a rx eons mye GRA ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING Baer Rei Electrical Machines (Theory & Practice Questions) MADE EASY India’s Best Institute for IES, GATE & PSUs MADE EASY On Students OnlyCONTENTS 1. Electromagnetic System 3-9 2. Transformer 10-49 3. Basic Concepts in Rotating Electrical Machines 50-80 | 4. Polyphase Synchronous Machine 81-109 | 5. Polyphase Induction Machines n0-150 | 6. D.C. Machines 151 - 209 7, Fractional Kilowatt Motors 210 - 225 8. Solved Questions 226 - 249 wae ~ Ve oe Oe oO eee MADE EASY _ | -Hote: Ths book contains copyright subject matter fo MADE EASY, New Delhi No pat Sor of tis book may be reproduced. stored in a reicval system or Wansmited in any frm cegsestStudents Only | or by any means. Violators are liable to be legaly prosecuted.ELECTROMAGNETIC SYSTEM Cc “Introduction: * Theelectromagnetic systemis an essential elemento al otating electric machinery and electromechanical device and static devices lke the transformer, Electromechanical energy conversion takes place via the medium of a magnetic field or electrical field, but most practical converters use magnetic field as the coupling medium between electrical and mechanical systems. + Intransformers, the electrical energy convert rom one electrical eleotrical circuit via the medium of a magnetic field as the coupling medium between one electrical circuitto anv.ner electrical Circuits. This is due to fact that the energy storing capacity of mac netic field is much greater than that of tedectic tela eee : a Magnetic Circuits: ‘ats eM The complete closed path flawed bythe fines offuxis clad magnetic circuit. inlow power electical ‘machines, magnelicfigld he produced hy permanant magnets. Bu jnhigh:powe electrical machinery and:ransformers, cavialingmegnais feiss producedtmalaatic coments. + Inamagnatic circu, the magnetic tx is due to the presence of a magnetomotive force same asin an electric circuit, the currentis due to the presence ofa electromotive force. + The mmt is created by a current flowing through one or more turns MMF = current x no. of tums inthe coil = MMF = Ni (ampereturns) or (ATS) iS al reno! Ss ae * Fig. 1.41 + Themagnetic flux may be defined as the magnetomotive force per unit reluctance TNE Reluctance h}} where reluctance in magnetic circuit is same as resistance in electric circuit ‘+ Itmeans the opposition offered by the magnetic flux is called reluctance 3+ ELECTRICAL MACHINES wowmadeeasy.in econraheMne(SMADE EASY] : em Thee: Won thao" Be Tasceeg| ranonranammosreran| ‘luckwow + indore _* Pune + Bhubaneswar _+ Kohata_|.BSCEFI6) 7 Ale 7a | Alto (12) where T= length of the magnetic path ‘A= area of ctoss-section normal to flux path, m®. = Hg, = permeability ofthe magnetic material 1, = relative permeabilly of the magnetic material iy = Permeability of free space = 4x x 10°” Him. Here the concept of permeabilly can be understand in easy way with following examples. Suppose a current | carrying conductor in a free space. As shown in figure. Magnetic - ce haath ‘s Fig. 1.2 ‘+ According to the right hand grip rule, around the current carrying conductor a magnets flux path is (generated. Actually righthand grip rue stated that grip the conductor with thumb pointing in the direction cf conductor currant then four iingers yive the direction of magnetic flux created by the current + Suppose flux density at C, caused by magnetic field intensity Het #8'B-tesla and if C is one meter ‘away from x, then permeability of free space jis given by B Ho (1.3) where, Magnetic fx. Mux density B= eal NA 8: -t ae Whim?. and magnetic field intensity MVE ~ meanlengihof magnetic circuits Alsi (1.4) + Note: In magnetic system there are no magnetic insulators. Even in the best known magnetic insulator air, the flux can be established + There are many similarities between magnetic and electric circuits but some specific difference which makes more usetul he magnetic circuits + Energyis needed tor establishing the required llux once the requ is needed in maintaining it. * Note: Magnetic circuits are analogous to the electrical circuit. ite lux is created then no more energy 4+ ELECTRICAL MACHINES wonwmadeeasy.in © copyigns MADEEASY eeeeensegvoeeaeoes[SMADE ERS] cee Rj feet Thies er TpScerag sn tat iminaetrencarteran| * Lucknow + Indore + Pune + Bhubaneswar _* Kolkata 5 © Leakage Flux: * Inideal magnetic circuits, al the flux produced by an exciting coils confined to the desired magnetic. path of negligible reluctance. Butin practical magnetic circuits, a small amount of flux does followa path through the surrounding ait. Therefore, leakage flux may be defined as that flux which does not follow the intended path in a magnetic circuit. Leakage flux does exist in all practical ferromagnetic device. lis effect on the analysis of electrical machinery is carried out by replacing it by an equivalent leakage reactance. set fac 1 Fringing + ALanai-gap in amagnolgee, te tho tinges out into neighboring ai path as shown in above figure. * Longer the rh flux fringing. The effect of fringing flux is to increase the effective cross- sectional area of the slr 9a As a result, flux density in the ai gap is not uniform and average flux density gets recuggd it area of air gap increases then total area of core with consideration of air gap increases. Then average flux density gets reduced. Example 1.1 ‘Amagnetic circuit of cast steel is arranged as shown in figure. . cant F Ss Fig. 14 Various dimensions are also indicated in the figure. The exciting coil, with N = 1000 turns, sets up a flux of 1 mwb in the central limb. Find the coil current if, for cast steel, ©) n= (b) »,= 6000 Neglecting fring and leakage. ELECTRICAL MACHINES wwwmadeeasy.inMADE ERSU] «bn = hos ~~ shops > yeeatad —~ spur BEEEESE) raivtoc eae trecivaran| * Lucknow + Indore___* Pune + Bhubsneswar + Kolkata Solution: (a) 4, = & then reluctance then mmf = Flux x Reluctance = 0 ‘so reluctance is offered by the air gaps alone. Reluctance Ri, offered by each of the air gaps in outer limbs is 2x10 4nx107 x4 x10 = 3.98 x 108 ATA Ri, 3 > . @ @ Fig. 15 (a) and () e for the circuit, krchhofts mmt law gives ° Al, Ni Fiux [Re « 4) =0 e or 1000 x1 = 1x 10°[1.99 + 1.99] x 108 2 _ 210° [3.98)x10% - 1000 ¥ = 3.98 A Fxciting current |= 3.98 A (b) = 6000, Here we can't neglect reluctance of the cast steel. The electrical analog of the magnetic circuit. 6 + ELECTRICAL MACHINES wunwmadeeasy.in CepighcMADEASY | cen nto lala aisilancSDMADE EASY] «oan = Woids > Bhopal» ydenbad > Jaipur | BS / PSMADE EBSe]| toe me che" Tae, Cai Reluctance of outer steel core (including the top 15 cm) (0.25+0.18) "41077 x 6000 x4 x 10 For central steel core, Ri 0.15 R, 7 I * * Gnx107 x6000x8x 10 = 0.25x108ATIWb: "I Resultant of outer reluctances Ri +Rlcy _ (1.33+39.8)x 10° 20° 2 | | | i = 20.565 x 10° ATiwb | Kirchhot's mm law gives, | i Ni = 1x 10 [0.25 + 19.9 + 20.565] x 10° Exciting current, 1x10) 1 egy [4071510] = 4.0724 Example 1.2 Amagnetic circuit made of cast steel is shown in figure. Central limb has N = 600 turns, cross- sectional area of central limb is 600 mm? limbs is 375 mm®, Neglect magnetic leakage and fringing. Caloulate the exciting current required to set up a flux of 0.9 mwb in the air gap. The magnetization characteristic of cast steel in figure. v4 08mm 400] » tt Try i tab am |i aS Fig 17 1.5 t, H = 3000 AT/s and for B = 1.27, H = 1400AT/s. 7 + ELECTRICAL MACHINES wuwwmadeeasy.in © Coppin NADEEASY[3MACE EASY] - on [Hoses Bhopal —vydeabed Fair BSG EET | rantacrenieirecneeras| *lucinow _* Indore + Pune’ + Byutonenar_sronate | BSGEEL Solut Analogy electrical circuit of the above magnetic circuit, eg woe Lue ele et 1 80 Nu Flux density, 4 09x10% SE Mot © Heme Mi, = Hy, 18 % = Fey TX O81 = 064593 As Central Limb Flux density in central imb, B, = B, = 1.67 For llux density of 1.5, H, for cast steel = 3000 AT/s MME for central limb = 3000 x 0.18 = 540 ATS = Outer Limbs Half of the flux in central limb returns through each outer limb, Flux density in other limb, 09x10 2° 2x375 x10 For B, 43.2, The value of Hp, forcast steel = 1400 AT/m MMF for each outer ims © Exciting current Apply Kitchhot's mmf law for this circuit NI-540-954.93-560 = 0 2054.93, =4n moo TATA =1400 x 0.4 = 560 ATS Induced EMF * Faraday’ law of electromagnetic induction states thal an e.m.{is induced in a coil when the magnetic flux linking this coil change with time. 8 + ELECTRICAL MACHINES wirwmadeeasy.in © opyigh:HADEEASY soe stare SSeee deCeeeMADE EAS] = oan s Noida Bhopal + Hyderabad» Jipur [pSceETS 2S ransacraunnenreentersn| * Lucknow + Indore + Pune _+ Bhubaneswar + Kefota oy , oN) at ot Nai - oft) e.mJ. induced in volts N= no. of turns in the coil YY = No = Flux linkages with the coil, wb-turns. = time, seconds, * Here minus (-) sign shows that induced current opposes very cause ofits production. This theory is called Lenz's law. According to this law; the induced current develops a flux which always opposes the change responsible for inducing this current. where, Example 1.3 The laws of electromagnetic induction (Feraday’s an are suitimarized in the following ‘equation: oo = (a) 0=iR DY 0 te a ov at | (e=-2t (0) None of these [GATE-1996) Solution: (¢} a Example 1.4 “In all cases of electromagnetic induction, an induced voltage will cause @ current to flow in a closed circuit in such a direction that the magnetic field which is caused by the current will oppose the change that produces the current” is the original statements of (a) Lenz's law (b) Faraday’s law of magnetic induction (c) Fleming's law (6) Ampere's law Solutn: (a) 9000 9 + ELECTRICAL MACHINES wonwimadeeasy.in ‘Coprighs nGEEASY"TRANSFORMER ae nampa ON + The transformer is a static device thal transfers electrical energy from one electrical circuit to another electrical circuit through the medium of magnetic field and without a change in the frequency. ‘Actually, the transformer is an electromagnetic energy conversion device and static device, since the ‘energy received by the primary is first converted to magnetic energy and itis then reconverted o useful electrical energy in the other circuit (secondary winding, third winding circuit etc.) Thus primary and secondary windings ofa transformer are not connected electrically, but are coupled magnetically ‘Transformer is the main reason for the widespread popularity of a.c. systems over d.c. systems. * Ingeneral, important tasks performed by transformers are: () Fordecreasin voltage and cua another circuit (or circuits when there ar i i its (ii) For matching the impedarice of source and its loadtfor 'maximuti power transfer in electronic and control circuits. ef . eae (ii) For isolating d.c. while permitting the flow of 2.c. between two circuits or for isolating one circuit from another. = s Bie oe * Transformer Construction: * There are two general types of transformers, the core type and the shell type. These types differ from ‘each other by the manner in which the windings are wound around the magnetic cores. Inthe core type, the windings surround a considerable part of steel core and in shell type, thee sleel core Surrounds a major part of the windings as shown in figure, HV Wing Son a Yoke LY. Winding . . @ ) Core type transformer Shell type transformer Fig. 2.1 (a) and (b) * Themagnetic ‘steel laminations about 0.35mi thick for 50 Hz transformers. |n order to reduce the eddy current losses, these laminations are insulated Irom one another by thin layers of varnish 10 + ELECTRICAL MACHINES wwwmadeeasyin ‘eon MADEESSY + SSseOnseeoeoe eget 2GEMADE EBSe] tie nee Thopal + Hyderabad > Jaipur FeRceETE| Pune + Bhubaneswar + Kolkata SE MADE EASY : oe + Rade * For reducing the core losses, nearly ll transformers have their magnetic core made from cold-rolled Srain-oriented shoet-stee!(C.R.G.O,) This material when magnetized in the rolling direction has low core loss and high permeability. ‘* Iniron-core transformers, most of the flux is confined tohigh permeability core but some leakage flux lows through the core legs and non-magnetic material surrounding the core. For avoiding it, by placing ‘half of the low voltage (L.V.) winding over one | leg and other half over the second | leg or limb. Similarily for high voltage. From figure L.\. winding is placed adjacentto steel core and H.V. winding outside, in order to minimise the it n required. a ‘+ Tithe shell type transformer the L.V, and H.V. windings are wound over the central mb and are inter teaved or sandwiched. Itperforms bette for low-voltage, low power levels, whereas core type construction is used for high voltage, high power transformers. © Principle of Transformers Action: ‘Transformer works on the principle of electromagnetic induction between two (or more) coupled circuits ‘Meiple of electromagnetic induction between two (or more) coupled circuit or coils. According to this principle, an e.m.Tis induced in @ coil fit inks a changing flux. * The primary winding Pis connected to an alternating voltage source, therefore, an alternating current |, Starts flowing through N, turns. The alternating mmf N,|, sets up alternating flux which is confined to the high permeability iron path as indicated in figure. The alternating flux induces voltage E, in the primary P and E, in the secondary S. ‘+ Ifthe load is connected across the secondary, a load current starts flowing, * The transformers action requires the existence of alternating mutual flux inking the various windings on a common magnetic core. 'tmeans there may be in addition to the secondary, tertiary winding on the same iron core. The e.m. inated in the secondary or tertiary winding is usually referred toas the e.m.f. due to transformer action. © Working Function: * Letthe voltage v, applied to the primary of a transformer with secondary open circuited be sinusoidal. Then the current |,, the MME. N,|, and therefore, the core flux ¢ will follow the variations of |, very closely. That is, the flux ¢ is in time phase with the current |, and varies sinusoidally. The flux $= bnaxSinat (2.1) * The e.m4. 6, in volts, induced in primary with N, turns by the alternating flux @ is given by . 2 . (2.2) HN Pp, 605 0t N04 ge Sinfot 1/2] + ELECTRICAL MACHINES worwmadeeasy.+ Det + Noida Hyderabad |. > Jeipur eae) eta de PSMBDE BASS i ms Lakin tala” [RSGEELG] ‘ : N ie a SG icillind An Pes » Its maximum value, Ej occur hen sin Lab sia + ed i ili : =item . i a ve Leg ents a RMS. vale of e.m{E, induced in primary winding is given i Eon 2 i ve (2) e e e From fig. e $| vee N29] at (25) e Mae, a Ss ® e = Ng sn(et-2) 6 ©, = Ezra Sin(t-n/2) (26) tl ¢ = RAMS vall of em E, induced in secondary winding is given by s Ee Es Blew (22) | From equation (2.4) and(2.7) : ; & 2 ie, emf per turnin primary = emf per turn in the secondary. 12+ ELECTRICAL MACHINES worwmadeeasyln © cenrmstestcSmADE ERS] © deni Se ruven eenemeran| + Wokrow Trapt iy Rydented His awry Tune | /ttubinesvar sKotata« [PSCEET6 tinh eae sh tian pene ae oe erent “negative at wwe assume N, = Njfor? simplicity, then E, = E,. The applied votage V, is equal to and opposite to, anditis accordingly drawn opposing E,. Wee : ‘ * F, Vers . Fig. 24 * tis seen trom figure that E, and E, iag by 90°irom the mutual ux thatinduces ther. The applied voltage V, leads the flux @ by 90°. * When load is connected across the secondary terminals then according to Lenz’s law, the: rection of secondary current, should be such that the secondary MMF F, = Ip Npis opposite to mutual ax inthe core * Note: The secondary F, being opposite to 4, tends to reduce the alternating mutual flux ¢. Any reduction in would reduce €,,, butit can't happen because supply Volage.fluxis constant, This can happen only ifthe primary draws more current | fom demagnetizing effect of Fn this manner |, causes primary to take more current I’, in addition to ie such that I,N, = 1p Ne * Compensating primary MME F, = secondary mmf F ‘any change in the secondary current is at once telectd bya conespending automatic change nthe prmaty Curent eo that ore fuxremains unaltered { ‘+ Assuming |, to lag behind V, by an angle 6,, the phasor diagram under load for an ideal transformer can be drawn as shown in figure. Since mmf F, and F, tend to magnetize the core in opposite directions, so thy are in phase opposition, j = Total primary current |, Kl, * The Power factor on the primary side ofthe ideal transformer is Cos 8, © Phasor Diagrams of Practical Transformer: ; +The purpose of fst considering an ideal transformer Lea transformer with no core losses, no winding fesistances, no magnetic leakage and constant permeability is mearly to highlight the most important | aspects of transfer action 1 Transformer phasor diagram at no-load | + Themagnetic flux $ being common to both the primary and secondary is drawn first, E, and E,lag } by | £0" and are shown accordingly in figure, Efecto core oss on transformer Tha core les (on fos) const of hysteresis ss and ed { Current loss. These losses are always present in the ferromagnetic core of the transformer, since the \ transformer is an a.c, operated magnetic device. \ 13+ ELECTRICAL MACHINES vmnnmadeosyia SCATCT [SMRDE Enso Tails > Bhopal se yaad | iy par se ons tne BE OAT + Indore “+ Pune! ‘+ Bhubaneswar | Kohata sia rT a] wi i Exciting current and core flux waveforss Fig. 25 ‘No-load phasor diagram of a transtormer Fig. 26 ‘The no-load primary current is called exciting current and it can be resolved into two components ee (29) SG2eHe0 SOC ESE where, (2.10) ‘where |, isthe reactive or miagnelizing component, since ils tunction isto provide the required magnetic i flux ¢ and |, isthe core lass component, since I is multiplied by Y to give the total core loss P, 4 + ELECTRICAL MACHINES winumadeeasyin ( Cenyishuaarexey=n die MADE BAGO] © oc tes Woda co Bhopal i> Hyderabod LES sav eermne treconearon | * Lucknow ._* Indore s+ Pune... * Bhubaneswar |* Kolkata | PS a as aa f a Nay 4 Wee | Note: In an ideal transformer, core loss current |, = 0 and therefore exciting current |, current, si Ye eh 41k) | + This equations primary votage equation find out fom the phasor agra (+) the total voltage drop in primary at no load. where (r, + jx,) = Z,, where Z, is the primary leakage impedance. © Transformer phasor diagram under load: * When switch S is switched, secondary current I, starts flowing from terminal n to the load. Assume the toad to have a lagging power factor so that |, lags secondary load voltage V, by an angle @, and sketch it. The secondary resistance drop |, parallel to |, and leakage reactance drop 90° from the resistance drop. ‘+ The voltage equation for the secondary circuit can now be writen as = Vat bifty + ih) = Ve + LZ (2.13) where Z, is the secondary leakage impedance of the transformer. . * The voltage equation for the primary circuit under load can be written as = Welty tix) eV +h, 2, 2.14) where Z, is the primary leakage Impedance of the transformer. * Note that the angle 6, between V, and I, isthe primary power factor angle under load. va is is wD Transformer phasor diagram (a) lagging p.t. load Fig, 2.7(a) 15 + ELECTRICAL MACHI wwwmadeeasy.in © Capp MADEEASYMADE EASY] < oa rors tee Fae heiteonee rae | * Lucknow te poet sey chil [PSCEETG E Here, eetay ery ®& ON, Since, the transformer ratio is constant, e,,€, arin phase. : V,=e, and V,=e,forideal transformer MSN LG, L¥e_@2 Ne E, | then (2.16) E, and €, are maximum rm.s. value tis therefore, seen that an ideal transformer changes (transforms) voltages in direct ratio ofthe number Cf turns in the two windings. WN) = iN, oF iN anh (2.16) ‘an ideal transformer transform in inverse ratio of winding turns. Vig = Voi ‘which means thatthe instantaneous power into primary equals he instantaneous power out of socondary |, 1p are rms values Here currents (217) (2.18) Le. the VA output is balanced by the YA input Equation (2. 15) dividing by equation (2.16) (YlNe) _ (Nile) (Wk) * (IN) N () 2) o (2.19) + hisconctudett tom equation (2.19) thatthe impedance on the secondary side when seen (referred to) on primary side is transformed in the direct ratio of square of turns. Similary an impedance Z, from the primary side can be referred to the secondary as e e e e a ® e @ @ € (220) © Conclusion: + Inanideal transformer ()._ voltages are transferred in the direct ratio of urns and (i) currents in the reverse ratio (ii) impedances in the directratio squared (jv) while power and VA remain unchanged 18 + ELECTRICAL MACHINES wwwmadeeasyin p28 i Convighiabetayai ERS] pei * Noida.» Bhopal 7 Hiseabed rs | PSCEET6 aitne tras beezoneerse | * Lucknow ‘Indore + Pune "+ Bhubaneswar * Kolkata Poems ee ere nina aioe hs ini hai | For an ideal transformer shown in the given figure. PPR. Fig. 2.10 (2) V, = 0V, 1, =-nl, (b) V,= nV). 1p = (c) V, = AV, |p = 4, (0) V, = AVp.t, Solution: (a) Example 2.3 ‘Anideal transformer has three windings : 100 turns on primary winding P, 160 turns on secondary winding S and 60 turns on tertiary winding “T shown in figure. Winding S feeds 10 A to a resistive load whereas a pure-capacitance load across winding T takes 20 A. (a) Calculate the current in the primary winding and its p.f. in case transformer magnetizing current is neglected. (b) With the polarity markings on P as shown, mark the polarities on windings $ and T also. Fig. 2.11 Solution: (a) Given, N¥ 100 turns, N = 160 turns and N, = 60 turns, 1, = 10A, |, = 204, Applied voltage V, and mutual flux ¢, and emf induced in windings S and T are indicated as E, and E, respectively. Secondary mmf = |, 10x 160 Similarily tertiaries mm 20 x 60 = 1200 ATs Must lead E, by 90° as the load is a pure capacitance + ELECTRICAL MACHINES wwwamadeeasy.in © Copyrghts2OEEASYOS aes eve rata ore Ee re DE ERS «om joida__* Bhopal» Hyderabad» Jaipur Lucknow + Indore __+ Pune _+ shubaneswar_+ Kolata_ |PSCEETG —= w Fig. 2.13 Resultant of load mmi F, and F, gives Fag = ¥1200" + 1600% = 2090 ATs Principle of transformer action requires that primary winding must belance the load mnifF,, produced by the combined action of currents in the two windings $ and T. Primary winding mmf, F, = Fay = 2000 Als Current in primary winding, 2000 _ a9, 700 Power factor on the primary side Fi _ 1600 > . 005 8, = = Dogg = 08 leading (b) Polarity markings are as shown in above figure. Example 2.4 Figure shows an ideal three winding transformer wound on the same case. The turns ralioN, : Np: Nyis 4:2: 1 A resistor of 109 is connected across winding-2. A capacitor of reactance 2.5 9 is connected across winding-3. Winding-1 is connected across a 400 V A.C, as supply. Ifthe supply voltage phasor V, = 40020°, the supply current phasor |, is given by (a) (-10 + jioja (b) (-10-j10) A fe frien (c) (10 + j10) A (d)_ (10-j10) A + ELECTRICAL MACHINES wannamadeeasyin 6a FE Se cepa 19S COOH DOCOHHEEMADE ENS] on * Wolds > Bhopal = Wydenbed + ipo] pscEE1@ ronsutistmntrecnverse| ‘Lucknow + Indore + Pune + Bhubaneswar _+ Kolkata ————— Solution: (d) oN 4 BN © 2 E Ee z = 200V EON 4 and By Ny 7 > E,= 100V E, _ 200 Eo he R= 49 =A pro a= 100) : =e + jes 2) =+1] Now, Ip refered to stator side i.e. 1," « Wom 2 bON 4 20 > i= F = 108 ly = 104 | Now, |, refered to stator side ie i," op bowl (4h) ON > rr, = 10 ~ve sign is taken to consider coil current direction ly Hence, Welt he = 10-j10A * Equjvalent Circuit of a Transformer: ‘* Equivalent circuit of a semi-ideal transformer has given below. Exact equivalent circuit Fig. 2.15(a) 21 + ELECTRICAL MACHINES wirwmadeeosyin[SMAGE ERSOT soe + Noida Bhopal» Hyderabad + Jaipur ssirtactathremrenctecrex| * Lucinow + Indore + Pune + Bhubeneswar + Kaltata | PSCEE16 * Ifthe secondary circuit referred to primary then. Ideal vansformer Fig. 2.15(b) + Similarly, total circuit referred to secondary side ea Transfoxmer Fig. 2.15(¢) Equivalent circuit is simply a circuit representation of the equation describing the performance of the device, The equations, Vy + Ar + bx) = YrlZy E,=Vy+ lft +i) = Vz +1, Z, describes the behaviour of the transformer under load. We have earlier discussed these equations from phasor diagram of the transformer under load. Intranstormer analysis, itis used to transfer the secondary quantities to primary side or primary quantities to secondary side, Secondary wesistance drop |r, when transferred to primary side, must be mulipied by the turn ratio M N,° * _ «, Secondary resistance drop, when transferred to primary Ny -uh) N Ni |Nt {puttingy, ‘) Wy, { ug eee 2+ ELECTRICAL MACHINES wiewmadeecsyin ea 200 d9HOSBHEH && MADE ERS] © oan + Noida + Bhopal = Hyderabad + Jaipur humersumtrexeareras| ‘Lucknow + Indore + Pune + Bhubaneswar _+ Kolkata PSCEE1G '"z is secondary resistance transferred to primary. ‘Therefore, the total resistance in the primary circuit is wenoal() where f, is called transformer equivalent resistance referred to primary windings. +, 2 Similary, primary resistance referred to secondary is | (®) and total resistance SY cna, fe = se) ae Similarly, for leakage reactance drop. F N, ye xon( ft] 24%, Xe, = Total leakage reactance referred to Secondary side Total leakage impedance referred to primary is Zo, = fo, +e, and the equivalent leakage impedance referred to secondary is oy = fog + 1% ep Following the above procedure, it can be shown tht Equivalent circuit in a general form Fig. 2.16 core loss resistance, + Inlags YW by 90° . Magnetizing reactance 23+ ELECTRICAL MACHINES wwwmadeeasy.inFy MADE EASY) om + Woids + Bhopal > Hyderabad avetnen i eater) ‘Lucknow + Indore + Pune wapst, | PSCEE16 ‘Bhubeneswar + Kolat wow Xn* 4], “hsind, In ideal case, + Testing of Transformers: * Generally four types of testing of transformers performed here, which are very important () polarity test (i) open circuit test (ii) short circuit test (iv) sumpner’s test (back to back or load tes}). © Polarity Test: * In determining the relative polarity ofthe two windings of a transformer the two windings are connected in series across a voltmeter while one of the winding is excited from a suitable voltage source as shown in figure. Cy © Polarity test on a two winding iransformner (a) Subtractve poiority (b) Adi Fig. 2.47(a) and (b) "the polarities of the windings are as marked on the diagram, the voltmeter should read E = E, -E, If itreads (E, + E,), then itis called additive polarity. We don't want additive polarity because these are subjected to high voltage stresses. On account of these reasons, the polarity markings of one of the windings must be interchanged then atter interchanging polarity volmeter reads , - E, is called subtractive polarity. Subtractive polariy is preferable to additive polarity © Open-circuit (OC) or no load test: The open circuit test gives the following information: () Core-tosstat rated voltage and frequency (i) The shunt branch parameters ofthe equivalent circuit, ie. Rand X,, (ii) Turns ratio ofthe transformer. 2 polarity The circuit diagram for performing open circuit test on single phase transformer is given below in figure. Ato vanes Ww v { w i 1 Fig. 2.18 . ELECTRICAL MACHINES www.madeeasy.in ‘ © © Copyght: MADE EASY >@8@0080d3.080868@MADE ERS ~ on {Neds = Shopst = tideabad —~ haipor | pgcEE TG imatmmmtresoneerae| *uckiow + Indore + Pune _* Bhubaneswar _+ Kolkata + Inthis diagram, a voltmeter, wattmeter and an ammeter are connected in the low voltage side of the transformer. Readings are recorded when be applied rated frequency voltage to the LV. side and kept high voltage side open circuited. ‘© The ammeter records the no-load current or exciting current. Since |, is quite small (2 to 6%) of rated ‘current, 50 primary leakage impedance drop is negligible. ‘+ The wattmeter recorded input power which consist of core loss and ohmic loss. Input power = core loss + ohmic loss recorded by wattmeter. Here ohmic loss negligible, ‘ohmic loss = 2.2 Hence |, is 2to 6 % of rated current then ohmic loss during open circuit (% 700% 100} 00.36% of the fullload primary ohmic loss which are much less. Then we consider wattmeter as only core-loss recorder. \, = applied rated voltage on low voltage side by auto transformer |, = exciting current (or no-load current), P, © core loss Then, P, = V,1,c088, @ Fe and no-load power factor = 60s = yj From the phasor diagram, core loss P, core loss resistance (221) W Fe = Ve C0805 p, p. ako, ae ee Nanhe Be E (oosaF Magnetizing reactance, Mew ; Kon “i hsind, (2.22) For determining the tum ratio, a voltmeter sometimes used at the open-circuited secondary terminals. Q Short-circuit Test: + The short circuit test gives the following information (0. obmic loss ‘at rated current and frequency (i) The equivalent resistance and equivalent leakage reactance (ii) Voltage regulation ofa transformer can be determined from the data obtained from short circuit test. \ 25 + ELECTRICAL MACHINES wow madeeasyin Can[MADE ERSg) < on ea aie ye ee setterramvatreciigran| * Lucknow + Indore + Pune + Bhuboneswar stata | PSCEET6 * For efficiency, alldatais necessary which are obtained from both test, pen circuit test and short circuit test. * In short circuit test, al the instuments are placed on the high voltage side and low votage side of transformer is short circuited. * The applied voltage is adjusted by auto-transformer to circulate rated current in the high voltage side, ‘This circulated rated current achieved by only 210 12% ofits rated value of primary voltage ‘Short eveut AY OW, Fig. 2.19 In this test, the watmeter records the core-loss and the ohmic fdss in both the windings but core loss and shunt branch parameter ignored because only 2 to 12% of rated ‘voltage is applied. * Core loss « applied voltage and also shunt branch parrmeter R, and x, are negligible. * The instruments reading Vez, ge and Pee by voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter respectively Equivalent leakage impedance and resistance reffered to h.v. side Vg Ps Zae e and f, = (2.23) & Xe (Z- (224) ‘Subscript H is used to indicate that these quantities referred the hv. side. © Back to Back or Sumpner's test or load Test: 7 * While open circuit test and short circuit tests ona * transformer yield its equivalent circuit parameters, _ these cannot be used for the ‘heat run’ test wherein. © the purpose is to determine the steady temperature tise the epstamer was {uly loaded continuously, Then leakage reactance wa 9® @' this is so Bécause under each of these tests the (Se). (ay. ‘Power loss to which transformeris subjected is either tb the core-toss or copper-loss but not both. * Inorder to determine the maximum temperature rise, K—o&— it is necessary to conduct a ful-load test on a transformer or back to back test. Its also called j ha Regenerative test or sumpners test. The back to pe back test on single phase transformers requires two @ q identical ranstormers i i +The primary windings of the two transformers are j Variable votage il Connected in parallel and supplied atrated voltage i and,ated frequency. Fig2.20 i 26 + ELECTRICAL MACHINES wwwmadeeasy.in Sas FS @CeprghtabtEagyMADE EASG] «on {Neds = Ghopal + Wydenbed —- aipor | peCEETE raistecatine trea carearae| * Lucknow + Indore + Pune + Bhubaneswar _+ Kolkata a ‘+ The secondaries are connected in series with their polarities in phase opposition which can be checked by the voltmeter V,. If the voltmeter V,. across a, b point reads zero, the secondaries are in series ‘opposition and terminal a and b are use for test. ‘+ Itvoltmeter Vj, = sum of the two secondaries voltages. It means these are in the same phase. In order tobring them in phase opposition, terminals ad should be joined together toresultin zero voltage across terminals bo. * The total voltage across the two secondaries in series will be zero. There will be no current in the secondary windings. The transformers will behave as if their secondary windings are open circuited. Hence, the reading of wattmeter W, gives the iron losses of both the transformers, * Nowa small voltage is injected in the secondary circuit by a regulating transformer excited by the main ‘supply. The magnitude of the injected voltage is adjusted til the ammeter A, reads full load secondary current, this current produces full load current to flow through the primary windings and will follow a circulatory path through the main bus bar. ‘+ Thereading of wattmeter W, will nt be not affected by this current. This wattmeter W, gives the full-oad copper losses ofthe two transformers. Note: 1. The Ammeter A; gives total no-load current of the two transformers. Thus in this method we have loaded the two transformers to full load but the power taken from the suppiy is only that necessary to supply the losses of both transformers. 2. The temperature rise of transformers can be determined by operating these transformers back to back for along time, say 48 hours, and measuring the temperature ofthe ol at the periodic intervals of time, say every one hour, Voitage Regulation: * Voltage regulation may be defined as the change in magnitude of terminal voltage of secondary circuit from no-load to full-load at constant primary voltage and power factor. * Itcan be expressed in percentage. Ea-Ve ‘% voltage regulation = F2=Y2 x 100 = in PU. ..(2.25) where, E,= Secondary terminal voltage at no-load V,% Secondary terminal voltage at any load @) (o) Fig, 2.21 |,yis the secondary rated current, ELECTRICAL MACHINES wunumadeeasy.ia econrisnt Maen b