1

M.A. PSYCHOLOGY
FIRST YEAR
PRACTICAL FILE
MPCL-007

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 INDEX
Sr. No Topic Page No
1. Bobo Doll 6
Experiment by
Bandura
2. COVID-19 11
(INTELLIGENCE
TEST)
3. Interview with Older 16
Adult
4. Locus of Control 18
5. Cattell’s 16 P.F. 23
6. Halo Effect 28

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 1) BOBO DOLL EXPERIMENT BY BANDURA
Aim:

Bandura (1961) conducted a controlled experiment study to investigate if social behaviours (i.e.
aggression) can be acquired by observation and imitation.

Introduction:

Learning is a remarkably complex process that is influenced by a wide variety of factors. As

most parents are probably much aware, observation can play a critical role in determining how
and what children learn. Albert Bandura proposed a social learning theory which suggests that
observation and modeling play a primary role in this process.

Bandura’s theory moves beyond behavioural theories, which suggest that all behaviours are
learned through conditioning and cognitive theories, which take into account psychological
influences such as attention and memory.

Description of the Test:

Bandura along with others tested 36 boys and 36 girls from Standford University Nursery School
aged between 3 to 6 years old.

The researchers pre-tested the children for how aggressive they were by observing the children in
the nursery and judged their aggressive behaviour on four 5-point rating scales.

It was then possible to match the children in each group so that they had similar levels of
aggression in their everyday behaviour. The experiment is therefore an example of matched pairs
design.

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To test the inter-rater reliability of the observers, 51 of the children were rated by two observers
independently and their ratings compared. These ratings show a very high reliability correlation
(r=0.89), which suggested that the observers had a good agreement about the behaviour of the
children.

Answer the following questions:

a) Difference between Social Learning Theory and Social Cognitive Theory:

Social Learning Theory is a learning theory that proposes that learning occurs in the social
context via observing and imitating the behaviour of a model along with the consequences of that
behaviour. It states that learning is a cognitive process that takes place in a social context and can
occur purely through observation or direct instruction, even in the absence of motor reproduction
or direct reinforcement. Learning also occurs through the observation of rewards and
punishments. The theory expands on traditional behaviour theories, in which behaviour is
governed solely by reinforcements, by placing emphasis on the important roles of various
internal processes in the learning individual.

Social Cognitive Theory is the expanded form of Albert Bandura’s social learning theory, used
in psychology, education and communication holds that portions of an individual’s knowledge
acquisition can be directly related to observing others within the context of social interactions,
experiences and outside media influences. The theory states that when people observe a model
performing behaviour and the consequences of that behaviour, they remember the sequences of
events and use this information to guide subsequent behaviours. Observing a model can also
prompt the viewer to engage in behaviour they already learned. It also means that, people do not
learn new behaviours solely by trying them and either succeeding or failing, but rather, the
survival of humanity is dependent upon the replication of the actions of others. Depending on
whether people are rewarded or punished for their behaviour and the outcome of the behaviour,
the observer may choose to replicate behaviour modeled.

There are three core concepts at the heart of social learning theory. First is the idea that people
can learn through observation. Next is the notion that internal mental states are an essential part
of this process. Finally, this theory recognizes that just because something has been learned, it
does not mean that it will result in a change in behavior.

The concepts can be explained as:

People Can Learn Through Observation

One of the best-known experiments in the history of psychology involved a doll named Bobo.
Bandura demonstrated that children learn and imitate behaviors they have observed in other
people. The children in Bandura’s studies observed an adult acting violently toward a Bobo doll.

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When the children were later allowed to play in a room with the Bobo doll, they began to imitate
the aggressive actions they had previously observed.

As you can see, observational learning does not even necessarily require watching another
person to engage in an activity. Hearing verbal instructions, such as listening to a podcast, can
lead to learning. We can also learn by reading, hearing, or watching the actions of characters in
books and films.It is this type of observational learning that has become a lightning rod for
controversy as parents and psychologists debate the impact that pop culture media has on kids.
Many worry that kids can learn bad behaviors such as aggression from violent video games,
movies, television programs, and online videos.

Mental States Are Important to Learning

Bandura noted that external, environmental reinforcement was not the only factor to influence
learning and behavior. And he realized that reinforcement does not always come from outside
sources. Your own mental state and motivation play an important role in determining whether a
behavior is learned or not. He described intrinsic reinforcement as a form of internal rewards,
such as pride, satisfaction, and a sense of accomplishment. This emphasis on internal thoughts
and cognitions helps connect learning theories to cognitive developmental theories. While many
textbooks place social learning theory with behavioral theories, Bandura himself describes his
approach as a 'social cognitive theory.'

Learning Does Not Necessarily Lead to Change

So how do we determine when something has been learned? In many cases, learning can be seen
immediately when the new behavior is displayed. When you teach a child to ride a bicycle, you
can quickly determine if learning has occurred by having the child ride his or her bike unassisted.
But sometimes we are able to learn things even though that learning might not be immediately
obvious. While behaviorists believed that learning led to a permanent change in behavior,
observational learning demonstrates that people can learn new information without
demonstrating new behaviors.

The core concepts of social cognitive theory are: behavior, personal factors, and environmental
factors interact with each other, and changing one changes them all. They can be explained as:

Self-efficacy: one’s own estimation of one’s personal ability to do something; meaning, people
will only do what they believe they can do.

Observational learning: learning by watching others; meaning, the strength of observational

learning depends on how much attention is given to the person who is modeling the behavior.

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Expectations: The likely outcomes of a behavior; meaning, the people behave in certain ways
because of the results they expect as well as avoiding the behavior due to the expectations.

Expectancies: the value placed on the outcome of the behavior; meaning, the certain behavior is
more likely to occur when the expectancy, or value placed on its outcome, maximizes a positive
result and minimizes a negative one.

Emotional arousal: the emotional reaction to a situation and its resulting behavior; meaning,
that in certain situations people become fearful and, when this happens, their behavior becomes
defensive in an effort to reduce the fear.

Behavioral capability: the knowledge and skills needed to engage in a particular behavior;
meaning, before doing something, you have to know what it is you’re going to do and how to do
it.

Reinforcement: the rewards or punishments for doing something; meaning, the behavior occurs
because people either want the reward or want to avoid the punishment.

Focus of control: one’s belief regarding one’s personal power over life events; meaning, that
this belief in the extent of personal control (internal to external) has an impact on health
decisions, and thus on health behaviors.

b) Applications of Social Learning Theory:

Two areas of application of social learning theory in social work include research and
intervention. Researchers can use the theory to understand how aggressiveness and violence can
be transferred through observational learning. The theory can further be used to investigate how
positive role models can foster desirable behaviors and promote social change. As an
intervention tool, a social worker can implement social learning theory to influence positive new
behaviors by altering the reinforcement whether positive or negative, associated with the source
of the issue. If you are a current student in a social work program you will discover additional
applications of social learning theory along with how to incorporate it with other social work
theories, practices and techniques.

Social learning theory can have a number of real-world applications. For example, it can be used
to help researchers understand how aggression and violence might be transmitted through
observational learning. By studying media violence, researchers can gain a better understanding
of the factors that might lead children to act out the aggressive actions they see portrayed on
television and in the movies.

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But social learning can also be utilized to teach people positive behaviors. Researchers can use
social learning theory to investigate and understand ways that positive role models can be used to
encourage desirable behaviors and to facilitate social change.

Social Learning in Organizations:

Social learning in organizations is being applied extensively and is on the rise. In fact, it is
becoming more common than formal learning, where the education is based on a rigid
curriculum. The various forms of new learning methods that are taking the place of formal
learning are online learning, mentorships, and social learning. All of these methods are non-
traditional, but there are also more open, accessible, efficient and relevant for employees while
giving them far more control and flexibility over how they learn than traditional learning
methods. Social learning, in particular, is highly cost-effective because of its organic nature. This
means it can happen anywhere and at any time.

Social Learning can be used to teach Academic Writing:

Interpreted in terms of an approach to the teaching of writing, the theory suggests that students
can learn to write a particular text by observing closely the structural as well as the linguistic
features of that text. Methodology/Technique – By observing how the text is written, students
obtain an idea of how it is formed, and on later occasions they can use this information as a guide
to produce similar texts. The sample of this study consists of 100 students from College
University Poly-Tech MARA, Kuala Lumpur. The study adopts a pre/post-assessment of the
students’ writing performances for three types of academic essays. T-tests were used to compare
the results of the 3 pretests with the results of the 3 post-tests which were administered to the
participants after they underwent each of the 3 treatment sessions. Findings – The study reveals
that the Social Learning Theory speaks the truth about the human natural learning process. Thus,
this implies that this potent theory is used in designing varying approaches to teaching students
the skills to write academic texts. Novelty – The study suggests that observational learning of
sample texts provides students with guidance on how to improve their writing as it makes them
aware of the different ways texts are organized for different communicative purposes, thereby
promoting their confidence and positive attitude towards writing."

c) Based on this theory and its application, do you think violence is contagious?

Yes, I think violence is contagious. Just like altruism and kindness can benefit the giver and the
receiver, violence is harmful for everyone, the one doing it and the one at the receiving end.
Violence once started spreads like fire too. Violence is similar to goodness, if children can
emulate the goodness and kind actions of others, it will not take much time to learn one’s violent
actions. For e.g.- If a man beats up his wife repeatedly at home, and the child witnesses all this,
he will think it’s justified to be violent and may do similar acts at school or with peers.

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Violence can cause a lot of destruction to the society and community too. It may start on a small
level but may go on forever if not resolved properly. Hence, if there are fights they should be
resolved immediately to avoid further fights and violence.

Conclusion:

In addition to influencing other psychologists, Bandura's social learning theory has had important
implications in the field of education. Today, both teachers and parents recognize how important
it is to model appropriate behaviors. Other classroom strategies such as encouraging children and
building self-efficacy are also rooted in social learning theory. As Bandura observed, life would
be incredibly difficult and even dangerous if you had to learn everything you know from
personal experience. Observing others plays a vital role in acquiring new knowledge and skills.
By understanding how social learning theory works, you can gain a greater appreciation for the
powerful role that observation plays in shaping the things we know and the things we do.

References:

Ruhl , C. (2020, July 16). Intelligence: definition, theories and testing. Simply Psychology.
https://www.simplypsychology.org/intelligence.html.

2) COVID-19 (INTELLIGENCE TEST)

Aim:

The goal of intelligence tests is to obtain an idea of the person’s intellectual potential. The test
includes series of tasks designed to measure the capacity to make abstractions, to deal with novel
situations.

Introduction:

Intelligence has been defined in many ways: higher level abilities (such as abstract reasoning,
mental representation, problem solving, and decision making), the ability to learn, emotional
knowledge, creativity, and adaptation to meet the demands of the environment effectively.

Psychologist Robert Sternberg defined intelligence as "the mental abilities necessary for
adaptation to, as well as shaping and selection of, any environmental context (1997, p. 1)

Intelligence is the ability to think, to learn from experience, to solve problems and to adapt to
new situations. Intelligence is important because it has an impact on many human behaviours.
The intelligence quotient (IQ) is a measure of intelligence that is adjusted for age.

Intelligence is the ability to:

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Learn from experience: The acquisition, retention, and use of knowledge is an important
component of intelligence.

Recognize problems: To put knowledge to use, people must be able to identify possible
problems in the environment that need to be addressed.

Solve problems: People must then be able to take what they have learned to come up with a
useful solution to a problem they have noticed in the world around them.1

Intelligence involves some different mental abilities including logic, reasoning, problem-solving,
and planning.

Theories of Intelligence:

Different researchers have proposed a variety of theories to explain the nature of intelligence.
Here are some of the major theories of intelligence that have emerged during the last 100 years.

General Intelligence:

British psychologist Charles Spearman (1863–1945) described a concept he referred to as

general intelligence or the g factor. After using a technique known as factor analysis to examine
some mental aptitude tests, Spearman concluded that scores on these tests were remarkably
similar.People who performed well on one cognitive test tended to perform well on other tests,
while those who scored badly on one test tended to score badly on others. He concluded that
intelligence is a general cognitive ability that can be measured and numerically expressed.

Primary Mental Abilities:

Psychologist Louis L.Thurstone (1887–1955) offered a differing theory of intelligence. Instead

of viewing intelligence as a single, general ability, Thurstone's theory focused on seven different
primary mental abilities.

Associative memory: The ability to memorize and recall

Numerical ability: The ability to solve arithmetic problems

Perceptual speed: The ability to see differences and similarities among objects

Reasoning: The ability to find rules

Spatial visualization: The ability to visualize relationships

Verbal comprehension: The ability to define and understand words

Word fluency: The ability to produce words rapidly

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Theory of Multiple Intelligences:

One of the more recent ideas to emerge is Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences.
Gardner proposed that the traditional idea of intelligence, based on IQ testing, did not fully and
accurately depict a person's abilities. His theory proposed eight different intelligences based on
skills and abilities that are valued in different cultures:

Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence: The ability to control your body movements and to handle
objects skillfully

Interpersonal intelligence: The capacity to detect and respond appropriately to the moods,
motivations, and desires of others

Intrapersonal intelligence: The capacity to be self-aware and in tune with inner feelings,
values, beliefs, and thinking processes

Logical-mathematical intelligence: The ability to think conceptually and abstractly, and the
capacity to discern logically or numerical patterns

Musical intelligence: The ability to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch, and timbre

Naturalistic intelligence: The ability to recognize and categorize animals, plants, and other
objects in nature

Verbal-linguistic intelligence: Well-developed verbal skills and sensitivity to the sounds,

meanings, and rhythms of words

Visual-spatial intelligence: The capacity to think in images and pictures, to visualize accurately
and abstractly

Background of Intelligence Testing:

During the early 1900s, the French government asked Binet to help decide which students were
most likely to experience difficulty in school. The government had passed laws requiring that all
French children attend school, so it was important to find a way to identify children who would
need specialized assistance. Binet and his colleague, Theodore Simon, began developing
questions that focused on areas not explicitly taught in schools, such as attention, memory, and
problem-solving skills. Using these questions, Binet determined which ones served as the best
predictors of school success. He quickly realized that some children were able to answer more
advanced questions that older children were generally able to answer, and vice versa. Based on

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this observation, Binet suggested the concept of mental age, or a measure of intelligence based
on the average abilities of children of a certain age group.

First IQ Test:

This first intelligence test, referred to today as the Binet-Simon Scale, became the basis for the
intelligence tests still in use today. However, Binet himself did not believe that his psychometric
instruments could be used to measure a single, permanent, and inborn level of intelligence.

Binet stressed the limitations of the test, suggesting that intelligence is far too broad a concept to
quantify with a single number. Instead, he insisted that intelligence is influenced by many
factors, that it changes over time, and that it can only be compared in children with similar
backgrounds.

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test:

When the Binet-Simon Scale was brought to the United States, it generated considerable interest.
Stanford University psychologist Lewis Terman took Binet's original test and standardized it
using a sample of American participants. This adapted test, first published in 1916, was called
the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale and soon became the standard intelligence test used in the
U.S.

The Stanford-Binet intelligence test used a single number, known as the intelligence quotient (or
IQ), to represent an individual's score on the test. The Stanford-Binet remains a popular
assessment tool today, despite going through a number of revisions over the years since its
inception.

The IQ score was calculated by dividing the test taker's mental age by his or her chronological
age and then multiplying this number by 100. For example, a child with a mental age of 12 and a
chronological age of 10 would have an IQ of 120 (12/10 x 100).

Wechsler Intelligence Scales:

Building on the Stanford-Binet test, American psychologist David Wechsler created a new
measurement instrument. Much like Binet, Wechsler believed that intelligence involved different
mental abilities. Dissatisfied with the limitations of the Stanford-Binet, he published his new
intelligence test, known as the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), in 1955.

Wechsler also developed two different tests specifically for use with children: the Wechsler
Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) and the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of

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Intelligence (WPPSI). The adult version of the test has been revised since its original publication
and is now known as the WAIS-IV.

Interpretation of Intelligence on Robert Sternberg’s article:

According to Sternberg Intelligence is the ability to adapt to the environment. He felt that IQ
tests are not indicators to assess the type of intelligence.

He mentions that COVID-19 has taught us a lot about intelligence, he says that intelligence tests,
problem solving and tests used for testing a person’s abilities doesn’t really determine how
intelligent a person is, according to him a person should be able to solve the daily problems he
encounters and how effectively he is able to do it. This will be able to show how truly intelligent
a person is.

Hence, Sternberg has given an example of fighting with COVID-19. Real life problems cannot
be compared to the lab and standardized tests. Real life problems and situations are much
tougher and challenging. The lab tests are just MCQ based, real life answers/solutions can be
long and a proper solution cannot be given for it.

You really need to use your intelligence while resolving real-life problems, whereas for
standardized tests you are using your intelligence, maybe something from the subconscious
mind, but you don’t need to put in extra effort to find a solution.

Sternberg talks about adaptive intelligence and states that it is necessary for people to solve more
realistic problems related to water and air pollution, global warming, discrimination, etc and
other serious problems, rather than solving artificial verbal and math problem.

Thus, Sternberg’s views are very practical and simple that can be applied by all.

Conclusion:

Researchers generally agree that intelligence involves abilities to learn and adapt to changing
environment. They also agree that many intellectual abilities tend to be positively correlated.
Sternberg’s article also tells us about the importance of intelligence while solving real-life
problems.

References:

www.verywellmind.com

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 3) INTERVIEW WITH AN OLDER ADULT
1. To understand the process of ageing:

The entire process of ageing is different for all the elderly adults. You should be prepared,
maintain your health, eat well and exercise. Live a peaceful life by complaining less. In ageing, it
is difficult to handle work, health doesn’t support you, and at times you feel lonely. Serious
responsibility is avoided during this age. But there are some positive aspects too for a senior
citizen, people speak to you politely, respect you, are there to help you always.

2. Family profile (parents, siblings, education, etc):

Name- XYZ

Born brought up in Pune.

Father’s Occupation- Engineer

Mother’s Occupation-Housewife

Siblings- 4 sisters and 1 brother

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Educational Qualifications- First member of the family to study in an English medium school,
got admission directly in class 2, (was rejected after interview in class 1 so studied at home then
got admission in class 2). Due to this exposure of studying in an English medium school the
subject’s children as well as the children of his sibling’s could study in an English medium
school. Initially the subject opted for science but as he couldn’t clear he completed his
graduation in B.Com. The subject felt that there was no one to guide him about his career, or else
he could have opted for something better. He worked in Dubai for some years before shifting to
India. His two main factors of studying were: a) To get a better quality of life as there was a lot
of struggle in the subject’s childhood. b) To support his mother.

3. Thoughts on ageing, and have they changed over the years:

The subject is worried if he will fall sick and is bedridden who will take care of him. At times I
feel people are there to take care of me, whereas I think that people are occupied in their lives
and won’t have time, these thoughts bother me a lot. At times the subject thinks positively, at
times he is a little low and has negative thoughts.

4. Has the participant been able to promote one’s wellness?

Yes, firstly the subject is grateful that he enjoys good health. He has always encouraged others to
give importance to self-care, like daily walks, cycling, balanced diet, etc. He advises others to eat
slightly less than your requirement. Lead a balanced, disciplined life. The subject is indeed proud
to promote his wellness, he says he has never been to a gym or club; Indian exercises have been
very helpful and effective. He advises people that one will be encountered with stressful events
in life, so one must learn to cope with stress in an effective manner.

5. View on healthcare and coping with physical and psychological challenges:

The subject says that equal amount of patience is required for both. Motivational and
encouraging words also help the patient as well as those taking care of them. Moral support is
essential too for those coping with these challenges.

6. Any specific stereotypes towards old age:

People feel that older people can’t hear properly, shout at others if things are not done, etc. But at
times I feel older people just feel lonely at times.

Conclusion:

Youngsters must respect elders, they do respect but the care, respect and concern has reduced
over the years. The Elderly just need our time, talk a little and spend time with them.

The subject was happy with the interview and wanted others to know about the problems faced
during ageing.

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 4) LOCUS OF CONTROL
Aim:

The main purpose of the research is to find out the relation of social-demographic factors
(education, family status, professional activity and place of residence) and the type of locus of
control.

Introduction:

Locus of control refers to the extent to which people feel that they have control over the events
that influence their lives. When you are dealing with a challenge in your life, do you feel that you
have control over the outcome? Or do you believe that you are simply at the hands of outside
forces?

If you believe that you have control over what happens, then you have what psychologists refer
to as an internal locus of control. If you believe that you have no control over what happens and
that external variables are to blame, then you have what is known as an external locus of control.

Your locus of control can influence not only how you respond to the events that happen in your
life, but also your motivation to take action.

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If you believe that you hold the keys to your fate, you are more likely to take action to change
your situation when needed. If on the other hand, you believe that the outcome is out of your
hands, you may be less likely to work toward change.

What Is Locus of Control?

"A locus of control orientation is a belief about whether the outcomes of our actions are
contingent on what we do (internal control orientation) or on events outside our personal control
(external control orientation)," explained psychologist Philip Zimbardo in his 1985 book
Psychology and Life.In 1954, psychologist Julian Rotter suggested that our behavior was
controlled by rewards and punishments and that it was these consequences for our actions that
determined our beliefs about the underlying causes of these actions.

Internal vs. External Locus of Control:

It is important to note that locus of control is a continuum. No one has a 100 percent external or
internal locus of control. Instead, most people lie somewhere on the continuum between the two
extremes.

These are characteristics of people with dominant internal or external locus of control.

Internal Locus of Control:

Are more likely to take responsibility for their actions

Tend to be less influenced by the opinions of other people

Often do better at tasks when they are allowed to work at their own pace

Usually, have a strong sense of self-efficacy

Tend to work hard to achieve the things they want

Feel confident in the face of challenges

Tend to be physically healthier

Report being happier and more independent

Often achieve greater success in the workplace

External Locus of Control:

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Blame outside forces for their circumstances

Often credit luck or chance for any successes

Don't believe that they can change their situation through their own efforts

Frequently feel hopeless or powerless in the face of difficult situations

Are more prone to experiencing learned helplessness

Description of the Test:

The Locus of Control is a 13 item questionnaire developed by Rotter (1966). It measures

generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. People with an
internal locus of control believe that their own actions determine the rewards that they obtain,
while those with an external locus of control believe that their own behavior doesn't matter much
and that rewards in life are generally outside of their control. Scores range from 0 to 13. A low
score indicates an internal control while a high score indicates external control.

Materials Required:

A phone or laptop and a good internet connection.

Subject’s Profile:

Name of the Subject- XYZ

Age- 18

Gender-Female

Educational Qualification- F.Y.B.S.C Student

Procedure and Administration:

Preparation- A good internet connection and phone or laptop.

Rapport- After establishing rapport, a detailed case history was taken.

Instructions- The instructions were told to the subject. After confirming that the subject has
understood the instructions, the subject was told to solve the test.

Precautions- 1) Do not show test to the subject before the test.

2) Establish rapport with the subject before taking case history.

3) Ensure the subject has understood the instructions. Answer the subject if any queries.

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4) Check if the subject has omitted any item of the test.

Introspective Report:

I (Subject) did not face any problems will solving the test; I found it very easy, the person
conducting the test made me feel very comfortable and I could solve the test easily.

Scoring and Interpretation: The scoring and the interpretation of the test conducted online are
as follows:

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Discussion:

This means that internal locus control is when the person attributes his success to his/her own
abilities and external control is when he blames the surroundings. According to me one must take
charge and responsibility of their own actions.

Conclusion:

Thus, locus of control is the degree to which people believe that they, as opposed to external
forces, have control over the outcome of events in their lives.

References :

www.verywellmind.com

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 5) CATTELL’S 16 P.F.
Aim:

Cattell's goal in creating the 16PF Questionnaire was to provide a thorough, research-based map
of normal personality.

Introduction:

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People have long struggled to understand personality, and numerous theories have been
developed to explain how personality develops and how it influences behavior. One such theory
was proposed by psychologist Raymond Cattell. He created a taxonomy of 16 different
personality traits that could be used to describe and explain individual differences between
people's personalities. Cattell's personality factors are included in the Sixteen Personality Factor
Questionnaire (16PF) that is widely used today for career counseling in education. In business, it
is used in personnel selection, especially for choosing managers. It is also used in clinical
diagnosis and to plan therapy by assessing anxiety, adjustment, and behavioral problems.

The 16 Personality Factors:

Raymond Cattell analyzed Allport's list and whittled it down to 171 characteristics, mostly by
eliminating terms that were redundant or uncommon. He then used a statistical technique known
as factor analysis to identify traits that are related to one another. With this method, he was able
to whittle his list to 16 key personality factors.

According to Cattell there is a continuum of personality traits, which means that each person
contains all of these 16 traits to a certain degree, but they maybe high in some traits and low in
some traits.

The following personality trait list describes some of the descriptive terms used for each of the
16 personality dimensions described by Cattell

They are:

Abstractedness: Imaginative versus practical

Apprehension: Worried versus confident

Dominance: Forceful versus submissive

Emotional stability: Calm versus high-strung

Liveliness: Spontaneous versus restrained

Openness to change: Flexible versus attached to the familiar

Perfectionism: Controlled versus undisciplined

Privateness: Discreet versus open

Reasoning: Abstract versus concrete

Rule-consciousness: Conforming versus non-conforming

Self-reliance: Self-sufficient versus dependent

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Sensitivity: Tender-hearted versus tough-minded

Social boldness: Uninhibited versus shy

Tension: Inpatient versus relaxed

Vigilance: Suspicious versus trusting

Warmth: Outgoing versus reserved

Description of the test:

This personality test consists of 164 statements about yourself, for each indicate how accurate it
is on the scale of (1) disagree (2) slightly disagree (3) neither agree nor disagree (4) slightly
agree (5) agree. It will take most people around ten minutes to complete. The test helps to find
out about the 16 factors present in a person.

Materials Required:

A phone or laptop and a good internet connection.

Subject’s Profile:

Name of the Subject- XYZ

Age- 18

Gender-Female

Educational Qualification- F.Y.B.S.C Student

Procedure and Administration:

Preparation- A good internet connection and phone or laptop.

Rapport- After establishing rapport, a detailed case history was taken.

Instructions- The instructions were told to the subject. After confirming that the subject has
understood the instructions, the subject was told to solve the test.

Precautions- 1) Do not show test to the subject before the test.

2) Establish rapport with the subject before taking case history.

3) Ensure the subject has understood the instructions. Answer the subject if any queries.

4) Check if the subject has omitted any item of the test.

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Introspective Report:

I (Subject) did not face any problems will solving the test; I found it very easy, the person
conducting the test made me feel very comfortable and I could solve the test easily.

Scoring and Interpretation: The scoring and the interpretation of the test conducted online are
as follows:

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Discussion:

According to the interpretation of the above personality test it clearly shows the subject is high in
some traits and low in others. The subject’s highest score is in privateness i.e. 3.8 and lowest
score is in 0.9 i.e. tension. Thus according to Raymond Cattell a person is high in some traits and
low in the other.

Conclusion:

Thus, Cattell’s 16 P.F personality test shows us in which traits people is high and in which they
are low.

References:

www.verywellmind.com

6) HALO EFFECT
Aim:

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To determine from this experiment that people generalize from one outstanding trait to form a
favourable view of a person's whole personality.

Introduction:

The halo effect is a type of cognitive bias in which our overall impression of a person influences
how we feel and think about their character. Essentially, your overall impression of a person
("He is nice!") impacts your evaluations of that person's specific traits ("He is also smart!").
Perceptions of a single trait can carry over to how people perceive other aspects of that person.
One great example of the halo effect in action is our overall impression of celebrities. Since
people perceive them as attractive, successful, and often likable, they also tend to see them as
intelligent, kind, and funny.

What Is the Halo Effect?

The halo effect is also something referred to as the "physical attractiveness stereotype" and the
"what is beautiful is also good" principle.

Physical appearance is often a major part of the halo effect. People who are considered attractive
tend to be rated higher on other positive traits as well. However, this effect doesn't just affect our
perceptions of people based on their attractiveness. It can also encompass other traits as well.
People who are sociable or kind, for example, may also be seen as more likable and intelligent.
The halo effect makes it so that perceptions of one quality lead to biased judgments of other
qualities. The term itself uses the analogy of a halo to describe how it can affect perceptions. In
religious art, a halo is often portrayed over a saint's head, bathing the individual in a heavenly
light to show that that person is good. When you see someone through the lens of the halo effect,
you are seeing them cast in a similar light. That "halo" created by your perception of one
characteristic covers them in the same way.

Physical appearance is often a major part of the halo effect. People who are considered attractive
tend to be rated higher on other positive traits as well.

For e.g.:

You’re at work, and your boss asks your opinion about whether your co-worker, Dave, would be
a good team leader for an upcoming project. You don’t know Dave well, but you consider Dave
a tall and attractive person. So, you automatically say yes.

This is because your positive thoughts about Dave’s looks influence how you think of him in
other positive terms. These include leadership and intelligence. You subconsciously form these
opinions despite the fact you really don’t know if Dave would actually be a good team leader at
all. You have heard that first impressions count. The above example illustrates how the halo

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effect can work. It’s a psychology term that describes an error in reasoning based on one single
trait you know of another person or thing.

The Theory:

The overall basis of Thorndike’s theory is that people tend to create an overall impression of
someone’s personality or characteristics based on one unrelated trait. This can result in either
positive or negative perceptions. In either case, such subjective judgment can have negative
consequences on your ability to think critically about the person’s other traits.

Thorndike’s work was elaborated on by another psychologist, Solomon Asch. He theorized that
the way people form opinions, or adjectives, about others are highly reliant on first impression.

So, a positive first impression of someone could mean that you make positive assumptions about
their skills and abilities. A negative first impression could mean you incorrectly assume that a
person has negative qualities, such as laziness or apathy.

The halo effect in daily life:

While the halo effect may be a new term to you, it’s present in just about every aspect of your
daily life. These include situations involving:

a) People you find attractive

b) Your workplace

c) School

d) How you respond to marketing campaigns

e) Medicine and healthcare

Answer the following:

1) The key takeaways from the main experiment.

Nisbett and Wilson have argued that people have little awareness of the nature or even existence
of the cognitive processes that mediate judgements, inferences and the production of complex
social behaviour.

2) How is halo effect being used to one’s advantage?

The halo effect is when our impression of someone is skewed by one positive trait, leading us to
make generalizations about them as a whole.

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It is necessary to manage your reputation like it’s a full-time job. We must always keep ourselves
well-groomed. We must hang out with people of high value. It is necessary to show passion in
things you do or say.

3) Find the application and common uses of halo effect.

The halo effect can impact organizations, locations, products and delivery/communications
channels, as well as our judgments of other people. If users like one aspect of a website, they're
more likely to judge it favorably in the future. Conversely, if users have a particularly bad
experience with a site, they'll predict that the site will treat them poorly in the future as well and,
thus, will be reluctant to return to the site. In this latter case, even if the site is later redesigned to
be better, users will still carry over their negative expectations from their earlier experience.

Research has found that the halo effect may play a role in educational settings. Teachers may
interact with students differently based on perceptions of attractiveness.

There are a number of ways that the halo effect can influence perceptions of others in work
settings. For example, experts suggest that the halo effect is one of the most common biases
affecting performance appraisals and reviews. Supervisors may rate subordinates based on the
perception of a single characteristic rather than the whole of their performance and contribution.
For example, a worker's enthusiasm or positive attitude may overshadow their lack of knowledge
or skill, causing co-workers to rate them more highly than their actual performance justifies.

4) Is there any relationship between learned behaviour and halo effect?

This tendency is a learned behavior that everyone experiences from the time they are children. In
fairytales such as, Cinderella, those who are good are often presented as beautiful princesses and
handsome princes, while the ‘evil doers' are often referred to as ‘ugly step sisters' or ‘beasts'. The
attractive characters are often portrayed as honest and trustworthy, while unattractive ones are
crooks and villains.

It is apparent that one's first impressions of another affect their successive interactions and that
one's expectations influence another's behavior (4). But can a pupil's attractiveness also influence
a teacher's judgment on that student's IQ, social status with peers, parental attitude toward
school, and future educational accomplishments? Yes, studies show that teachers did perceive
attractive children to have a greater potential for education than those who were unattractive.

Another place in society where the halo effect appears is within the work environment. Though
this is tackled in human resource training it is said to be an unconscious judgment and even if we
were told that our judgments are affected by the halo effect, we may still have no clue when it
influences us.

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Discussion:

So, the next time one is trying to evaluate another person, whether it is deciding which political
candidate to vote for or which movie to see on a Friday night, consider how your overall
impressions of them might influence your evaluations of other characteristics.

Conclusion:

Thus, to conclude we can say that we cannot judge a person on the basis of physical
attractiveness or any one positive aspect, everything needs to be taken into consideration.

References:

Thorndike, E.L.A constant error in psychological ratings. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1920,
4, 25-29.

www.verywellmind.com

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