' ' ' ' R= u= D w |t uwo =vwo = CtQi u}@
| y R= "O wtv xQ}NP |m}i=Qo
Q
"O @ s v = :::
"CU= Q} R KQW x@ OyO s=Hv= =Q x Q}NP pta Ov=wD|t xm |a@=D |rm CQ Y w
savePlot(le="lename", type="formatname", device=dev.cur())

Q
"O m x Q}NP w
j i Q wDUO Q
|= H= @ =Q= |vwo =vwo |=yCtQi u= D w |t type = w
u t oQ
@ O W= w |t xOy=Wt xm Qw]u=ty
O N w x@ '=Q O W x w Q}NP u
| yQ=O = wtv =} Q=O wtv CU= Q=Qk xm |=x QHvB =tW xm CU= |v=twoQ
xQ device = w
u t oQ
O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ uwvm = "OyO|t

" X =YDN=
> plot(1:10, seq(0,20,l=10))

> savePlot(le="Rplot", type="pdf")
"OO o Q |t xQ}NP Rplot.pdf = x@
s v plot QwDUO R= |W=v Q=O wtv w
j i | y ) = O
m |= H= Q =@
Trellis |=yQ=Owtv 3 2
=Q |}=yQ=Owtv Q}N= u=@ R QO "OQ=O S =

u @R =@ |Q =}U@ |m}ORv R u @R = Ot
pw= pYi |= OD@= QO xm Qw]u=ty
x}=B =
| yQ=O wtv C@Uv Q = K]U
| Dq @ =
| yQ=O wtv Ov=wD|t xm w |t xO}t=v
"O W Trellis x m O wtv s}UQD u= D w |t
\UwD Q=Ri=sQv u}= "CU= Q}PBu=mt= lattice R
|Q= i=s v Q xDU@ ltm x@ =yQ=Owtv u}= s}UQD R}v R QO " }O =tv s}UQD
|=Q=O q @ |Q= i=s v = R Q xDU@ "CU= xOW xO=O \U@ =m} Qt
Wisconsin x =oWv=O QO Deepayan Sarkar | k
=
"CU= Q} R | y = |oS} w
O = |t
" W @ R QO x}=B =
| yQ=O wtv x}@W C=Q wDUO Qt=Qo
" Ovm|t s}UQD x}L=v OvJ QO =Q =yQ=Owtv
"OQ=O =Q C =YDNt sDU}U OvJ O=H}= |}=v=wD
"CU= OwHwt u
QO x}q OvJ |}=tv=H C}r@=k
" CU= Q} R KQWx@ lattice QO `@=D QO l} x}=B |rm pmW
vertical.axis.variable ~ horizontal.axis.variable
=F
%p t |= @ " Q CU= |QwQ OwW xO=iDU= sy Q}eDt l} R= Qo = |DL 8 ~ Qorta R= xO=iDU= xm O}W=@ xDW=O xHwD
histogram(~data$x)
xyplot(data$y~data$x)
=F
%p t |= @ " Q CU= QDxO}J}B |mOv= Q_v OQ t w pmW 'OW=@ Q_v Ot Q=O wtv OvJ Qo =
8. tilde
histogram(~ data$x|data$z)
w Ov} wo |]QW | y = Q}eDt =Q \ W Q Ctqa CU=Q Q
h ] C=Q a w =@ Q}eDt "Ovm|t u=}@ =Q \ W sQ wyit | Ctqa
Ovt=v x}rw=
" = Q}eDt
| y =Q \ W Q Ctqa AJ Q
h ] | y = Q}eDt
Qo = "CU= |Q =}DN= |]QW | y = Q}eDt =t= 'OQ=O CQw Q x}rw= Q}eDt l} pk=OL Trellis w Q l}
p t i QO
Q
"OO o h L P O}=@ Q
\ W Ctqa Ow@v OwHwt |Q =}DN= = Q}eDt
| y
histogram(~x) ` w OW=@v OwHwt |]QW |=yQ}eDt Qo = "OvwW|t =OH sy R= + =} w sqa =@ |]QW |=yQ}eDt
@= D
" Ovvm|t pta u=Um} plot(y~x) = plot(x,y) xyplot(y~x) u}vJt

} w w y w hist(x) w
Trellis | yQ=O = wtv Qt=Qo |Ov@`tH 132
"OO o Q |t | Ov@`tH =yQ=Owtv xvwo u}= x@ w Q Qt=Qo

\ @ t R= |=xQ B = =Hv}= QO
Q |t O=H}=
"OO o Q=O wtv l} \ki 'OW=@ vertical~horizontal w x s}UQD QwDUO Qo =
CQ Y @
w x s}UQD QwDUO Qo =
CQ Y @
vertical~horizontal|conditioning variable
s}UQD wtv l} x}L=v Qy
Q=O QO w OO o Q |t O=H}= x}L=v l} '|]QW Q}eDt R= K]U Qy Q
|= @ x =ov
'OW=@
w |t
"O W
CQ Y @
vertical~horizontal, group = grouping variable

O w |t s}UQD x}L=v
" v W u
QO |ywQo w x =yQ=Owtv
CQ Y @ w OO oQ |t O=H}= x}L=v l} x=ov
'OW=@
CQ Y @
vertical~horizontal|conditioning variable, group = grouping variable

w x =yQ=Owtv x}L=v Qy
CQ Y @ QO w OO o Q |t O=H}= x}L=v l} '|]QW Q}eDt R= K]U Qy Q =ov
'OW=@
|= @ x
O w |t s}UQD u=WOwN x@
" v W w Q x}L=v
\ @ t QO |ywQo
=ypw] QwLt |wQ |}=yQ}eDt =@ =yQ=Owtv 1 1 3 2
Q wDU}y
's= o w |t p=Ft
R= u= D u= wvax@ "OvDUy RmQtDt =ypw] QwLt |wQ xm OvDUy |}=yQ=Owtv Qw_vt =Hv}= QO
"O}vm xHwD xt=O= w =w

QO u
u o v o Cq L = x@ uwvm = Q
"O @ s v = ::: w |r=oJ
"OO o Q |t O=H}= Q=O wtv l} \ki 'OW=@ ~horizontal w x s}UQD QwDUO Qo =

CQ Y @
CQ Y @
~horizontal|conditioning variable
s}UQD Q=Owtv l} x}L=v Qy QO w OO o Q |t O=H}= x}L=v l} '|]QW Q}eDt R= K]U Qy Q

|= @ x =ov
'OW=@
"O Ww |t
CQ Y @
~horizontal, group = grouping variable

O w |t s}UQD x}L=v
" v W u
QO |ywQo w x =yQ=Owtv
CQ Y @ w OO o Q |t O=H}= x}L=v l} x=ov
'OW=@
CQ Y @
~horizontal|conditioning variable, group = grouping variable

w x =yQ=Owtv x}L=v Qy
CQ Y @ QO w OO o Q |t O=H}= x}L=v l} '|]QW Q}eDt R= K]U Qy Q =ov
'OW=@
|= @ x
O w |t s}UQD u=WOwN x@
" v W w Q x}L=v
\ @ t QO |ywQo
=yQDt=Q=B 232
`=wv= 1 2 3 2
Z i Q V}B u}= Ov=wD|t type u=twoQ

=t= "Ovm|t x=Q= =yQ=Owtv QO x]kv CQwYx@ =Q =yxO=O lattice xDU@ ,qwtat
"CU= Q} R CQ Y @w x Qo}O w
`= v= R= |=xQ B " } = O =tv Z a =Qw
\ =kv % type='p'
\w]N % type='l'
\ w]N w \ =kv %type='b'
xm@W % type='g'
u w}UQoQ \N % type='r'
O
x W Q= wty Q \N
VR= @ % type='smooth'
=yQwLt 2 2 3 2
scales QD =
t=Q B R= Q}eD Q Ovm|t Q=}DN=
|= @ " =Q T =}kt l} uwo =vwo |L=wv | yQ = wLt |= @Q lattice xDU @ ,q wat
w |t
"O W xO =iDU=
umtt =yv
ut QO xD@r= "O}vm xHwD Q} R |=yp=Ft x@ '=yQ=Owtv R= `wv u}= Qt=Qo x@ `H=Q |D=L}wD R= TB uwvm =
" W O Oy=wN xDN=OQB Q
u
K W x@ =H u=ty xm OW=@ xDW=O OwHw |D=mv CU=
h QYt w =
w = y | tO 'u w}UqwR}= | yu = wDU pt=W xm w
OQ=O O Hw whiteside s v= x@ |=xO=O MASS xDU @ QO
" O}vm xHwD =yxO=O u}= QN

| D = OvJ w pw= | D = OvJ x@ xvwtv u= wvax@ "CU= R=o
> library(lattice)
> library(MASS)
> data(whiteside)
> head(whiteside)
w |t pY=L Q} R xH}Dv q=@
"O W = O
| y )
m |= H= Q =@ xm
Insul Temp Gas

1 Before -0.8 7.2
2 Before -0.7 6.9
3 Before 0.4 6.4
4 Before 2.5 6.0
5 Before 2.9 5.8
6 Before 3.2 5.8
=yxO=O | =yDv= |= @ Q
> tail(whiteside)
Insul Temp Gas

51 After 7.2 2.8
52 After 7.5 2.6
53 After 8.0 2.7
54 After 8.7 2.8
55 After 8.8 1.3
56 After 9.7 1.5
" O}vm xHwD =yxO=O u}= p=Ft u}rw= x@ uwvm = "CU= uw}UqwR}= R= Oa@ w p@k |=vat x@ After Before
w C =trm
> library(lattice)
> library(MASS)
> data(whiteside)
> xyplot(Gas ~ Temp, whiteside, group = Insul)
x@ C@Uv =Q |Q=O |vat Cw =iD 40%2 pmW QO =tW w |t pY=L
"O W 40%2 pmW = = O
q @ | y )
m |= H= Q =@ xm
Q |t Q=mW
"OO o Cw =iD |Oa@ =

| yQ=O wtv QO =t= O w
"OQ= v O Hw |]QW =Q} R 'O}vm|tv x_Lqt R x= } B | yQ=O = wtv
> library(lattice)
> library(MASS)
> data(whiteside)
Gas
4
0 2 4 6 8 10
Temp
Q
xO=O | U wO =@ Q=O wtv l} V}=tv %402 pmW
> xyplot(Gas ~ Temp | Insul, whiteside,

+ xlab = "External temperature",
+ ylab = "Gas consumption",
+ main = "Whiteside heating data", aspect = 0.6)
O =tv|t sUQ xLiY l}
" } QO =Q Vvm =QB =
| yQ=O wtv xm w |t pY=L
'O W 41%2 pmW q=@ = O
| y ) Q
m |= H= =@ xm
w |t xi== =yv
x@ R}v uw}UQoQ
"O W = \N xm O}vm xHwD Vvm =QB
| y = pmW x@ uwvm =
| y
> library(lattice)
> library(MASS)
> data(whiteside)
> xyplot(Gas ~ Temp | Insul, whiteside,
+ xlab = "External temperature",
+ ylab = "Gas consumption",
+ main = "Whiteside heating data", aspect = 0.6,
+ panel = function(x, y, ...) f
+ panel.xyplot(x, y, ...)
+ panel.lmline(x, y, ..., col="red")
+ g, ylim = c(0, 7))
"O W w |t pY=L 42%2 pmW xH}Dv q=@ = O
| y ) Q
m |= H= =@ xm
> library(lattice)
> data(iris)
> xyplot(
+ Petal.Length ~ Petal.Width, data = iris, groups=Species,
+ type = c("p", "smooth"), span=.75,
+ auto.key = list(x = 0.15, y = 0.85)
Whiteside heating data
After
7
Gas consumption
2
Before
7
0 2 4 6 8 10
External temperature
Trellis R= xO =iDU= =@ xO=O | U wOQ V}=tv %412 pmW
Whiteside heating data
After
2
Gas consumption
Before
0 2 4 6 8 10
External temperature
Trelli =iDU= =@ uw}UQoQ \N

R= xO Q
w xO=O | U wO V}=tv %422 pmW
+)
w O}=tv|t sUQ xLiY l} QO =Q Vvm =QB =
| yQ=O wtv xm w |t pY=L
'O W 43%2 pmW q=@ | y )= O
m |= H= Q =@
"CU= xDi=} VR= @ Q =yv
Q@ xOW Q=wty | y = \N
setosa
6 versicolor
virginica
5
Petal.Length
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Petal.Width
Trelli R= xO =iDU= =@ xOW Q=wty \N w xO=O | U Q xU V}=tv %432 pmW
Q=O wtv |wQ | =tvy=Q C}akwt u}}aD Q

|= @ w OR U = |t Qy=_ =Q 43%2 pmW Q=O wtv | =tvy=Q auto.key = w u t oQ
u}=Q@=v@ w CU= |@Uv Q}N= QwDUO pN=O O

O= a= Q}O=kt xm O}W=@ xDW=O xHwD "CU= xOW xO =iD list wD
U= Q UO R=
"O Q}o|t Q 0,1] OL

Q= k Ow t QO
"OO o Q |t s}UQD hrDNt = x}L=v

| y Q wDU}y Q} R
QO s= o = O
| y )
m QO
> library(pwt)
> library(lattice)
> data(pwt5.6)
> plot(histogram(~c | continent, data = pwt5.6,
+ xlab = "consumption share"))
| y = x}L=v QO |atHD `} RwD `@=D |vLvt Q} R = O
| y )
m QO "O W w |t pY=L 44%2 pmW =
q @ | y ) = O
m |= H= Q =@
xv=N@=Dm x@ OwN R}v u
w OwW xO=iDU= latticeExtra xv=N@=Dm R= xm CU= sRq =Hv}= QO "OOQo|t s}UQD hrDNt
" CU= OvtR=}v RColorBrewer
> library(pwt)
> library(lattice)
> library(latticeExtra)
> library(RColorBrewer)
> plot(ecdfplot(~c | continent, data = pwt5.6, xlab = "consumption share"))
s}UQD x}L=v l} QO |atHD `} RwD `@=D |vLvt Q} R |=yO)m QO "OwW|t pY=L 45%2 pmW q=@ |=yO)m |=QH= =@
0 20 40 60 80 100
Africa entral & North Americ South America
30
20
Percent of Total 10
0
Asia Europe Oceania
30
20
10
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
consumption share
Trelli R= xO =iDU= =@ s=QowDU}y V}=tv %442 pmW
20 40 60 80 100
Africa entral & North Americ South America

1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
Empirical CDF
0.0
Asia Europe Oceania
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
20 40 60 80 100 20 40 60 80 100
consumption share
Trelli R= xO =iDU= =@ x}L=v OvJ QO |atHD `} RwD `@=D V}=tv %452 pmW
"OO oQ |t
> library(pwt)
> library(lattice)
> library(latticeExtra)
> library(RColorBrewer)
> plot(ecdfplot(~c, groups = continent, data = pwt5.6,
+ auto.key = list(x = 0, y = 1, corner = c(0, 1), background = "white",
+ border = TRUE), xlab = "consumption share"))
w |t pY=L
"O W 46%2 pmW q=@ = O
| y )
m |= H= Q =@
Africa
1.0 Central & North America
South America
Asia
Europe
Oceania
0.8
Empirical CDF
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
20 40 60 80 100
consumption share
Trelli R= xO =iDU= =@ x}L=v l} QO |atHD `} RwD `@=D V}=tv %462 pmW

sU w pY i
p =tD L= w Q t =
=yu
Q@ qa "CU=
xw = = O
|Q t
|R Up t w yxO=O = p}rLD =
'|Q t
C U =@ =Lt Q `@=D
|= @ =
|O } R O= OaD pt=W R =
u @R
O Oy=wN EL@ =yu
" W R= |Ow OLt O= OaD |wQ =Hv}= QO w

"OQ=O O Hw y = package QO `@=D |=x_Lqt p@=k O=OaD
|Q=t x}=B `@=wD 1 3
O=} R |Q@ Q=m =@ `@=wD 113
O = |t
" W @ Q Q=
u=w= i O @ m |=Q=O Q} R CUQyi "CU= O=} R Q=}U@ R =
u @ R QO `@=wD CUQyi
" yOO |t =Q sum(x)

xQY a ` =v wtHt %
O
" yO |t =Q x Q =v |atH `t %cumsum(x)
Y a D H
O
" yO |t =Qx Q =v Q p = %prod(x)
Y a ? Y L
O |
" yO x Q =v QF O %max(x)
t =Q Y a m= L
O |
" yO x Q =v p O %min(x)
t =Q Y a k= L
116
117 p =tDL= w Q t= 3 pYi
O
" yO which.max(x)
|t =Q x QYv a u} QDoQR@ T}Ov= %
O | x QYv u QDm w T O %which.min(x)

" yO t =Q a } J m } v=
C c(min(x), max(x)) =a ` = u %range(x)

" U= pO t @ D }=
O | x Q =v Oa %length(x) " yO t =Q Y a O= D
O | x Q =v u}o =} %mean(x) " yO t =Q Y a v t
O | x Q =v x =} %median(x) " yO t =Q Y a v t
O | x Q =v T = %var(x) " yO t =Q Y a v } Q=w
O | x Q =v =}a QL %sd(x) " yO t =Q Y a Q t h= v=
O = T Q = l x Q Ov | x@ =L
" W @ } D t |oDU@t T Q = %cor(x)
} o= ' m t U t =Q y } D t
O | C O y x u} |] |oDU@t ? Q %cor(x,y)
" yO t U @ w @ =Q N y }
C | " x Q | wm w
U= wO %chisq.test(x)
N VwQ @ VR= @ } v u tR
"C h Q}tU= Q wtr v x Q | wm w

U=hw o %ks.test(x) m VwQ @ VR= @ } v u tR
C x wt = l Q C wD t w
" U= %t.test(x)
v v wO } } |= @ vO U= u tR
C y x T= QQ w %var.test(x,y)
" U= w v } Q=w | @= @ u tR
xDU@ R = O
u @ R QO "OQ= v O Hw w 3 |oO}Wm ?} Q w
2 |orwJ ?} Q Ovv=t |}=yXN=W x@U=Lt R 1xDU y QO
R= xm u}= Q CU=
|= @ " e1071 xDU @ u}= s=v "OR U = |rta =Q x W O xDio C =mv CU= QO k = xm w
OQ=O O Hw |Q= i=s v R Q
" O}vR@ =Q Enter O}r wtv A}=D
m w xO =Q Q} R QwDUO xm CU= |i=m O} wW x=o
u
`@=wD CUQyi w C =YNWt
> library(help=e1071)
O = |t
" W @ skewness kurtosis | =@i
w } r= hw L Q ?}DQD x@ Q_v OQ t w `@=D wO xDU@ u}= QO Q=L `@=wD u}@ R=
w |t xDN=OQB |oO}Wm ?} Q
"O W w |orwJ ?} Q x@U=Lt x@ uwvm =
> library(class)
> library(e1071)
> x { trees$Height
<
> skewness(x)
1] -0.3568773
> kurtosis(x) 1] -0.7233677
R}v xO =iDU= w O = Q=L R}v
OQ t xO=O " W @ class xDU @ O}=@ e1071 xDU @ R= xO =iDU= |= @ Q xm CU= K}wD x@ sRq
" CU= OwH w R w

t O N QO xm CU= trees xO=O | y = xirw-t R= |m}
1. core 2. skewness coecient 3. kurtosis coecient
|iO=YD O=Oa= w |r=tDL= |=y`} RwD 213
Q} R w
CQ Y x@ xm 'CU= Cw =iDt pmW Q=yJ |=Q=O `@=D Qy "CU= xOW xDW=Po R =
u @ R QO |r=tDL= `@=wD QDW}@
"OvDUy
O
" yO |t u=Wv x x]k v QO =Q `@=D Q
Z a ' dfunc(x, ) Q wDUO
O
" yO |t u=Wv x x]k v =D =Q |atHD p=tDL= Q=Okt ' pfunc(x, ) Q wDUO
O
" yO |t u=Wv 0<p<1 |=R= x@ =Q `@=D l OvJ Q=Okt qfunc(p, ) Q wDUO
"Ovm|t |R U = x}@W =Q `@=D R= |iO=YD xvwtv rfunc(x, )

' Q wDUO
w CU= Q V}B
Z i CQ Y w x@ =yQDt=Q=B xm 'OyO|t u=Wv =Q |r=tDL= `@=wD R= | U Q l} CUQyi 1%3 pw H QO O
O =tv |WQ=iU
" } OQ t w ?UL =Q =yu
Ov=wD|t Q@ Q=m
"O}vm xHwD CU= p=tQv p=tDL= `@=D |=Q=O xm |iO=YD OOa w
OQ t QO Q} R p=Ft x@
> rnorm(1)
1] 1.358007
xm Q |t O=H}= |iO=YD
'OO o O
O= a= R= | } H | U OO Q l} O}vm|t =QH= =Q |iO=YD O
O= a= Q_v w `@=D xm Q=@ Qy
OQ t
'O}vm xO=iDU= |iO=YD O=Oa= `@=D Q

|= H= R= p@k set.seed() Q wDUO R= Qo = uwvm = "CU= Cw =iDt u}W}B | U @ Q =
x= wNrO K}LY OOa l} Q}N= `@=D u=twoQ
w O
"O @ x W O}rwD ,q@k xm Ci=} O}y=wN =Q | U u Q =ty =QH= Qy QO x =ov
" CU=
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ `} RwD l} FX (x) = Pr(X x) |atH D p =tDL= uOQw
CUO@ Q
|= @
> pnorm(1.96)
1] 0.9750021
1 ; FX (x) = Pr(X > x) =tD | =
"OQw
CUO@ R}v =Q p L= i = u =mt= l} =@ w |t uwvm =
u= D
> pnorm(1.96, lower.tail=F)

1] 0.02499790
Q =k}O Q qF Q} | Q
t |= @ , t "O=iD w o = w P-value = | QL
t Q= k xO U= OQ t |Q t
u tR
QO } w v= @ Q}O=kt uOQw
CUO@ Q
|= @
C Q w x 5 Q = Q ` " U= } R CQ Y @ ) |= @ p t v }R D w xiQ] w
wO u tR
|v=QL@
> qnorm(0.025)
1] -1.959964
> qnorm(0.975)
1] 1.959964
= CU= Q@=Q@
% @ df=1 = 2 = 3:84
@ w
u tR
|= @ Q P-value Q= Okt
> 1-pchisq(3.84, 1)
1] 0.05004352
"O}vm ?=UL f(4,43) ` = @ D QO =Q 3.6 O
O a P-value Q= Okt "O}vm xHwD Qo}O p=Ft l} x@
119 p =tDL= =
w Q t 3 pYi
u `@=wD = = ` w
w |Q t | y } R D %13 pw H O
`} RwD O)m =yQDt=Q=B package

Z i Q V}B
beta beta shape1, shape2 -, - stat
binomial binom size, prob -, - stat
Cauchy chauchy location, scale 0, 1 stat

2 chisq df, ncp -, 0 stat
Dirichlet dirichlet alpha - MCMCpack
exponential exp rate 1 stat
F f df1, df2, ncp -, -, - stat
gamma gamma shape, rate, scale -, 1, 1/rate stat
geometric geom prob - stat
Generalized Extreme Value gev xi,mu,sigma -, -, - evir
Generalized Pareto gpd xi,mu,beta -, -, - evir,POT
hypergeometric hyper m, n, k -, -, - stat
Inverse Gamma invgamma shape,rate -, - MCMCpack
Inverse Wishart iwish v, S -, - MCMCpack
logistic logis location, scale 0, 1 stat
lognormal lnorm meanlog, sdlog 0, 1 stat
Multinomial multinom size, prob -, - stat
lognormal lnorm meanlog, sdlog 0, 1 stat
Multivariate Normal mvnorm mean,sigma -, - mvtnorm
Multivariate-t mvt sigma,df -, - mvtnorm
negative binomial nbinom size, prob, mu -, -, - stat
nomal norm mean, sd 0,1 stat
Poisson pois lambda - stat
'Student' (t) t df, ncp -, 0 stat
Weibull weibull shape, scale -, 1 stat
uniform unif min, max 0,1 stat
Wilcoxon wilcoxon m, n -, - stat
Wishart wish v, S -, - MCMCpack
C R = w |r" xDU = x = w_v (
U= u @R O N Y= y } w } B Q t
> 1-pf(3.6,4,43)
1] 0.01284459
OO oQ |t OQ %5 w
uO @ Q=O |vat K]U Q =
|= @ t= " CU= u
R= QDoQR@ =Q} R OwW|tv OQ %1 w
uO @ Q=O |vat K]U Q
|= @
w Q
"O W ? wO QO O}=@ P-value w xiQ]
O @ w
wO u tR
Qo = xm OwWv w Q CU=
V t= i " u
R= QDmJwm uwJ
> 1-pt(2.8,21)
1] 0.005364828
> 2 (1-pt(2.8,21))
1] 0.01072966
"O}vm x@U=Lt =Q u
| yl = OvJ O}v=wD|t O}W=@ xDW=O w
=Q uO @ Q=O |vat K]U Qo = uwvm =
> alpha - c(0.1, 0.05, 0.01, 0.001)

<
> qnorm(1-alpha/2)
1] 1.644854 1.959964 2.575829 3.290527
s=QowDU}y 1 2 1 3
% CU= Q} R KQW x@ u
|rm w
CQ Y xm "CU= |iwQat Q=O wtv Q wDU}y p=tDL=
's= o =
w Q t
QO
hist(x,breaks="Sturges",prob=FALSE)
|@U=vt=v pmW Ov=wD|t sm |r}N =} O=} R |r}N =yxDUO O=OaD "OyO|t u=Wv =Q y = xDUO O=OaD breaks u=twoQ
CU= Q} R pmW x@ u
x]@=Q xm Ovm|t xO=iDU= Sturges pwtQi R= R u=@ R ZQi V}B CQwY QO "Ovm O=H}= =Q
"
dlog2 (n) + 1e
Freedman-Diaconis (FD) w Q pFt 'Ovm|t u}at

p t i =Q xDUO | =vyB xm OQ=O O Hw w R}v | Qo}O =
| yVwQ
" CU= Q} R pmW x@ u

x]@=Q "OQ=O Q= k Q iqr |mQ=J u}@ xOw OLt T U= = Q@ xm
1
2 iqr n; 3
" CU= xOW O=yvW}B Scott \ U D ww CU= Q} R pwtQi u
| =v@t xm OQ=O O Hw w R}v | Qo}O pwtQi
1
3:5 s n; 3
" CU= Q=}at h= QLv= s u
QO xm
O}vm
" xO =iDU= nclass=num. of class = w
u t oQ
R= O}v=wD|t OW=@ =tW Q=}DN= q =
QO , t m p QDvm O}y=wN@ Qo =
"Ovm|t O=H}= xDUO 20 Q_ w
v OQ t s= o Q wDU}y nclass=20 =F
|= @ Q p t u= wvax@
x w x pmW
|= v o @ w OO o Q |t Qy=_ |r=oJ `k=w QO w O W w |t p=aiQ}e |v=w=Qi prob=T = freq=F } w Q wDUO QO
w
"O W OL=w Q@=Q@ s=QowDU}y QO =yCL=Ut `wtHt xm Q |t s}_vD
OO o
|v=w=Qi |arOvJ xm Owtv sUQ u= Dw |t =Q | Qo}O |Q=O wtv s=QowDU}y Q=O wtv =@ x=Qty %|v=w=Qi |arOvJ
121 p=tDL= =
w Q t 3 pYi
Q} R p=Ft x@ xOW xDio Q=O wtv s}UQD Q CU=

|= @ " Q=OQ N @ w Q |i}YwD Q=t
QO |}=RUx@ C QyW R= w O W w |t xO}t=v
"O}vm xHwD
> tmp { hist(trees$Volume)

<
> lines(c(min(tmp$breaks),tmp$mids,max(tmp$breaks)),c(0,tmp$counts,0),
+ lty=5,lwd=1.75)
> legend("topright",c("Histogram","Freq. polygon"),lty=c(NA,5),lwd=c(NA,1.75),
+ pch=c(22,NA),inset = 0.05)
lines() ` = @ D QO TBU Q}o|t Q=Qk
"O tmp = x | s v @ W QO s= o Q wDU}y C =YNWt s=tD =OD@= w
j i | y )
m QO = O
u}twO "OyO|t u=Wv =Q =yxDUO xm C breaks = w
U= u t oQ
u}rw= w |t
"O W xO =iDU= s=QowDU}y =
| yu t oQ
R== w
O=OaD xm CU= counts = w
u t oQ
u}twU "OyO|t u =Wv =Q =yxDUO \Uw \ =kv Q xm CU=
Q=O @ mids = w
u t oQ
O
" yO |t u=Wv xDUO Qy |v=w=Qi
"OO oQ |t pY=L 1%3 pmW w
j i | y )
m |= H== O Q =@
Histogram of trees$Volume
10
Histogram
Freq. polygon
8
6
Frequency
4
2
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
trees$Volume
|v=w=Qi |arOvJ w s= oQ wDU}y =

CqB Tm =@ 2 2 1 3
OyO|t u=Wv =Q xv=}t pwL =yxO=O `} RwD |@ wNx@ Q=Owtv u}= "CU= boxplot Q=t
QO QwyWt |=yQ=Owtv R= |m}
pmW x@ ,=OD@= Q=O wtv u}= QY=va K}wD Q O
|= @ " yO |t CUOx@ Q
=Q C B | yxO=O w = xrwJ | yxO=O = u}vJty w
|O wta \N wO R= uwQ}@ xm |]=kv "CU= swU lQ=J w pw= lQ=J ?}DQD x@ Q3 Q1 w u

QO xm "O}vm xHwD 2%3
= w
u t oQ
|=Q=O boxplot() O}v | m t x_Lqt xm Qw]v=ty "OvQwyWt 4 CQB \ =kv x@ OvQ=O Q=Qk Tm =@ u}iQ] QO
Cr=L R= C qB Tm =@ pmW w CU= FALSE CUQO=v Z i Q V}B Cr=L QO xm CU= horizontal |k]v t
4. outliers
Min Q1 Q3 Max
lower whisker upper whisker

median
boxplot hrDN t | y = CtUk V}=tv %23 pmW
O |t
" }
QO |O wta Cr=L x@ |ki=
R = R
| yxO=O < H xm trees = u}= s=Hv=
xO=O R= Q m Q O =
|= @ " W @ xO=O xw o Q OvJ |=Q=O xm O}vm xHwD |r=Ft x@ uwvm =
" CU= 3%3 pmW pY=L Q |t
"OO o =iDU= CU=
xO
> boxplot(trees)
w
O Hw plot |k]v = w
t u t oQ
|m}i=Qo `@=D QO "OQw
CUOx@ =Q boxplot O
|O a C =YNWt u= Dw |t xvwoJ =t=
|O a O Q}O=kt x=ov
'OwW CUQO=v u=twoQ
u}= Q=Okt Qo = "CU= TRUE CUQO u
ZQiV}B Q=Okt xm OQ=O
w |t Qy=_
"O W
> boxplot(trees, plot=FALSE)

%CU= Q} R Q}O=kt pY=L
$stats
,1] ,2] ,3]
1,] 8.30 63 10.2
2,] 11.05 72 19.4
3,] 12.90 76 24.2
4,] 15.25 80 37.3
5,] 20.60 87 58.3
123 p =tDL= =
w Q t 3 pYi
80
60
40
20
Girth Height Volume
trees =
| yxO=O boxplot V =t } v %33 pmW
$n
1] 31 31 31
$conf
,1] ,2] ,3]
1,] 11.70814 73.72979 19.1204
2,] 14.09186 78.27021 29.2796
$out
1] 77
$group
1] 3
$names
1] "Girth" "Height" "Volume"
"CU= Q} R KQW x@ = xirw-t xm OvDUy CU}r l}

u
| y w x
CQ Y @ j i w Q}O=kt OwW|t x_Lqt xm Qw]u=ty
w = x =}
w s U lQ J ' v t 'pw= lQ J ' = u}}=B whisker pt=W xm Q Qy QYva GvB xm CU= |U} QD=t
xw o % stats
O
" yO |t u=Wv =Q CU= q=@ whisker
" Ovm|t u}at =Q xw o n
Q Qy QY=va O= OaD xm CU= |Q=O @Q %
O
" yO |t u=Wv =Q xw o Q Q notch = u} = Q =k x C |U Q = %conf
y q @ w } B }O t m U= } D t
" OvDUy Q
C B | yxO=O = `k=w QO x O | =W = whisker
m yO t u = Q =k %out
v =Q y R= GQ N }O t
O | =W" yO l = Q Oa %group
t u v =Q xO=O } | yxw o O= D
O | =W =
" yO l Q Q = %names
t u v =Q yxO=O } xw o y s v
table() `@=D 3 2 1 3
u= wva CLD |=xO=O xawtHt R QO p=Ft |=Q@ "Owtv xO=iDU= table() `@=D R= u=wD|t =yxO=O uOwtv xYqN |=Q@
xO =iDU= u
R= pw= pYi QO R}v ,q@k w |t pt=W
"O W =Q wQO N w 32 R= C}YwYN 11 x w
m OQ=O O Hw mtcars
Q |t p=ta=
"OO o Q Ovr}U cyl |va w
} j i |xO=O xawtHt swO C}YwYN |= @ Q Q} R | y )= O
m u wvm = "CU= xOW
> data(mtcars)
> attach(mtcars)
> table(cyl)
% CU= Q} R Q}O=kt pY=L
cyl
4 6 8
11 7 14
"OQ=O O Hw Q w Ovr}U 8 wQO Nw 14 w Q Ovr}U 6 wQO N w 7 'Q Ovr}U 4 wQO Nw 11 x m O W w |t x_Lqt u}=Q@=v@
"O wtv x=Q= R}v |@Uv |v=w=Qi w x
CQ Y @ =Q xYqN u= D w |t uwvm =
> table(cyl)/length(cyl)
cyl
4 6 8
0.34375 0.21875 0.43750
CU= x=Q= p@=k barplot() u=wva CLD |a@=D \UwD Q=m u}= "Owtv s}UQD R}v Q=Owtv CQwYx@ u=wD|t =Q xYqN
"
O
" yO |t u=Wv =Q xYqN s}UQD 4%3 pmW "CU= xOW O=H}= table() ` = @ D \UwD xm CU= |W `@=D u=twoQ
125 p=tDL= =
w Q t 3 pYi
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
4 6 8
table Q=Owtv V}=tv %43 pmW
pw H O l} |W=wL `@=D u}rw= xm "OQ=O R}v prop.table() margin.table() Q}_

w v |D=kDWt table() ` = @ D
" O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ uwvm = = |t XNWt

"OR U O
pw H |@Uv |v=w=Qi |twO w Ovm|t u}at =Q
> m { matrix(1:6,2)
<
> m
,1] ,2] ,3]

1,] 1 3 5
2,] 2 4 6
Q |t p=ta=
"OO o m |wQ margin.table() ` = @ D u wvm =
> margin.table(m,1)
1] 9 12
> margin.table(m,2)
1] 3 7 11
Q w_vt = w
swO u t oQ
Qo = "CU= O
pw H u wDU xOv}=tv OW=@ 2Q o= w Q]U xOv}=tv OW=@ 1Q o= Q}N= `@=D swO u t oQ
= w
O
" yO |t CUOx@ O
=Q pw H QY=va pm `wtHt '`@=D 'O wWv
Q |t p=ta=
"OO o m |wQ prop.table() ` = @ D u wvm =
> prop.table(m,1)
,1] ,2] ,3]

1,] 0.1111111 0.3333333 0.5555556
2,] 0.1666667 0.3333333 0.5000000
xm Qw]u=ty "CU= xOW s}UkD 12 O Q@

O a u
swO Q]U QY=va w 9 O Q@
O a O
pw H pw= Q]U QY=va |va}
" CU= OL=w Q@=Q@ Q}N= pw H O Q]U Qy QY=va `wtHt OwW|t x_Lqt
> sum(prop.table(m,1)1,])

1] 1
"O}vm xHwD O
pw H swO Oa)@ x@ uwvm =
> prop.table(m,2)
,1] ,2] ,3]

1,] 0.3333333 0.4285714 0.4545455
2,] 0.6666667 0.5714286 0.5454545
11 O Q@ swU vwDU QY=va

O a w 11 O Q@
O a u
swO u wDU QY=va ' 3 O Q@
O a O
pw H pw= u wDU QY=va |va}
" CU= OL=w Q@=Q@ Q}N= O
pw H u wDU Qy QY=va `wtHt OwW|t x_Lqt xm Qw]u=ty "CU= xOW s}UkD
> sum(prop.table(m,2),1])

1] 1
QDt=Q=B =@ uwU=wB `} RwD R= |iO=YD xO=O 1500 u
QO xm Q Q_v Ot
'O=O Q= k =Q Q} R p=Ft u= D w |t table() `@=D Q
|= @
"O Ww |t xYqN TBU w OO o Q |t O=H}= 1.5

> set.seed(10)
> y { rpois(1500,1.5)
<
> table(y)
y
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
336 522 350 193 59 26 11 2 1
O = |t
" W @ : : : 522 =
w y l} O= OaD '336 = yQiY O= OaD u
QO xm
`@=D R= Q m= u}= Q
|= @ "O wtv p}O@D Q}eDt wO =@ w
Q=O? JQ J xO=O = l} x@ =Q Q}N= O
pw H u= D w |t |oO=U x@ uwvm =
127 p =tDL= =
w Q t 3 pYi
"O W w |t xO =iDU= as.data.frame()

> as.data.frame(table(y))
%CU= Q} R Q}O=kt pY=L
y Freq
1 0 336
2 1 522
3 2 350
4 3 193
5 4 59
6 5 26
7 6 11
8 7 2
9 8 1
w |t xDN=OQB p=tDL= `@=D OvJ x@ uwvm =

"O W
p=tQv p=tDL= |r=oJ `@=D 4 2 1 3
w |t u=}@ Q} R
%O W w x
CQ Y @ p t v p = Q =tDL= |r=oJ `@=D
f (x ) = p1 e; 22
(x;)2
2
" O}vm xHwD Q} R pmW x@ u
|atHD `@=D w p =tDL= |r=oJ `@=D V}=tv |= @Q
X { seq(-4,4,0.1)
<
par(mfrow=c(1,2))
plot(X,dnorm(X),type='l',xlab="x", ylab="f(x)", main="PDF's Normal")
plot(X,pnorm(X),type='l',xlab="x", ylab="F(x)", main="CDF's Normal")
|R U = x}@W =Q Qwm Pt `@=D 'p=tQv |iO=YD O=Oa= =@ u=wD|t uwvm = "OOQo|t pY=L 5% 3 pmW 'q=@ |=yO)m |=QH= =@
" 6%3 pmW OQm xU}=kt | Q_v `@=D =@ =Q u
w Owtv
set.seed(5)
Y { rnorm(2000) # 2000 from Normal(mu = 0, sigma=1)
<
O w |t
" v W h L P 4 R= QDoQR@ w -4 R= QDmJwm O
O= a= Q} R QwDUO QO
YY -4 | Y 4] { NA
< > <
x { seq(-4, 4, .1)
<
"O wtv sUQ pmW l} QO =Q |r=oJ `@=D w s= oQ wDU}y u= wD@ =D OwW|t p=aiQ}e |v=w=Qi Q} R QwDUO QO
PDF’s Normal CDF’s Normal
0.4
1.0
0.8
0.3
0.6
F(x)
0.2
f(x)
0.4
0.1
0.2
0.0
0.0
−4 −2 0 2 4 −4 −2 0 2 4
x x
= Q |atHD
p t v w p =tDL= |r=oJ `@=D =
hist(Y, breaks="FD", xlim=c(-4,4), freq=FALSE, main="")

title("Histogram of Normal distribution")
lines(x, dnorm(x), lwd=2)
qqplot() w qqline() 'qqnorm() |m}i=Qo `@=wD 5 2 1 3
\N l} x=ov
'OvW=@ p=tQv =yxO=O Qo = "O=O u =Wvqqnorm() ` = @ D =@ =Q xO=O | U Q l} w = Q
uO @ p t v u= D w |t
7%3 pmW xU}=kt |= @Q xm OwW|t pY=L qqline() ` = C @ D R= U=Q \N s}UQD "OvyO|t V}=tv =Q CU=Q
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "OwQ |t Q=mx@
x { runif(200)
<
y { rnorm(200)
<
par(mfrow=c(2,1))
qqnorm(x,main="")
title("Q-Q for uniform Dis.")
qqline(x, col="red")
qqnorm(y, main="")
title("Q-Q for normal Dis.")
qqline(y, col="red")
Q O O
|= @ # v=x W `} RwD l} Q
R= | U wO u}= =}
xm Owtv KQ]t =Q p= U w u}= u= D w |t 'O}W=@ xDW=O Q
xO=O | U wO Qo =
\N l} p}mWD \ =kv Qo = Q=O wtv sUQ =@ "OQ=O O Hw w qqplot() CQ Y w x@ |a@=D R = = u}= s=Hv=
u @ R QO Q m
xO =iDU= CU=Q \N l} R= u= Dw |t R}v xU}=kt |= @ "Q CU= pw@k p@=k lQDWt `} RwD ZQi x=ov
'OvyO@ =Q CU=Q
" 8%3 pmW Q |t pY=L
OO o abline(0,1) ` = @ D R= xO =iDU= =@ xm CU= pw= `@ Q R=Ut}v \N u}= "Owtv
129 p=tDL= =
w Q t 3 pYi
Histogram of Normal distribution
0.4
0.3
Density
0.2
0.1
0.0
−4 −2 0 2 4
| Q_v p=tDL= `@=D Q wDU}y

w s= o =
Q−Q for uniform Dis.

Sample Quantiles
0.8
0.4
0.0
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
Theoretical Quantiles
Q−Q for normal Dis.

Sample Quantiles
2
1
−1 0
−3
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
Theoretical Quantiles
= Q
p t v w CN=wvm} p=tDL= |r=oJ `@=D = Q
wO p t v | yl = OvJ =
x { rnorm(500)
<
y { rnorm(500)
<
qqplot(x,y)
abline(0,1, col="blue", lwd=2)
3
2
1
y
0
−1
−2
−3
−2 −1 0 1 2
Q
xO=O | U wO | yl = OvJ Q=O wtv V}=tv %83 pmW
ecdf() `@=D 6 2 1 3
ecdf() x m OQ=O O Hww |a@=D =t= "OQm s}UQD w x@U=Lt =Q |atHD `} RwD `@=D u=wD|t "OW x_Lqt ,q@k xm Qw]v=ty
" O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "OyO|t CUO@ =Q |@ QHD |atHD `} RwD w |t xO}t=v
w O W
> x { rnorm(10)
<
> plot(ecdf(x))
O |t CUOx@
" }
9%3 pmW 's}UQD R= TB
u=Wv | Q_v w |@ QHD Cr=L QO =Q p w@} w |atHD p=tDL= `} RwD xm O}vm xHwD 10%3 Q=O wtv w =yO)m x@ uwvm =
O
" yO |t
> x { seq(0,2,0.1)
<
> plot(x, pweibull(x,scale=1,shape=2),type="l", main="ECDF and Weibull CDF")

> x.teo { rweibull(n=200,shape=2, scale=1)
<
> plot(ecdf(x.teo), add=TRUE)

131 p=tDL= =
w Q t 3 pYi
ecdf(x)
1.0
0.8
0.6
Fn(x)
0.4
0.2
0.0
−1.0 −0.5 0.0 0.5
= Q |@ QHD |atHD `} RwD

p t v Q=O wtv V}=tv %93 pmW
ECDF and
Weibull CDF
1.0
0.8
pweibull(x, scale = 1, shape = 2)
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
pw@} w |@ QHD |atHD `} RwD Q=O wtv V}=tv %103 pmW

=t=o p=tDL= |r=oJ `@=D 7 2 1 3
w
"O W h} QaD =t=o `@=D xm CU= sRq = OD@= 'p=tDL= |r=oJ `@=D u}= u=}@ R= p@k
Z1
;(
) = x;1 e;x dx
>0
0
"O wtv u=}@ Q} R w
CQ Y x@ =Q =t=o p=tDL= |r=oJ `@=D w |t TBU
u= D
8
>
< ;(1 ) x;1e; x x
0
f (x) = >
:0 x<0
=1 Q= Okt Qo = w |t xO}t=v scale T=}kt QDt=Q=B

"O W shape pm
w W QDt=Q=B
QD =
t=Q B wO |=Q=O `@=D u}=
"O W w |t p}O@D |}=tv `} RwD x@ `@=D u}= 'OW=@
" CU= Q} R CQ Y w x@ p=tDL= |r=oJ `@=D u}= =
| yQw =DWo
X =

X2 =
2
O |t CUO@ Q} R \@=wQ
" }
w
j i CqO =at pL R=
2
= X
X 2

= X
X
" O}vm xHwD 11%3 pmW `} RwD u}= w

OQ t QO R =
| yp t =F x@ uwvm =
x { seq(0,10, length=100)
<
par(mfrow=c(2,2))
plot(x,dgamma(x,shape=1,scale=1), type='l',xlab="x",
ylab="Prob", main="Shape 1")
" 12%3 pmW O}vm xHwD scale QD =
t=Q B p t =F x@ uwvm =
x { seq(0,30,length=100)
<
plot(x,dgamma(x,shape=2,scale=1), type='l', xlab="x",

133 p=tDL= =
w Q t 3 pYi
Shape 1 Shape 2
1.0
0.3
0.8
0.6
0.2
Prob
Prob
0.4
0.1
0.2
0.0
0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
x x
Shape 5 Shape 10
0.20
0.12
0.15
0.08
0.10
Prob
Prob
0.04
0.05
0.00
0.00
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
x x
hrDNt | y = shape = @ =t=o `} RwD | yQ=O = wtv V}=tv %113 pmW
ylab="f(x)", main="Gamma pdf's")

lines(x,dgamma(x,shape=2,scale=2), lty=2)
legend(x=20,y=.35,paste("Scale=",c(1,2,4,8)), lty=1:4)
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "O=O VR= @ =Q Q =t=o `} RwD 'Q_v w =
OQ t | yxO=O | U Q l} Q@ u= Dw |t
X { c(4.75, 3.4, 1.8, 2.9, 2.2, 2.4, 5.8, 2.6, 2.4, 5.25)
<
n { length(X)
<
alpha { (mean(X)/sd(X))^2
<
theta { var(X)/mean(X)
<
x { seq(0, 8, length=200)
<
plot(x, dgamma(x,shape=alpha,scale=theta), type='l', ylab="f(x)")

points(X, rep(0,n))
|x wLv xm Cw =iD u}= =@ Owtv Q=QmD = =F
=Q q @ p t u= D w |t xD@r= w |t pY=L
"O W 13%3 pmW w
j i | y )= O
m |= H= @ Q =
O =
" W @ |Q wLt | y = l}D CQ Y w x@ p@k p=Ft |@ QHD =
| yxO=O uO=O u =Wv
X { c(4.75, 3.4, 1.8, 2.9, 2.2, 2.4, 5.8, 2.6, 2.4, 5.25)
<
n { length(X)
<
alpha { (mean(X)/sd(X))^2
<
theta { var(X)/mean(X)
<
x { seq(0, 8, length=200)
<
plot(x, dgamma(x,shape=alpha,scale=theta), type='l', ylab="f(x)")

rug(X, ticksize = 0.03, side = 1, lwd = 2)
"O W w |t pY=L 14%3 pmW w
j i | y )= O
m |= H= Q =@
Gamma pdf’s
Scale= 1
Scale= 2
Scale= 4
0.3
Scale= 8
0.2
f(x)
0.1
0.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
hrDNt | y = scale = @ =t=o `} RwD =

0.30
0.25
0.20
f(x)
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0 2 4 6 8
xO=O | U Q l} Q@ =t=o `@=D VR= @ Q V}=tv %133 pmW

135 p =tDL= =
w Q t 3 pYi
0.30
0.25
0.20
f(x)
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0 2 4 6 8
l}D w
CQ Y x@ |@ QHD \ =kv! xO=O | U Q l} Q@ =t=o `@=D VR= @ Q V}=tv %143 pmW
5 uUQ}B p=tDL= |r=oJ `@=D 8 2 1 3
xD@r= "O@=}|t xt=O= 7 w uUQ}B =D

` v w |t
w O W `w WQ QiY `wv uUQ}B R= 'p =tDL= |r=oJ `@=wD w=
R= xO= v N u}=
w QiY u
|orwJ ?} Q =Q} R 'CU= p=tQv p=tDL= |r=oJ `@=D u=ty ,=@} QkD QiY uUQ}B p=tDL= |r=oJ `@=D
| QDW}@ OQ@ Q=m 3 w uUQ}B p=tDL= |r=oJ `@=D 'EL=@t
` v =
R= |=xQ B QO " W @ O = |t 3QQ @= @ u
|oO}Wm ?} Q
" CU= Q} R w x
CQ Y @ u
p t i w Q xm OW=@|t =t=o `} RwD x@W uUQ}B `wv u}= "OQ=O
f (x) = jsja1;(a) jx ; ja;1e; x;s

`@=wD "OW=@|t x;s
0 =vt C =m QD
, " U= u t t=Q B= w T =}kt QDt=Q=B s 6= 0 pm ' W QDt=Q=B a>0 u
QO xm
xDU@ u}= QO "O wtv xO =iD PearsonSD xDU
U= @ R= O}=@ w CU}v OwH w R xDU
t y QO =y`} RwD w=
R= xO= v N u}=
"O wtv x@U=Lt Q} R w x
CQ Y @ =Q =yxO=O |@ QHD pw= Qw =DWo Q=yJ u= Dw |t
> library(PearsonDS)
> x { c(2,5,9,10,8,11,15,13,18,22,20,32,25,21,26,29,35,45,40,50,60,100,
<
+ 30,55,58,65,77,66,70,170,100,105,48,61,59,64,65,70,72)
> empMoments(x)
"CU= Q} R w x
CQ Y @ q @ = O)m pY=L
mean variance skewness kurtosis

46.948718 1157.074293 1.236126 5.343204
" O}vm xHwD Q} R O)m x@ "O wtv s}UQD uUQ}B = ` w hrDNt |L=wv
| y }R D |= @ Q |t=Qo =}O w |t xDU@ u}=
u= D QO
5. Pearson
> pearsonDiagram(max.skewness = sqrt(14), max.kurtosis = 24,

+ squared.skewness = TRUE, lwd = 2, legend = TRUE,
+ n = 301)
u}= Qo = uwvm = "CU= squared.skewness = TRUE = w
u t oQ
q @ = O)m QO " CU= 15%3 pmW q=@ O)m pY=L
20
15
2
2−point−distr.
10
Pearson 0
Pearson I
Pearson II
Pearson III
Pearson IV
5
Pearson V
Pearson VI
Pearson VII
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
1
uUQ}B = ` w
| y } R D s= o }O Q = V}=tv %153 pmW
16%3 pmW =ypw] =yQwLt Q}}eD =@ x=ov

'Ovm Q}}eD squared.skewness = FALSE w x = w
CQ Y @ u t oQ
wq pd
' ' Q
hw L @ = xm CW=O OwHw `wv Q=yJ p=tDL= `@=D |= @ Q OW x_Lqt ,q@k xm Qw]u=ty w |t pY=L
"O W
20
15
2
2−point−distr.
10
Pearson 0
Pearson I
Pearson II
Pearson III
Pearson IV
5
Pearson V
Pearson VI
Pearson VII
0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
1
p
1 QwLt =@ uUQ}B = ` w
| y } R D s= o }O Q = V}=tv %163 pmW
x@ p=Ft Q CU=
|= @ " =
jO Y R}v uUQ}B = ` w w
| y } R D `= v= OQ t QO x a k w O = u}= "OW|t XNWt `@=D s=v |= OD@= QO r
"O}vm xHwD swU `wv uUQ}B `} RwD Om
137 p =tDL= =
w Q t 3 pYi
> set.seed(1)
> pIIIpars { list(shape=3, location=1, scale=-0.5)
<
> # calculate probability density function

> dpearsonIII(-4:1,params=pIIIpars)
1] 0.004539993 0.021469608 0.089235078 0.293050222 0.541341133 0.000000000
> # calculate cumulative distribution function
> ppearsonIII(-4:1,params=pIIIpars)
1] 0.002769396 0.013753968 0.061968804 0.238103306 0.676676416 1.000000000
> # calculate quantile function
> qpearsonIII(seq(0.1,0.9,by=0.2),params=pIIIpars)
1] -1.6611602 -0.8077838 -0.3370302 0.0431121 0.4489673
> # generate random numbers
> rpearsonIII(5,params=pIIIpars)
1] 0.1961997 -1.5223444 -1.4583283 -0.5992938 -2.3663249
|iO=YD |Q}oxvwtv 313
u= Dw |t =Q xU}m l} w xU uO}Wm
R= A D w 100 = 1 D R= O= a= O |iO=YD ? =NDv= Ovv=t |r=tDL= =
xO U | y @ = x QHD
" CU= Q} R |rm CQ Y w x@ sample() ` = @ D "O wtv = x}@W
|R U R u @R= \UwD
sample(x, size, replace = FALSE, prob = NULL)

'u
QO xm
O = QDm =Q=m =}
" W @ O Ov=wD|t xm CU= Q_v
w O a w
OQ t Q=O @ % x Q
Q
"OO o ? =NDv= O}=@ xm |O= Oa size
D %
Q
"OO o s =Hv= |Q= Po}=H =@ =} w |Q= Po}=H O
uw @ | Q}oxvwtv replace
%
O O
" y @ uRw =yxvwtv ? =NDv= x@ Ov=wD|t xm CU= |Q =}DN= Q=O @ %Q prob
%=yp=Ft
100 = 1 D R= hO =YD x@ OOa l} ? =NDv=
> sample(1:100, 1)
1] 19
T D = l} Q=@ 10 =Q
? D B
> sample(1:6, 10, replace = T)

1] 5 4 3 5 4 6 1 5 2 4
|w =Ut=v Cq =tDL= =@ T D = l} Q=@ 10 =Q
? D B
> sample(1:6, 10, c(0.6,0.4,0.1,0.05,0.03,0.02), replace = T)

1] 4 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 4 3
|Q= Po}=H O
uw @ w hO =YD x@ xQyt 6 wvm =
u w
"OQ=O O Hw OQR x Qyt 3 w |@
xQyt 4 R Q
' t k x Qyt 8 |= xU}m QO
"O}vm ? =NDv=
> urn { c(rep("red", 8), rep("blue", 4), rep("yellow", 3))

<
> sample(urn, 6, replace = F)

1] "red" "yellow" "blue" "red" "red" "red"
p=tDL= `@=D l} |=yQDt=Q=B OQwQ@ 413
|}=yVwQ wtv
R= "O Q
OQw
@ =Q p =tDL= `@=D l} | y= QDt=Q=B w |t hrDNt
u= D =
| yVwQ x@ O}v=O|t xm Qw]u=ty
"O wtv =
xQ W= =yv
x@ Q =
w O @ s v u= D w |t 6 |}=tvDUQO QFm =OL VwQ w yQw = =DWo VwQ Ovv=t
|}=tvDUQO QFm =OL VwQ x@ =Q p=tDL= `@=D |=yQDt=Q=B xm OQ=O OwHw MASS u=wva CLD |=xDU@ R u=@ R QO
pw= ' CU= Q = w
|Qw u t oQ
wO |=Q=O xm CU= OwHwt tdistr() = x@ |a@=D xDU@ u}=
s v QO " Ovm|t OQw
@ Q
"O Q}o Q=Qk uW}Dwm pN=O QO O}=@ xm Q_v w
OQ t p =tDL= `@=D swO w O@=} VR= @ Q |a@=D =yv
Q@ CU= Q=Qk xm |}=yxO=O
=@ uwvm = w |t O}rwD XNWt
"O W = QDt=Q=B =@ =t=o `} RwD =@ |iO=YD
| y O
O= a= | U Q l} =OD@= =Hv}= QO %p=Ft
"OO o Q |t OQw
Q@ 'CU=xDi=} VR=Q@ Qwm Pt |=yxO=O Q@ xm =t=o p=tDL= `@=D |=yQDt=Q=B ,=OOHt =t=o p=tDL= `@=D ZQi
library("MASS")
set.seed(1)
random { rgamma(500,8.5,2.5)
<
para { tdistr(random,"gamma") print(para)

<
para { unlist(para)
<
x { seq(1,10,0.1)
<
y { dgamma(x,8.5,2.5)
<
plot(x,y,type="l")
lines(x,dgamma(x,para1],para2]),lty=2)
legend(7.0,0.30,legend=c("exact", "ML"), lty=c(1,2), bg="gray90")
"O W w |t pY=L 17%3 pmW q=@ xt=vQ@ Q
|= H= =@
|Q=t |=yVwQ 513
Q |t O}m =D =yu
u} QDQwyWt
"OO o |wQ =Hv}= QO " CU= Q w =
Z i u tR
w |Q t
| yVwQ u @ = = R}t R =
u @R
t xiQ] wO w l} uwtR 1 5 1 3
w |t uwtR
"O W t p=tDL= |r=oJ `@=D =@ =Hv}= QO =yZQi "CU= t.test() w

u tR
` v w u}= Q |rY= `@=D
|= @
t.test(x, y = NULL, alternative = c("two.sided", "less", "greater"), mu = 0,

paired = FALSE, var.equal = FALSE, conf.level = 0.95)
%u
QO xm
" CU= OwHwt =
xO U u tR
w l} x=ov
'O wWv xO=O yQ o= " OvDUy O =
|O a | yQ=O @ % x,y
Q
'"two.sided" u
Z i Q V}B Q |t
"OO o =} =yQDm =Q=m
u @ R= |= xDWQ \UwD u} Ro}=H Z i %Q alternative
6. Maximum Likelihood
139 p =tDL= =
w Q t 3 pYi
0.3
exact
ML
0.2
y
0.1
0.0
2 4 6 8 10
O
x W OQw @ | yQ = QDt=Q=B =@ xO=O | U Q l} Q@ =t=o `@=D VR= @ Q V}=tv %173 pmW
" O}vm xO =iDU= | Q}oQ=mx@ Q R}v

|= @ u
pw= hw L R= Q O}v=wD|t =tW " "less" "greater"
w
O Hww xvwtv wO Qo = 'Ovm|t u=}@ =Q =yu}ov=}t h qDN= =} OyO|t u=Wv =Q u}ov=}t CUQO Q= Ok x O mu
t m |O a %
"CU= QiY Q@=Q@ Z i Q V}B " OW=@ xDW=O

"O}W=@ xDW=O |}=DwO uwtR
O}y=wN@ Qo = CU= |k]vt xv=Wv %paired
" CU= F u
Z i Q V}B w OvQ@=Q@ sy =@ =yTv=} Q=w OW=@ T
CUQO Qo = "CU= |k]vt Q}eDt % var.equal
u} Ro}=H Z i Q ?UL Q@ u}ov=}t |= xrY=i Q
OQw
@ |= @ ) 95
Q Z i Q V}B u=v}t]= K]U % conf.level
" O}vm uwtR
=Q mu=70 Qi Y Z i Q trees =
| yxO=O QO %1 p=Ft
> data(trees)
> t.test(trees$Height, mu = 70)
One Sample t-test
data: trees$Height
t = 5.2429, df = 30, p-value = 1.173e-05
alternative hypothesis: true mean is not equal to 70
95 percent condence interval:
73.6628 78.3372
sample estimates:
mean of x
76
"O Ww |t OQ QiY Z i Q u}=Q@=v@
=yu
hQYt R= =}
xm CU= u}= p=wU uwvm = "OOQo|t xi== wQOwN CNwU x@ |vOwRi= l} O}vm ZQi %2 p=Ft
Ovm|tv
" xO =iDU= u
R= Qo}O |wQO N w VW w Ovm|t xO =iDU= u
R= wQO N w VW Q=m u}= Q
|= @ #O W w |t xDU=m
"CU= Q} R w x xm 'CU= xOW

CQ Y @ | Q}oxR=Ov= ur=o Q@ p}=t mpg Q}eD t
Car 1 2 3 4 5 6
mpg w/ additive 24.6 18.9 27.3 25.2 22.0 30.9
mpg w/o additive 23.8 17.7 26.6 25.1 21.6 29.6
> add { c(24.6, 18.9, 27.3, 25.2, 22.0, 30.9)
<
> noadd { c(23.8, 17.7, 26.6, 25.1, 21.6, 29.6)

<
> t.test(add, noadd, paired=T, alt = "greater")

Paired t-test
data: add and noadd
t = 3.9994, df = 5, p-value = 0.005165
alternative hypothesis: true dierence in means is greater than 0
0.3721225 Inf
sample estimates:
mean of the dierences
0.75
w
"O tR
ks.test ` = = Q
@ D @ =Q |Q=O @ |xO=O l} w |t
u= D
> x { runif(100)
<
> out { ks.test(x, "pnorm")

<
> out
One-sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov test
data: x
D = 0.5007, p-value 2.2e-16 <
alternative hypothesis: two-sided

"O wtv xO =iDU= k-s w w |t R}v OvW=@ xOW PN= `} RwD l}
u tR
R= u= D Q
R= |Q=O @ |xO=O wO Qo =
> x1 { rnorm(100)
<
> x2 { rnorm(100)
<
> ks.test(x1, x2)

Two-sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov test
data: x1 and x2
D = 0.08, p-value = 0.9062
Q} R G}=Dv w =Q =
w O W ? D B Q @ 300 T D = l} xm O}vm Q
Z i " O}}=tQi xHwD |N `@ Qt uwtR
=F l} x@ uwvm =
R= p t
Q pY=L
"OO o
141 p =tDL= =
w Q t 3 pYi
T D= xHw 1 2 3 4 5 6
|v=w=Qi 43 49 56 45 66 41
= u}=
R= Q m Q CU= 61
|= @ # = xHw Qy uOt
p=tDL= |va} "CU=
T D Q
h ] |@ T D = u}= xm CU= u}= w
p= U u wvm =
" O}vm xHwD Q} R = O x@
| y )
m "O Ww |t xO =iDU= |N `@ Qt uwtR
> counts { c(43, 49, 56, 45, 66, 41)

<
> probs { rep(1/6, 6)

<
> chisq.test(counts, p = probs)

Chi-squared test for given probabilities
data: counts
X-squared = 8.96, df = 5, p-value = 0.1107
CU=
" u
R= QDoQR@ 0.1107 |va} p =tDL= Q= Okt x=ov
' OW=@ OYQO 5 w w
j i u tR
uO @ Q=Ow |vat K]U Qo =
"O Ww |tv w
OQ uO @ h ] Q |@ Z iQ u}=Q@=v@
sQ J =y pY i
u w} QU oQ | yp t = O
|a@=wD uOv=wN=Qi j} Q] R= =ypOt u}= ,=twta "CU= |Q=t
|=ypOt VR=Q@ |=Q@ |O=} R |=yu}DwQ |=Q=O R u=@ R
"CU= Q} R CQ Y w x@ Q =
VR= @ |Q t
p t O l} |rm pmW "Ovvm|t pta lm, glm, pFt
respose ~ expression
|]N uw}UQoQ |=ypOt 1 4
pwtQi |=yC}OwHwt 114
O
" yO |t Q Q} R
VR= @ CQ Y w x@ =Q |]N pOt l} R =
u @R
y = 0 + 1 x1 + + pxp + "
=@ =
, r e " |va
} =]N xrtH "OyO|t u=Wv =Q u w}UQoQ ?}=Q w <=O@t R= Z a Q = (0 1 p) x m
" CU= "2 Tv=} Q=w

w QiY u}ov=}t =@ p=tQv `} RwD |=Q=O
"O wtv xO =iDU= Q} R pwtQi w lm() ` = @ D R= xO =iDU= =@ u= D w |t 'Q}eDt wO =@ uw}UQoQ |= @ Q
142
143 uw}UQoQ =
| yp t O 4 pYi
y ~ x1+x2
" CU= y = 0 + 1 x1 + 2x2 + " w Q xrRvt x@
p t i w
j i CQ a =@ xm
R= Z a Q O}U} wv@ Q} R CQ Y w x@ w x]@=Q =t=
=Q j i w |t
"O W <= O@t R= Z a Q pt=W R =
u @ R 'Z i Q V}B Qw] x@
"OO o Q |t h L <= P O@t
y ~ -1+x1+x2
=
| yp t =F x@ "OvDUy |]N uw}UQoQ QO |Y=N |v=at |=Q=O *,-,^,\,: | y = Qorta xm O}W=@ xDW=O xHwD
"O}vm xHwD Q} R
y ~ x1+x2+x1:x2
" CU= y = 0 + 1x1 + 2 x2 + 12x1 x2 + " w Q xrRvt x@
p t i w
j i CQ a =@ xm
"Ovm|t O=H}= ?}DQD x@ =Q |} wOwO w xv=o} = xrtH ^ Qorta
| y R= xO =iDU=
y ~ (x1+x2+x1:x2)^2
"CU= Q} R x]@=Q pO =at q=@ pwtQi
y ~ x1+x2+x3+x1:x2+x2:x3+x1:x3
R= Z a Q -1 O W x_Lqt ,q@k xm Qw]u=ty "Ovm|t P
h L u w}UQoQ xrO=at R= =Q |DqtH =} w xrtH - Qorta
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "O wtv P
h L =Q <= O@t
y ~ (x1+x2+x1:x2)^2 - x2:x3
" CU= Q} R x]@=Q pO =at q=@ pwtQi
y ~ x1+x2+x3+x1:x2+x1:x3
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "Ovm|t Q=QmD Q}eDt Q
|= @ =Q |@} Q I `=
@ D
y ~ I(x1+x2)
Q}}eD pOt QO x2 Q}eD t O}y=wN@ Qo = ,=vt "CU= y = 0 + (x1 + x2 ) + " w Q xrRvt x@
p t i w
j i CQ a =@ xm
O Q
" }=xO m x =@DW= O}vm pta Q} R w
CQ Y x@ Qo = w Q
"O W ? wO QO , qFt "Ovm
y ~ x1+2*x2
"O wtv pta O}=@ Q} R CQ Y w x@ ?r]t uOW CUQO Q
|= @
y ~ x1+I(2*x2)
" CU= Q} R KQW x@ R = w Q
u @ R QO u
p t i x =ov
'OW=@ y = 0 + 1 x + 2x2 CQ Y @ w x Q_v w
OQ t p t O Qo =
y ~ poly(x, 2)
Q
% } R CQ Y @ w x xv w
y ~ x+x2^2
|R=UpOt `@=wD 214
Q Q
w VR= @ |= @ |O } R = `@=wD "OQ=O =yQ}eDt u}@ |]N \@=wQ u=}@ Q |a}Uw OQ@ Q=m |]N uw}UQoQ
|= @ =
| yp t O
Q
KW x@ =yu
= = w
| yu t oQ
R= |=xQ B = xm CU= lm() = u}=
Q m Q |rY= `@=D
|= @ w
"OQ=O O Hw |]N uw}UQoQ p}rLD
"CU= Q} R
lm(formula, data, weights, subset, na.action)

" O}vm xHwD Q} R | yxO=O = x@
gene1 gene2
-1.06 -1.08
-0.81 -1.02
-0.48 -0.39
-0.42 -0.48
-0.30 -0.58
-0.35 -0.24
-0.31 -0.05
-0.18 -0.33
-0.20 0.51
-0.11 -0.53
-0.09 -0.47
0.16 0.10
0.45 0.39
0.53 0.11
0.67 0.52
0.80 0.34
0.87 1.08
0.92 1.21
x@ w Q w
\ @ t u tR
w |oDU@ty ?} Q =OD@= xm "CU= xOW xQ}NP gen_reg.txt = x@ |r}=i
s v w
QO j i | yxO=O =
"Ovm|t |UQQ@ =Q =yu
x@ w Q w O w
\ @ t OQ= t x v= N =Q u
Q} R = O
| y )
m "O wtv O}y=wN x_Lqt =Q u
> x - read.table("F:/R_les/data/gen_reg.txt",header=T)
<
> cor.test(x$gene1, x$gene2)

Pearson's product-moment correlation
data: x$gene1 and x$gene2
145 uw}UQoQ = O
| yp t 4 pYi
t = 7.5105, df = 16, p-value = 1.246e-06

alternative hypothesis: true correlation is not equal to 0
0.7071560 0.9556856
sample estimates:
cor
0.8826268
Q} R pwtQi =@ uw}UQoQ pOt uwvm =
gene2 = 0 + 1 gene1 + "

"OO oQ |t p=ta= =yxO=O |wQ
> x { read.table("F:/R_les/data/gen_reg.txt", header=T)

<
> m.reg { lm(gene2~gene1, data=x)

<
> m.reg
Call:
lm(formula = gene2 ~ gene1, data = x)
Coe cients:
(Intercept) gene1
-0.05541 0.97070
"CWwv R}v sy Q} R w x
CQ Y @ u= D w |t = = O
=Q q @ | y )
m
> x { read.table("F:/R_les/data/gen_reg.txt", header=T)

<
> m.reg { lm(x$gene2~x$gene1)

<
> m.reg
Call:
lm(formula = x$gene2 ~ x$gene1)
Coe cients:
(Intercept) gene1
-0.05541 0.97070
"O}vm xHwD Q} R O
pw H x@ uw}UQoQ x@ w Q
\ @ t | y = |HwQN uDi=} Q
|= @
Expression Description
coef(obj) regression coe cients
resid(obj) residuals
tted(obj) tted values
summary(obj) analysis summary
predict(obj,newdata=ndat) predict for new data
deviance(obj) residual sum of squares
"CU= m.reg u=ty obj R= Q w_vt w =F

j i p t QO
" O}Wm =Q xDi=} VR= @ Q \N w O wtv sUQ =Q Vvm =QB Q=Owtv w |t uwvm =
u= D
> plot(x$gene1, x$gene2)

> lines(x$gene1, tted(m.reg))
xO =iDU= R}v Q} R C=QwDUO R= u=wD|t xDi=} VR=Q@ \N sUQ |=Q@ "OwW|t pY=L 1% 4 pmW Q} R |=yO)m |=QH= =@
1.0
0.5
x$gene2
0.0
−0.5
−1.0
−1.0 −0.5 0.0 0.5
x$gene1
xDi=} VR= @ Q \N w Vv+m =QB Q=O wtv l} V}=tv %14 pmW
"O wtv

> abline(m.reg)
R}v =Q =yxOv=t}k=@ 'xDi=} VR= @ Q \N w |@ QHD \ =kv Q@ xw qa xm O}vm|t x_Lqt =Q 2%4 pmW Q} R QO u wvm =
"O wtv sUQ w |t
u= D

> lines(x$gene1, tted(m.reg))
> segments(x$gene1, tted(m.reg), x$gene1, x$gene2, lty=2)
| =]N 'tQ }O =kt Q}_v xDi=} Q
VR= @ p t R= O |i== = q]=
C a =
R= |=xQ B uOQw
CUO@ Q
|= @ summary() ` = @ D
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "CU= O}it =yQDt=Q=B u}@ |oDU@ty O =D

w OQ= v U=
> summary(m.reg)
Call:
lm(formula = x$gene2 ~ x$gene1)
Residuals:
Min 1Q Median 3Q Max
-0.3812 -0.2196 -0.0084 0.1492 0.7595
147 u w}UQoQ =
| yp t O 4 pYi
1.0
0.5
x$gene2
0.0
−0.5
−1.0
−1.0 −0.5 0.0 0.5
x$gene1
=yxOv=t}k=@ w u w}UQoQ wtv l} V}=tv

Q=O %24 pmW
Coe cients:
Estimate Std. Error t value Pr( jtj) >
(Intercept) -0.05541 0.07330 -0.756 0.461

x$gene1 0.97070 0.12925 7.511 1.25e-06 ***
|
Signif. codes: 0 `***' 0.001 `**' 0.01 `*' 0.05 `.' 0.1 ` ' 1
Residual standard error: 0.311 on 16 degrees of freedom
Multiple R-squared: 0.779, Adjusted R-squared: 0.7652
F-statistic: 56.41 on 1 and 16 DF, p-value: 1.246e-06
"O wtv x@U=Lt =Q u w}UQoQ xrO=at ?}=Q |= xrY=i Q
OQw
@ u= Dw |t connt() ` = =
@ D @
> coef(m.reg)
(Intercept) gene1
-0.05540906 0.97070027
> connt(m.reg)
2.5% 97.5%
(Intercept) -0.2107882 0.09997012
gene1 0.6967126 1.24468796
R}v Qiv=
|O= w x
CQ Y @ =Q =yv
w |t xm Ovm|t xQ}NP OwN
u= D QO =Q |D=aq]= Q w x
'Q=O @ CQ Y @ summary() ` = @ D
"O}vm xHwD Q} R OQ= t w x@ uwvm = "O wtv xO =iDU= Qo}O = CtUk

| y QO =yv
R= w O=O u =Wv
summary(model)3]
$residuals
summary(model)4]
$coe cients
summary(model)6]
$sigma
summary(model)8]
$r.squared
summary(model)9]
$adj.r.squared
summary(model)10]
$fstatistic
"O Q}o|t Q=Qk m.reg O
p t xS=w | H = x@ |va} "CU= m.reg O
p t s v = =Hv}= QO O}vm|t xOy=Wt xm Qw]v=ty
with ` = @ D R= u= Dw |t 'OyO|t CUOx@ summary() ` = @ D xm |D=YNWt w u w}UQoQ \N uOQw
CUOx@ Q
|= @
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "O wtv xO =iDU= R}v
> with(trees, fm.reg { lm(Girth~Volume)<
+ summary(m.reg)g)
sy xDi=} VR= @Q \N w \ =kv s}UQD OQ t QO w |DL w |t pY=L p@k
"O W VwQ G}=Dv u=ty q=@ | y )= O
m |= H= @ Q =
" O}vm xHwD Q} R = O x@
| y )
m "O wtv xO =iDU= with ` = @ D R= u= D w |t
> with(trees, fplot(Girth~Volume)

+ abline(lm(Girth~Volume))g)
Cw =iD xm OOQo swrat =D OwW xOQw
|L}wD xOW p}OaD u}}aD ?} Q |va} 2 x
Radj @ `H=Q xm CU= sRq =Hv}= QO
=t= "CU= xHwD QwNQO |oDU@ty QO u}}aD ?} Q Q=Okt =
|q @ u= R}t O}v=O|t xm Qw]v=ty #CU}J R2 = @ u
"O wtv xU}=kt sy =@ =Q =ypOt w |tv u}=Q@=v@ "Ovm|t Q}}eD =yxO=O

u= D O= OaD u}vJty w =yQ}eDt O= OaD =@ Q=Okt u}=
" CU= Q} R CQ Y @ w x R2 h Qa
} D " CU= xOW O=yvW}B xOW p}OaD u}}aD ?} Q Q=Okt =Pr
Pn (y ; y^ )2 SS
R2 = 1 ; Pin=1 i i 2 = 1 ; e
i=1 (yi ; y") SSt
u= D w |t =y|O=R
xHQO Cr=NO =@ " W @ t
Pn Pn
Ov = | SSt = i=1 (yi ; y")2 SSe = i=1 (yi ; yî )2 w u
QO xm
"O wtv h} QaD =Q xDi=} p}OaD u}}aD ?} Q
SSe=(n ; p) n ; 1 SSe

R2
adj = 1 ; SS =(n ; 1) = 1 ; n ; p SS
t t
O = | p ; 1 Q Q pkDU Q}eD Oa xD@ C = Q}eD Oa p =

" W @ t @= @ t t O= D r= " U= y t O= D w x wtv
y v O= OaD n u
QO xm
u= D w |t predict.lm() ` = = u Q wt Q w} Q x =a
@ D R= Q m =iD =
}= |= @ "O v OQw
@ u U oQ rO t R= xO U= @ =Q | } H OO Q}O=kt w |t
u= D
"O=O CUO@ =Q |= xrY=i OQw

@ Q sy w |= x]kv OQw
@ Q= Q Okt sy CQ Y w u}= QO " CiQo xQy@
> predict.lm(m.reg, newdata=data.frame(gene1=c(0.1,0.2)), int="conf")

t lwr upr
1 0.04166097 -0.11587731 0.1991993
2 0.13873100 -0.02557153 0.3030335
149 u w}UQoQ =
| yp t O 4 pYi
x y O =Wt | y = x s =tD |=R= x@ =yv

|= xrY=i Q
OQw
@ w |= x]kv =
| y y s=tD x=ov
'O wWv xO =iDU= newdata R= Qo =
" }
O |t CUO@ xOW
"O wtv pta R}v Q} R CQ Y w x@ u= Dw |t O}OH Q}O=kt |= @ Q
> predict(m.reg, list(gene1=c(0.1,0.2)), int="conf")

t lwr upr
1 0.04166097 -0.11587731 0.1991993
2 0.13873100 -0.02557153 0.3030335
pOt X}NWD 1 2 1 4
x@ w |t p=Ft
u= D Q
|= @ "O wtv xO =iDU= |}=yXN=W = w
w yu tR
R= u= D w |t 'xOt
CUO@ pOt |HvU CLY |= @ Q
"Owtv xQ W= = Q} R OQ= tw
#OvDUy p=tQv =yxOv=t}k=@ =}
# OvDUy |]N uw}UQoQ | y = Q}eDt w MU=B u}@ x]@=Q =}
#OQ=O O Hw C B w Q Q}O=kt =}
" Ovm|t pQDvm =Q =yxOv=t}k=@ p=tQv `} RwD k-s w

u tR
> res { resid(m.reg)

<
> ks.test(res, "pnorm", mean=mean(res), sd=sd(res))

One-sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov test
data: res
D = 0.1553, p-value = 0.7217
"OO oQ |t Qy=_ 3% 4 pmW Q=O wtv Q=yJ 'O} Qw=}@ |r@k | y )
m= O xr=@vO QO =Q Q} R C=Q wDUO Qo =
> par(mfrow=c(2,2))
> plot(m.reg)
%R= CUDQ=@a Q=O wtv Q=yJ u}=
w
O N R= w O Q}o Q=Qk y=0 \ N p L w O}=@ pY=L pmW %xDi=} VR= @ Q Q}O=kt ?UL Q@ =yxOv=t}k=@ Q}O=kt
O O
" y v u =Wv =Q | vwQ O
xm CU= |vat u}O@ 'OvwW s}kDUt \N l} V}=tv x@ l}ORv xOv=t}k=@ \=kv Qo = %p t v= Q qqplot wtv
Q=O
"Ovm|t |w Q}B p=tQv `} RwD R= x vO =t}k=@ wtv

Q=O
' Ovr@ \ =kv "OyO|t u=Wv O O =D

=Q x W OQ= v U= | yx v = O =t}k=@ swO xW} Q Q=O wtv u}= scale-location
% wtv
Q=O
OvDUy xOv=t}k=@ Q}O=kt u} QDoQR@

"
Residuals vs Fitted Normal Q−Q

0.8
9 9
Standardized residuals
2
0.4
18 18
Residuals
1
0.0
0
−0.4
−1
16
16
−1.0 −0.5 0.0 0.5 −2 −1 0 1 2
Fitted values Theoretical Quantiles
Scale−Location Residuals vs Leverage

3
9
1.5
9
1
16 18 0.5
18
1.0
1
0
0.5
−1
Cook’s distance16
0.0
0.5
−1.0 −0.5 0.0 0.5 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25
Fitted values Leverage
=yxOv=t}k=@ x@ w Q
\ @ t | yQ=O = wtv V}=tv %34 pmW
151 u w}UQoQ =
| yp t O 4 pYi
O
' yO |t u=Wv =Q OvQ=O |O=} R Q}F-=D uw}UQoQ \N |wQ xm =Q |]=kv Q=Owtv u}= %Cook's distance Q=Owtv
Q |krD R}v
"OO o C B \Q =kv u= wvax@ Ov=wD|t xm
"O wtv =iDU= Q} R QwDUO

xO w |t 'QDW}@
R= u= D =
| yQ=O wtv |DL w |O= Qiv= CQ Y w x@ q=@ =
| yQ=O wtv sUQ |= @ Q
plot(m.reg, which = 1)
"O W 2 O 1
w |t xO=iDU= O a R= O
O a | =H@ Q}N= Om QO qqplot Q=O wtv s}UQD Q Ovm|t sUQ
|= @ " =Q pmW u}rw= xm
plot(m.reg, which = 2)
"CiQ V}B R}v 6 O =D
O a u= D w |t =yQ=Owtv sUQ |= @ Q
u=v}t]= xrY=i 2 2 1 4
"O wtv xO =iDU= Q} R = O

| y )
m R= u= D w |t u=v}t]= xrY=i O=H}= |= @ Q
x { read.table("E:/R_les/data/gen_reg.txt", header=T)
<
m.reg { lm(x$gene2~x$gene1)
<
new { data.frame(x$gene1 { sort(x$gene1))

< <
pred.w.clim = predict(m.reg, newdata=new, interval="condence",level=0.95)

plot(x$gene2~x$gene1, pch=20)
abline(m.reg, col="blue")
lines(x$gene1,pred.w.clim,2],col="red", lty=2)
lines(x$gene1,pred.w.clim,3],col="red", lty=2)
pred = predict(m.reg, interval="condence") print(pred)
pred1 = predict(m.reg, interval="condence"),1,drop=F] print(pred1)
legend(-1, 1.2,
c("obs. data", "predict", "Lower b.", "Upper b."),
pch=c(20,NA,NA,NA), lty=c(0,1,2,2), lwd=c(0,1,1,1),
col=c("black","blue","red","red"))
O |t CUO@
" }
4%4 pmW w
j i | y ) = O
m |= H= Q =@
Q=Okt w |t xO}t=v 1 AIC xm Owtv
"O W xO =iDU= |= x]@= R= u= D w |t xDi=} Q
VR= @ | yp t = O u}@ xU}=kt |= @ Q
O =Wt
x y Q CU= OwHwt
|= @ " R w
O N QO xm OwW|t xO=iDU= trees |=xO=O R= p t |= @ "=F Q CU= QD?U=vt u
QDtm
O}vm =QH=
" =Q Q} R QwDUO xm CU= |i=m CU= uwDU xU pt=W xm u
> trees
xm OO oQ |t x@U=Lt AIC x] = @ l} Q y Q
|= @ w O W w |t xDiQo Q_v QO trees =
| yxO=O |= @ p t wO u Q O wvm =
"O}vm xU}=kt =Q =yu
sy =@ O}v=wD|t
> lm1 { lm(Volume ~ Height Girth, data=trees)

<
> AIC(lm1)
1] 155.4692
> lm2 { lm(Volume ~ Height + Girth, data=trees)
<
1. Akaike's An Information Criterion

obs. data
1.0
predict
Lower b.
Upper b.
0.5
x$gene2
0.0
−0.5
−1.0
−1.0 −0.5 0.0 0.5
x$gene1
"95 u =v}tY= xrY=i =@ uw}UQoQ Q=O wtv l} V}=tv %44 pmW
> AIC(lm2)
1] 176.9100
Q=Owtv xLiY sUQ 3 2 1 4
Q=O wtv xm CU= ?U=vt 'O}OQo xU}=kt sy =@ u

R= |}=ypOt w OW trees x awtHt =
| yxO=O EL@ xm uwvm =
"CU= Q} R CQ Y @ w x Q_v w
OQ t | y ) = O
m "OO o Q s}UQD R}v CU= uw}UQoQ xLiY xm 5%4
> library(scatterplot3d)
> s3d { with(trees, scatterplot3d(Girth, Height, Volume, pch = 16,
<
+ highlight.3d = TRUE, angle = 60))

> t { lm(Volume ~ Girth + Height, data = trees)
<
> s3d$plane3d(t)
uw}UQoQ QO xOWto |=yxO=O 314
=
u @ R QO " OvW=@ xOWto =yv
= xirw-t
| y R= |m} |va} 'OvW=@ Xk=v |}=y2 ?DQt GwR xm CU= umtt uw}UQoQ QO
" O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "CU= C} Q}Ot p@=k uw}UQoQ uOQw

CUOx@ |= @Q Qt= u}= |@ wN@ R
> x { c(12,4,6,8,13,15,19)
<
> y { c(11,2,5,NA,20, 23, 33)

<
> z { c(3,6,8,11,40,21,99)
<
> reg1 { lm(y~x+z)

<
> reg1
"CU= Q} R w x xH}Dv Q}N=
CQ Y @ = O
| y ) Q
m |= H= R= TB
2. pairwise
153 u w}UQoQ = O
| yp t 4 pYi
80
70
60
Height
Volume
90
50
85
40
80
75
30
70
20
65
60
10
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Girth
uw}UQoQ xLiY wtv

Q=O %54 pmW
Call:
lm(formula = y ~ x + z)
Coefficients:
(Intercept) x z
-5.19862 1.57928 0.09165
" CU= Q} R CQ Y @w x xH}Dv w

'O W = H= Q Q} R QwDUO xt=O= QO Qo = w
> reg1$model
y x z
1 11 12 3
2 2 4 6
3 5 6 8
5 20 13 40
6 23 15 21
7 33 19 99
"CU= xOW h L P 4 xQ =tW GwR O Ww |t x_Lqt xm Qw]v=ty

w |t =QH= Xk=v
"O W GwR wO =@ =yDvt =yxO=O u=ty =@ uw}UQoQ uwvm =
> x { c(12,4,6,8,13,15,19)
<
> y { c(11,2,5,NA,20, 23, 33)

<
> z { c(3,6,8,11,40,21,NA)
<
> reg2 { lm(y~x+z)

<
> reg2
Call:
lm(formula = y ~ x + z)
Coefficients:
(Intercept) x z
-5.6706 1.4996 0.1843
> reg2$model
y x z
1 11 12 3
2 2 4 6
3 5 6 8
5 20 13 40
6 23 15 21
" CU= xOW h L P 7 4

w xQ =tW =
| yGwR O W w |t x_Lqt xm Qw]v=ty
xO=O l} |=yxwQo |=yQ=Owtv sUQ 1 3 1 4
s}UQD = =
C kw= R= |=xQ B QO " CW=O |irDNt = Q
| yxw o xO=O l} pN=O u= Dw |t OW x_Lqt uwvm =D xm Qw]u=ty
`k=w QO w CU= QwOkt pairs() `@=D R= xO=iDU= =@ R QO Q=m u}= "OW=@ O}it Q@ Q=m |=Q@ Ov=wD|t Qo}Om} C@Uv =yv
xO =iDU= R QO trees = =F Q O
| yxO=O R= p t |= @ " yO |t CUOx@ =Q Vvm =Q+B =
| yQ=O wtv R= |U} QD=t l} `@=D u}=
w |t
"O W
pairs(trees)
155 u w}UQoQ =
| yp t O 4 pYi
w Oy=wN
"O @ 6%4 pmW xH}Dv
R}v =RHt w x
CQ Y @ =Q Q=O wtv Qy Q@ xDi=} VR= @ \ Q w]N 'u w}UQoQ ltm x@ u= D w |t Vvm =Q+B Q=O wtv T} QD=t QO
65 70 75 80 85
10 12 14 16 18 20
Girth
8
85
80
Height
75
70
65
70
50
Volume
30
10
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 10 30 50 70
syx@ C@Uv xO=O l} =

| yxw o Q=O Q wtv V}=tv %64 pmW
w
=Q O N Q_v OQ tw `@=D u
QO u= Dw |t xm OQ=O O Hw w panel = x@ |v=twoQ
s v pairs() ` = @ D QO Q m = u}= Q CW=O

|= @ "
" O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Dt x@ uwvm = "O wtv h} QaD
> pairs(trees, panel=function(x,y) fpoints(y~x) abline(lm(y~x))g)

w Oy=wN
"O @ 7%4 pmW j i Q w wDUO Q
|= H= pY=L
"O}vm xHwD trees xO=O | QDt=Q=B=v p=Ft x@ "CW=O R}v | QDt=Q=B=v Qw]x@ u= D w |t w
=Q j i VR= @ Q xD@r=
> pairs(trees, panel=panel.smooth)

w Oy=wN
"O @ 8%4 pmW j i Q w wDUO Q
|= H= pY=L
|vLvt VR=Q@ w |R=UQ=wty '|@=}uwQO 2 4
=} =yv
u @ |= @Q R}v |irDNt | yx = w}W w |t

w O W u=wva |]NQ}e =
| yVR= @ Q EL@ ,qwtat =yl}vmD `wv u}= QO
"OO o Q |t s}OkD ,q}P =yv

R= |=xQ B K W " = Q CU= xOW
65 70 75 80 85
10 12 14 16 18 20
Girth
8
85
80
Height
75
70
65
70
50
Volume
30
10
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 10 30 50 70
xDi=} VR= @ Q \N w xO=O l} =

65 70 75 80 85
10 12 14 16 18 20
Girth
8
85
80
Height
75
70
65
70
50
Volume
30
10
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 10 30 50 70
| QDt=Q=B=v Q
VR= @ w xO=O l} =
157 uw}UQoQ =
| yp tO 4 pYi
|R=UQ=wty w |@=}uwQO 124
O =Wt Q} R
x y QO =Q =yv
R= |
a@ xm OvDUy p=ta= p@=k |irDNt =
| yCQ Y @ w x R QO |R UQ= = wty w |@=}uQwO
"O}vm|t
"O Ww |t s=Hv= \ =kv u}@ xm approx() ` =

@ D |]N |@=}uwQO
"CU= |r@k VwQ R= QDQ=wty xm spline() ` = @ D s R}v=mt R= xO =iDU= =@ |@=}uwQO
pYDt sy x@ =Q |rY= \=kv =t= CU= xOW smooth.spline() `@=D QDQ=wty |QOk xm |]=kv xawttHt
"Ovm|tv
> x { 1:10
<
> y { c(9,8,6,7,5,8,9,6,3,5)
<
> plot(x,y, pch=10, cex=2, main="interpolation,smoothing")

> lines (spline(x,y, n=100), lty=1)
> points(approx(x,y, xout=seq(1,10,0.1)), pch=1)
> lines (smooth.spline(x,y), lty=2)
> legend("bottomleft",lty=c(1,NA,2), pch=c(NA,1,NA),
+ legend=c("spline","approx","smooth.spline"))
w |t xH}Dv
"O W 9%4 pmW q=@ = O
| y )
m |= H= Q =@
interpolation,smoothing
9
8
7
6
y
5
4
spline
approx
smooth.spline
3
2 4 6 8 10
O
x W Q=wty w |@=}uwQO =
|vLvt VR=Q@ 224
O = |]NQ}e =}
' W @ w |]N xDi=} VR= @ Q `@=D xm u}= ?UL Q@ "CU= |vLvt VR= @ Q x} wQ+ u}OvJ |=Q=O R =
u @R
"O wtv xO =iDU= Q} R w

OQ= t R= u= D w |t
w |t
"O W Q = x xDi=} s}taD |]NQ}e
xO @ Q m @ =
| yp t w O |]N = O
| yp t |= @ Q ?}DQD x@ glm lm ` w w
@= D
"O W w |t xO =iDU= |]NQ}e =

| yp t |= @ O Q costrOptim optim nlm nls `
w ' ' w
@= D
C}atH "OO o Q h} QaD u=tR R= |a@=D Ov=wD|t t XNW =

t u tR QO Qiv uw}r}t N |v=Uv= C}atH OWQ %p=Ft
|rm O
p t " CU= OWQ Q Q@=Q@
Mv a w Q =_Dv= w C}atH QFm =OL
OQ t K | y = QDt=Q=B 'Nt0 t
Q@=Q@ 0 =
u tR QO x}rw=
" CU= Q} R w x C}atH V}=Ri= |]NQ}e
CQ Y @
N (t) =
K;NKt0
1+ Nt0 e;a(t;t0 )
w 0.02 Q Q @= @ ?}DQD x@ K a
w = QDt=Q=B "CU= Qiv uw}r}t
| y Nt0 = 76:1 Q Q 1900 @= @ =
p U QO |Q wWm C}atH
"CU= Q} R O
pw H CQ Y @ w x hrDNt =
| yp U QO= |ak=w C}atH "CU= 500
1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980
76.1 92.4 106.5 123.1 132.6 152.3 180.7 204.9 226.5
Q |t R=e Q} R
"OO o =
|OwQw | yxO=O @ = xt=vQ@
year { seq(1900, 1980, by=10)
<
pop { c(76.1,92.4,106.5,123.1,132.6,152.3,180.7,204.9,226.5)
<
y~f (x parameters) CQ Y @ w x `@=D u}= "CU= nls() ` = R @ D ' QO |]N Q}e |vLvt Q
VR= @ VwQ u} QDxO=U
Q XNWt O}=@ =yQDt=Q=B x}rw= Q}O=kt
"OO o w O Ww |t xrwtQi
CU=
" a = 0:02 Nt0 = 76:1 K = 500 x}
w ' rw= \}=QW w CU= OWQ pOt f ' C}atH Q}O=kt y p t =F u}= QO
> year { seq(1900, 1980, by=10)

<
> pop { c(76.1,92.4,106.5,123.1,132.6,152.3,180.7,204.9,226.5)

<
> t { nls(pop~K/(1+(K-N0)/N0 exp(-a (year-1900))),

<
+ start=list(K=500, N0=76.1, a=0.02))

> summary(t)
w |t pY=L Q} R G}=Dv q=@
"O W = O
| y )
m |= H= Q =@
Formula: pop ~ K/(1 + (K - N0)/N0 * exp(-a * (year - 1900)))
Parameters:
Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|)
K 1.008e+03 8.932e+02 1.129 0.30210
159 u w}UQoQ = O
| yp t 4 pYi
N0 7.866e+01 2.531e+00 31.084 7.36e-08 ***

a 1.550e-02 2.505e-03 6.188 0.00082 ***
---
Signif. codes: 0 `***' 0.001 `**' 0.01 `*' 0.05 `.' 0.1 ` ' 1
Residual standard error: 3.685 on 6 degrees of freedom
Number of iterations to convergence: 6

Achieved convergence tolerance: 4.301e-06
O}yO xt=O= Q} R
" w x
CQ Y @ =Q =yO)m 'x]w@ Qt 10%4 pmW Q=O wtv s}UQD Q
|= @
> plot(pop~year)
> K { coef(t)1] N0 { coef(t)2] a { coef(t)3]
< < <
> model { K/(1+(K-N0)/N0 exp(-a (year-1900)))

<
> lines(model~year, col="blue")

200
pop
150
100
1900 1920 1940 1960 1980
year
xDi=} Q O
VR= @ p t w C}atH Q=Owtv V}=tv %104 pmW
sHv B pY i
|YYN |v wt Ov s} Q D w i Q=O v J U D
Q PoyQ u}= R= =D OW=@ "O}vm|t x_Lqt =Q x]w@ Qt = O xi== x@ xO}J}B

| y )
m Q=O wtv OvJ =tW CtUk u}= QO
xDmv u}= Qm P =yv

x}=Q= R= p@k Q sy=Qi |t=Qo u=oOvv=wN
"OO o Q |vi
|= @ =
| yQ=O wtv s}UQD CyH |@U=vt = O
| yx }=
w |t x}=Q= A} QmU=
"O W CQ Yw x@ x]w@ Qt | y )
m= O xm CU= Q
|Qw
p=tDL= |=yPe=m s}UQD 1 5
R= |m} =yPe=m u}= QO "OQ=O |v=w=Qi OQ@ Q=m |S rwQw O}y w |U=vW=wy =
| yxO=O VR= @ |= @ p Q Q =tDL= = P =
| y e m
w =w w = P = u}= "CU= |tD} Q=or =}

OQ=O u o v o `= v= y e m w |]N Qo}O QwLt w CU= |r=tDL= T =}kt |=Q=O =yQwLt
xt}v Pe=m =@ O}=@v =Q =yPe=m u}= xm O}W=@ xDW=O xHwD "OQ@ s=v p@t=o w p=tQv w = Q = P =
n r w p t v | y e m R= u= D w |t xm
CU= xO}OQo
" xO =iDU= xDWPo pwYi `@=wD w C=Q wDUO 'C a = q]= x}rm R= =ys}UQD u}= QO "O wtv \r.N
+ |tD} Q=o
160
161 |YYND w |vi Q=Owtv OvJ s}UQD 5 pYi
p@t=o p=tDL= Pe=m 115
Qt= = O}vm|t x_Lqt

|O @ QO " O O =Wt
=Q x W x y =
| yxO=O Q@ xDi=} Q `} RwD
VR= @ w p@t=o p=tDL= Pe=m =Hv}= QO
"CU= Q} R w x Q_v
CQ Y @ w
OQ t | y m = O
# GumbelPlot.R
#
# Code for plotting annual peak "ow series on
# extreme-value (Gumbel) paper.
# # This code illustrates how to customize graph axes, and
# also how to use superscripts in axis labels.
#
# RDM 2007 Oct 25
# Specify Greata Creek peak "ows for 1971 - 1980

Q = c(1.23,2.37,0.085,1.69,1.2,0.898,0.176,0.96,0.212,0.266)
graphlab = "Greata Creek 1971-1980"
# Generate plotting positions
n = length(Q)
r = n + 1 - rank(Q) # highest Q has rank r = 1
T = (n + 1)/r
# Set up x axis tick positions and labels
Ttick = c(1.001,1.01,1.1,1.5,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,25
,30,35,40,45,50,60,70,80,90,100)
xtlab = c(1.001,1.01,1.1,1.5,2,NA,NA,5,NA,NA,NA,NA,10,NA,NA,NA,NA,15,
NA,NA,NA,NA,20,NA,30,NA,NA,NA,50,NA,NA,NA,NA,100)
y = -log(-log(1 - 1/T))
ytick = -log(-log(1 - 1/Ttick))
xmin = min(min(y),min(ytick))
xmax = max(ytick)
# Plot peak "ow series with Gumbel axis
plot( y, Q, ylab = expression( "Peak Flow (" m^3 s^-1 ")" ) ,
xaxt = "n", xlab = "T (yr)",
xlim = c(xmin,xmax),
pch = 21, bg = "red",
main = paste( "Annual Peak Flows,", graphlab ))
par(cex = 0.65)
axis(1, at = ytick, labels = as.character(xtlab))
# Draw a best-t line through the data
abline( lm(Q y), lty=1, col = "blue" )
# Draw grid lines
abline(v = ytick, lty = 3)
abline(h = c(0.5,1,1.5,2), lty = 3)
par(cex = 1)
Q |t pY=L
"OO o 1%5 pmW w = O
j i | y )
m |= H= Q =@
|v=w=QiCOtCOW Pe=m s}UQD 215
xm CU= K=w xD@r= w |t

"O W xO =iDU= =yQ=@oQ |oOvQ=@ |v=w=QiCOtCOW = |vLvt sUQ
| y Q Pe=m u}=
|= @
" CU= Q} R w x
CQ Y @ u
| y )= O CU= |tD} Q=or pmW QwLt l} =Q} R "CU= \N
m " w x = |vLvt pmW
CQ Y @ y
# Graph paper for IDF analysis

#
# This code illustrates how to customize graph axes and
# how to produce grid lines.
#
# RD Moore 2007-Jan-23
#
par(cex=1,las=1)
ytick = c(1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,20,30,40,50,60,70,80,90,100,
200,300,400,500,600,700,800,900,1000)
yticklab = as.character(ytick)
xgrid = c(5,6,7,8,9,10,15,20,30,40,50,60,120,180,240,300,360,
420,480,540,600,660,720,840,960,1080,1200,1320,1440)
xtick = c(5,10,15,20,30,60,120,360,720,1440)
xticklab = c("5","10","15","20","30","60","2","6","12","24")
x=5
y = 10
plot( x, y, type="n",
xaxt="n",yaxt="n",
log="xy",
xlim=c(4,1440),
ylim=c(1,1000),
ylab = "INTENSITY (mm/hr)",
xlab = "Minutes DURATION Hours")
par(cex=0.65)
axis(1, xtick, xticklab)
par(cex=0.6)
axis(2, ytick, yticklab)
abline(v=xgrid)
abline(h = ytick)
par(cex=1)
Q |t pY=L
"OO o 2%5 pmW w = O
j i | y ) Q
m |= H= =@
163 |YYND w |vi wtv OvJ s}UQD
Q=O 5 pYi
Annual Peak Flows, Greata Creek 1971−1980
2.0
Peak Flow (m3s1)
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
1.001 1.1 1.5 2 5 10 15 30 50 100
T (yr)
xDi=} Q `} RwD
VR= @ w p@t=o Pe=m V}=tv %15 pmW
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
INTENSITY (mm/hr)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
5 10 15 30 60 2 6 12 24
Minutes DURATION Hours
|v=w=QiCOtCOW Pe=m V}=tv %25 pmW

|=x}W=L `@=wD =@ x=Qty uw}UQoQ s}UQD 315
R}v Q}eDt wO |=x}W=L `@=wD xm O}y=wN@ Qo = =t= "CU}v w

|Q= WO Q m u = w}UQoQ \N =@ x=Qty Vvm =QB Q=Owtv sUQ
" CU= Q} R w x
CQ Y @ u
| y )= O O |t OwHw@ |@r=H
m " }
|Q=O wtv Q sUQ OwHwt pmW
'OO o |wQ
## Create a scatterplot with marginal histograms ##

x { pmin(3, pmax(-3, rnorm(75)))
<
y { pmin(3, pmax(-3, rnorm(75)))

<
xhist { hist(x, breaks=seq(min(x),max(x),length=11) ,plot=FALSE)

<
yhist { hist(y, breaks=seq(min(y),max(y),length=11), plot=FALSE)

<
top { max(c(xhist$counts, yhist$counts))

<
xrange { c(min(x),max(x))
<
yrange { c(min(y),max(y))
<
nf { layout(matrix(c(2,0,1,3),2,2,byrow=TRUE), c(3,1), c(1,3), TRUE)

<
layout.show(nf)
par(mar = c(3,3,1,1))
plot(x, y, xlim=xrange, ylim=yrange, xlab="", ylab="",col=6, cex=1.5)
par(mar = c(0,3,1,1))
grid(col=3)
abline(lm(y~x-1), col="brown",lwd=2)
barplot(xhist$counts, axes=FALSE, ylim=c(0, top), space=0, col="red")
par(mar = c(3,0,1,1))
barplot(yhist$counts, axes=FALSE, xlim=c(0, top), space=0, horiz=TRUE,
col="blue")
"OO oQ |t pY=L 3%5 pmW w
j i | y ) = O
m |= H= Q =@
wD QO wD |=yQ=Owtv s}UQD 4 1 5
" CU= Q} R w x
CQ Y @ u
| y )
m "O= O wtv GQO Qo}O |Q=O wtv pN=O QO =Q Q=O wtv l} u= Dw |t CtUk u}= QO
# Nested graphics
library(e1071)
n { 1000
<
x { rnorm(n)
<
qqnorm(x, main=paste("kurtosis =", round(kurtosis(x), digits=2),

"(gaussian)"))
qqline(x, col="red")
op { par(g=c(.02,.5,.5,.98), new=TRUE)
<
hist(x, probability=T,
col="light blue", xlab="", ylab="", main="", axes=F)
lines(density(x), col="red", lwd=2)
box()
O
x W xO =iDU= e1071 xDU wtv u}= sUQ
@ R= Q=O Q =vt
|= @ , "OO o Q |t pY=L 4%5 pmW w
j i | y ) = O
m |= H= Q =@
CU}v OwHwt
" R = w
u @ R O N QO kurtosis() | O}W o m `@=D =Q} R "CU=
165 |YYND w |vi wtv OvJ s}UQD
Q=O 5 pYi
3
2
1
0
−1
−2
−2 −1 0 1 2
|= x}W=L `@=wD w u w}UQoQ V}=tv %35 pmW

3
2
1
0
−1
−2
−3
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
wD QO wD =
Q=Owtv l} QO =yZQa QwLt wO s}UQD 515
O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@

" w u}=
OQ t Q
|= @ "O W w |t =O}B R=}v Q=Owtv l} QO y Q wLt wO sUQ x@ =
Cq L R= |=xQ B QO =
# specify the data

x { c(1:10) y { x z { 10/x
< < <
# create extra margin room on the right for an axis

par(mar=c(5, 4, 4, 8) + 0.1)
# plot x vs. y
plot(x, y,type="b", pch=21, col="red",
yaxt="n", lty=3, xlab="", ylab="")
# add x vs. 1/x
lines(x, z, type="b", pch=22, col="blue", lty=2)
# draw an axis on the left
axis(2, at=x,labels=x, col.axis="red", las=2)
# draw an axis on the right, with smaller text and ticks
axis(4, at=z,labels=round(z,digits=2),
col.axis="blue", las=2, cex.axis=0.7, tck=-.01)
# add a title for the right axis
mtext("y=1/x", side=4, line=3, cex.lab=1,las=2, col="blue")
# add a main title and bottom and left axis labels
title("An Example of Creative Axes", xlab="X values", ylab="Y=X")
" }
O |t CUOx@ 5%5 pmW w
j i | y ) = O
m |= H= Q =@
An Example of Creative Axes
10 10
6
Y=X
y=1/x
5 5
4
3.33
3
2.5
2 2
1.67
1.43
1.25
1.11
1 1
2 4 6 8 10
X values
=yZQa QwLt wO =@ Q=O wtv l} V}=tv %55 pmW

167 |YYND w |vi Q=O wtv OvJ s}UQD 5 pYi
Q=Owtv l} QO CQ=QL xHQO wO s}UQD 6 1 5
C}=yvQ=i ?UL Q@ Qo}O

| w O= oQ |Dv=U Q@ |m} 'OW=@ =yZQa QwLt wO |=Q=O xm CW=O |Q=Owtv u= Dw |t
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ OQ t w u}= Q OvDUy
|= @ "
x {1:2
<
y { runif(2, 0, 100)
<
par(mar=c(4, 4, 2, 4))
plot(x, y, type="n", xlim=c(0.5, 2.5), ylim=c(-10, 110),
axes=FALSE, ann=FALSE)
axis(2, at=seq(0, 100, 20))
mtext("Temperature (Centigrade)", side=2, line=3)
axis(1, at=1:2, labels=c("Treatment 1", "Treatment 2"))
axis(4, at=seq(0, 100, 20), labels=seq(0, 100, 20) 9/5 + 32)
mtext("Temperature (Fahrenheit)", side=4, line=3)
box()
segments(x, 0, x, 100, lwd=20, col="dark grey")
segments(x, 0, x, 100, lwd=16, col="white")
segments(x, 0, x, y, lwd=16, col="light grey")
O |t CUOx@
" }
6 %5 pmW w = O
j i | y )
m |= H= Q =@
100
212
176
80
Temperature (Centigrade)
Temperature (Fahrenheit)
140
60
104
40
20
68
32
0
Treatment 1 Treatment 2
=tO QwLt wO =@ Q=O wtv l} V}=tv %65 pmW

uw}UQoQ xLiY s}UQD 715
xrO=at Qo = uwvm = "OW=@ s}kDUt \N CQ Y @ w x Ov=wD|t y x u} @ u w}UQoQ x]@=Q OW xOy=Wt ,q@k xm Qw]u=ty
QO u wvm = "CU= xLiY l} pmW x@ |Q=O wtv u
y = a1 x1 + a2x2 + b w x w} Q
V}=tv 'OW=@ CQ Y @ u U oQ
u w}UQoQ s}UQD u}= CU= xOW s=Hv= xLiY s}U

QO " Q R D trees QO w w} Q Q Q = O
xO=O OQ t QO u U oQ |= @ }R | y )
m
"CU= xOW s=H Height Girth = Q}eD ?U Q Volume

v= w | y t L @
library(scatterplot3d)
data(trees)
s3d { scatterplot3d(trees, type="h", highlight.3d=TRUE,
<
angle=55, scale.y=0.7, pch=16, main="scatterplot3d")

# Now adding some points to the "scatterplot3d"
s3d$points3d(seq(10,20,2), seq(85,60,-5), seq(60,10,-10),
col="blue", type="h", pch=16)
# Now adding a regression plane to the "scatterplot3d"
attach(trees)
my.lm - lm(Volume ~ Girth + Height)
<
s3d$plane3d(my.lm)
O |t CUOx@
" }
7%5 pmW w = O
j i | y )
m |= H= Q =@
scatterplot3d
80
70
60
Volume
50
40
Height
90
85
30
80
75
20
70
65
60
10
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Girth
w}UQoQ xLiY V}=tv

u %75 pmW
169 `H=Qt
`H=Qt
1] Crawley, Micheal J., (2007) The R Book, John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 942p.
2] Longhow Lam, (2008) An introduction to R, Business & Decision Amster-
dam, 212p.
3] Maindonald J. H., (2008) Using R for Data Analysis and Graphics Intro-
duction, Code and Commentary, Centre for Mathematics and Its Applications,
Australian National University., 96p.
4] Owen Jones, Robert Maillardet, and Andrew Robinson, (2009) In-
troductIon to Scientic Programming and Simulation using r, Chapman &
Hall/CRC, 448p.
5] Paradis E., (2005) R for Beginners, Institut des Sciences de l' Evolution
Universite Montpellier II France, 76p.
6] Rossiter D. G., (2007) Introduction to the R Project for Statistical Comput-
ing for use at ITC, International Institute for Geo-information Science & Earth
Observation Enschede (NL), 143p.
7] Sarkar Deepayan, (2008) Multivariate Data Visualization with R, Springer,
265p.
8] Seefeld, K., Linder, E., (2007) Statistics Using R with Biological Examples,
University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH Department of Mathematics &
Statistics, 325p.
9] Scott A Theresa, (?) An Introduction to the Fundamentals & Functionality
of the R Programming Language, Vanderbilt University, Department of Bio-
statistics, 99p.
10] Soetaert, Karline, (2008) Using R for scientic computing , Center for
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11] Spector Phil, (2008) Data Manipulation with R, Springer, 152p.
12] Verzani John simpleR - Using R for Introductory Statistics, 114p.

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CNwt CQmi =

QwBU=@a O}yW jQ@ w ? CavY x=oWv=O

180 Q=DWwv CU=Q} w

1 R |U} wvxt=vQ@ u=@ R =@ |}=vWpw= pYi

5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... R = = u @R | y QoW}=Q} w 241

7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..............R QO =yxO=O 341

9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ R = = u @ R QO xO t | yxO=O = 441

10 . . . . . . . . . . .. ................ =yxO=O O}rwD 541

12 . . . . . . . . . . .. ................. =yxO=O uDWwv O w

15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p= = uD w } i |wQ yxO=O W v 251

18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................. = Q yQ=O @ 161

18 . . . . . . . . . . . . =yQ=OQ@ |wQ |=} Q C U =@ =Lt 1161

22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............... =yT} QD=t 261

29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . |]N CqO =at x=oDUO pL 3261

32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ factor() ` = @ D 461

33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ .. =yCUQyi 661

41 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... = M u tR w }Q D= =@ C U =@ =Lt 181

44 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ ...R = u @R =@ |U} wvxt=vQ@ 91

44 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ .... Q \ W 191

45 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ . . . . xkr L 291

50 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . apply ` w w = @= D xO= v N 1291

54 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ .... `@=wD 391

56 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... : : : u t oQ = w 2391

57 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . |rL t | y = Q}eDt 4391

63 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . xv=oOvJ p= QoDv= 12101

63 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p}U Qi x v= }O rO=at 3101

69 Q=Owtv sUQswO pYi

73 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... = wt ` w |Q t |Q=O v @= D 212

74 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . s}UQD xLiY uwo =vwo | y = CtUk 312

75 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... s y x@ C@Uv Q=O wtv OvJ C}aw 2 2

75 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RH = t x QHvB OvJ O=H}= 122

76 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . =yQ=Owtv xOW R=@ | yx= QHvB uDU@ 222

76 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xLiY l} |wQ = RHt Q=O wtv OvJ 322

77 . . . . . . . |w =Ut | y = CtUk x@ Q=O wtv xLiY s}UkD 1322

77 . . . . . . |w =Ut=v | y = CtUk x@ Q=O wtv xLiY s}UkD 2322

80 . . . . . . . . . .= yQ=O wtv u=mt u}}aD =@ xLiY s}UkD 3322

82 . . . . . . . . . ... . .... |HQ=N | y = s}_vD 1422

83 . . . . . . . . . ... . Q=O wtv l} | y = QDt=Q=B s}_vD 2422

85 . . . . . . . . . ... . . u}}=B K]U `@=wD R= |=xQ B = 3422

99 . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . O} x rwS | yQ=O = wtv 4422

101 . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . | =] a k | yQ=O = wtv 5422

103 . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . | Oa)@ xU =

105 . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . = wt wt Q} yQ=O v uO v x NP 522

107 . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . = wt wt Q} yQ=O v uO v x NP 622

107 . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Trellis =

108 . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . Trellis = wt Q Q Ov `t | yQ=O v t= o | @ H 132

109 . . . . . . . ....................... =yQDt=Q=B 232

109 . . . . . . . ................ w `= v= 1232

116 p=tDL= w Q=tswU pYi

116 . . . ...... ........................ |Q t = x}=B `@=wD 13

116 . . . ...... ................ = Q = =`w O }R | @Q m @ @= D 113

118 . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . | =Y O | =tD = ` w iO D O= a= w r L= | y } R D 213

120 . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . Q wDU} s= o y 1213

121 . . . ...... ........... qT= C B m @ 2213

124 . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . . . table() ` = @ D 3213

127 . . . ...... . . . . . . = Q =tD | =o ` =

128 . . . qqplot() w qqline() qqnorm() |m} Q ` w

QwBU=@a O}yW jQ@ w ? CavY x=oWv=O

180 Q=DWwv CU=Q} w

1 R |U} wvxt=vQ@ u=@ R =@ |}=vWpw= pYi

5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... R = = u @R | y QoW}=Q} w 241

7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..............R QO =yxO=O 341

9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ R = = u @ R QO xO t | yxO=O = 441

10 . . . . . . . . . . .. ................ =yxO=O O}rwD 541

15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p= = uD w } i |wQ yxO=O W v 251

18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................. = Q yQ=O @ 161

18 . . . . . . . . . . . . =yQ=OQ@ |wQ |=} Q C U =@ =Lt 1161

22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............... =yT} QD=t 261

29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . |]N CqO =at x=oDUO pL 3261

32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ factor() ` = @ D 461

33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ .. =yCUQyi 661

41 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... = M u tR w }Q D= =@ C U =@ =Lt 181

44 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ ...R = u @R =@ |U} wvxt=vQ@ 91

44 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ .... Q \ W 191

45 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ . . . . xkr L 291

50 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . apply ` w w = @= D xO= v N 1291

54 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ .... `@=wD 391

56 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... : : : u t oQ = w 2391

57 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . |rL t | y = Q}eDt 4391

63 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . xv=oOvJ p= QoDv= 12101

63 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p}U Qi x v= }O rO=at 3101

73 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... = wt ` w |Q t |Q=O v @= D 212

74 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . s}UQD xLiY uwo =vwo | y = CtUk 312

75 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... s y x@ C@Uv Q=O wtv OvJ C}aw 2 2

75 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RH = t x QHvB OvJ O=H}= 122

76 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . =yQ=Owtv xOW R=@ | yx= QHvB uDU@ 222

76 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xLiY l} |wQ = RHt Q=O wtv OvJ 322

77 . . . . . . . |w =Ut | y = CtUk x@ Q=O wtv xLiY s}UkD 1322

77 . . . . . . |w =Ut=v | y = CtUk x@ Q=O wtv xLiY s}UkD 2322

80 . . . . . . . . . .= yQ=O wtv u=mt u}}aD =@ xLiY s}UkD 3322

82 . . . . . . . . . ... . .... |HQ=N | y = s}_vD 1422

83 . . . . . . . . . ... . Q=O wtv l} | y = QDt=Q=B s}_vD 2422

85 . . . . . . . . . ... . . u}}=B K]U `@=wD R= |=xQ B = 3422

99 . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . O} x rwS | yQ=O = wtv 4422

101 . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . | =] a k | yQ=O = wtv 5422

105 . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . = wt wt Q} yQ=O v uO v x NP 522

107 . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . = wt wt Q} yQ=O v uO v x NP 622

108 . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . Trellis = wt Q Q Ov `t | yQ=O v t= o | @ H 132

109 . . . . . . . ....................... =yQDt=Q=B 232

109 . . . . . . . ................ w `= v= 1232

116 p=tDL= w Q=tswU pYi

116 . . . ...... ........................ |Q t = x}=B `@=wD 13

116 . . . ...... ................ = Q = =`w O }R | @Q m @ @= D 113

118 . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . | =Y O | =tD = ` w iO D O= a= w r L= | y } R D 213

120 . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . Q wDU} s= o y 1213

121 . . . ...... ........... qT= C B m @ 2213

124 . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . . . table() ` = @ D 3213

130 . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . . . ecdf() ` = @ D 6213

132 . . . ...... . . . . . . = = =tD | =o ` =t o p L= r J @ D 7213

137 . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | =Y Q} x wt iO D | o v v 313

138 . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . . =tD ` = l = QD = Q p L= @ D } | y t=Q B OQw @ 413

138 . . . ...... ................. = = |Q t | yVwQ 513

138 . . . ...... . . . . . . txQ l w i ] wO w } u tR 1513

142 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... wQ =C w w p t i | y }O H t 114

144 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... = O `w |R Up t @= D 214

152 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Q=O wtv xLiY sUQ 3214

155 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |vLv Q t VR= @ w |R UQ= = wty '|@=}uwQO 24

157 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = wt | = |R UQ= y w @ }uwQO 124

158 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |vLv t VR= @ Q 224

164 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |= x}W=L `@=wD =@ x=Qty uw}UQoQ s}UQD 315

167 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Q=O wtv l} QO CQ= LQ xHQO wO s}UQD 615

168 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... u w}UQoQ xLiY s}UQD 715

1391 R}}=B u= QyD

x_i=L QO <=}W= uOQm hPL w CUQyi 'O=H}= 141

> mode(A) mode(compar) mode(z)