IEEE Transactions on Power Dclivcry, Vol. 14, No.

4, October 1999 1351

A Wavelet-based Differential Transformer Protection

Moist% Gbmez-Moranle, Denise W. Nicoletti
Worcester Polytechnic Institute
Worcester, Massachusetts, 01609

Ahstract: Transformer inrush currents wcrc traditionally evaluatcd
by means of Fouricr analysis. Such approach arfects the design of
transformer differential rclays canccrning thcir immunity to inrush
currents. This piper presenls a wavelel-based method, which seems
to providc a reliablc and compulationally eCCicicnt tool Air
distinguishing bclwecn inlcrnal faults and inrush currents.
Keywords: Power transformer protection, Protective relaying,
Wavclct transforms.
I. INTRODUCTION
The effectiveness of the differential relay used for
protecting transformers against internal faults is undisputed
[t]. However, the major drawback of this technique steins
from its potcntial for false tripping caused by the transient-
magnetizing inrush current, which flows when the transformer
is energized. The time-honored mitigation methods used to
overcome the inrush current effects on thc high-speed biased
differential relay is by incorporating a harmonic restraint
feature [ 2 , 3 ] .The 120 Hz component of the inrush current is
used as the characteristic component of the asymmetrical
magnetization peculiar to the inrush. This method helps
discriminate between internal fault and inrush conditions.
This study, based on the usc of wavelet analysis to
characterize inrush currents, aims to recognize the inrush
current and to distinguish it from an internal fault current.
Traditional transformer inrush current Fourier analysis
averages frequency characteristics over time, while wavelet
decomposition localizcs features both in time and in
frequency. For this reason wavelet decomposition is ideal for
studying transient signals and obtaining a much better current
characterization and a more reliable discrimination.
Wavelets allow the decomposition of a signal inlo different
levels of resolutioii (frequency octaves). The basis function
(Mother Wavelet) is dilated at low frequencies and
compressed at high frequencies, so that large windows arc
used to obtain the low frequency components of the signd,
while small windows reflect discontinuities 141.
PE-209-PWRD-0-08-1998 A paper recommended and approved by
the IEEE Transformers Cominittee of the iEEE Power Engineering
Society for publication in the IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery.
Manuscript submitted April 3, 1998; made available for printing August
14, 1998.
11. TRADITIONAL INRUSH CURRENT
CHARACTERIZATION
Previous researchers havc used a period by period Fourier
analysis scheme to represent inrush currents in transformers.
The signal is windowed every period and analyzed for its
main frequency components [5,6], whose peak value is then
plotted as a function of cycle number (therefore time). The
Fourier Transform assumes that the signal f(x) is periodic, but
the inrush current is a nonstationary signal.
The same scheme is applied herc to an inrush current
obtained with the circuit in Appendix A. Eleven cycles were
analyzed and the following content is presented in Fig. 1.
Cycle
Pig. I. Cyclc by cyclc harmonic content of the inrush c~irlilntfor S=O, R=lflfl
51, Bs=O.O7 T, k=0.5, a=1500, h=3333, c=3OOO, V=14 kV, k 2 . 2 m, A=lhO
cmz and N=IXO turns.
This technique is valid when a general qualitative
knowlcdgc of thc signal is desired. However, a more coinpletc
description is desirable for the purpose of inrush current
detcction. Wavelet analysis yields intormation about the
current not only in t e r m of frequency but also time, which
makes it a inure powerful tool for the task at hand.
111. WAVELET ANALYSIS
Wavelet analysis is inherently adequate for analyzing
transients because the basis function (or Mother Wavelcl) has
a finite duration in time. The Daubechies 6 Mother Wavelet
was used in this study.
A. Wnvelet Transform
Wavelets are generated through a scaling fiinction. l h i s
scaling function O(X)is defined as [7]:
f ( x ) = c O (2xj+cl ( 2 ~ - I j + . . . + c ~ (- 2~x - N j (1)
where N is the desired number of coecficients (also referred to
as vnnishirq momerits). Thc wavclet coefficients must satisfy

0885-8977/99/$10.00 0 1998 IEEE

1352

a set of conditions, and listings of their values are readily
available in wavelet literature. The scaling function must be
found from iteration of (I). The effect of the number of
coefficients can be observed in Fig. 2, which shows two
Daubechies wavelets with 4 and 20 coefficients respectively.
consecutive windows, high frequency components arc
introduced to account for the discontinnity [9]. Howevcr, the
wavelet decomposition localizes features in time, so the high
frequencies due to this side effect can be easily recognized.
B. Mean-Square Maps
According to Parseval’s theorem, the cnergy of a signal can
be obtained by adding the squares of its Fourier series
coefficients and scaling thcm. A similar derivation can be
obtained for the wavelet transform. Equation (3) can be
rewritten as:

f ( x ) = a o + ~ &2 Jl’+ k W ( 2 J x - k ) (7)

Normalizing the interval as 0 5 x i 1 to simplify the

derivation, an expression for the energy can be obtained by
squaring and integrating the function on both sides,

; in

The analyzing wavelet is created from the scilling function

by the following equation [SI (which assumes a normalized
Equation (8) reveals the energy distribution in titnc and
window from 0 to I):
frequency. The time-frequency plane is dividcd into
N-2 rectangles (tiles), each with a certain height. Levels -1 and
W ( x )= c (-I)kck+]@(2x+k)
k=-l
(2)
zero are each one rectangle, with the height a,? and illz
respectively; level 1 is divided in half and each half has height
and the wavelet expansion can be conveniently cxpressed as:
0.5~1; and 0.5~~:; and so forth, each level is hroken into 2’
intervals. The energy of the signal is the total area enclosed
under this volume.
The map in Fig. 3 shows how the energy of inrush currents
is mostly localized in the first levels (DC component and low
frequencies) and at the beginning of the interval. A
(3) pcriodogram (Fourier analysis) would only give information
about the signal’s energy distribution in frequency.

+a , W(2Jx-k)+... IV. DETECTION SCHEME AND RESULTS

2J+k
where A. Signal Characterization
uo = I f (x)Wx)dx (4) The scheme presented here is based on thc characterization
U2 J, 1 k =Zjjf(x)W(2jx-!f)dx (5) of inrush and arc currents by the distribution of their energy in
the time-frequcncy tile. Fig. 3 shows the energy map for a
This breaks down the signal into n+l levels (fur 2“ transformer inrush current when the initial angle is 90
samples). The first level represents the DC component, each degrees, which can be considercd a “healthy” signal.
of the other levels represents a band of frequencies centcred Each tile has a value that represents a percentage of the
about f,, where total signal energy. For 2” data points, the wavelet
decomposition creates I2 levels. However, for graphical
fc = f2“
r2L 1 =O,L ...,11-1 (6) clarity and illustration of the levels useful to thc detection
scheme, only the first 8 levels are presented in Fig. 3.
and 1 is the level number and fs is the sampling frequency. From (6) it can be seen that the center frequencies for each
Each level is created by the appropriate shifting and scaling level are
of 2’ wavelets. This procedure creates a time-frequency “tile”.
The wavelet transform, just as the Fourier transform, (9)
assumes that the signal being analyzed is periodic, and a full
period is being analyzed. If the analyzed section does not so the center frequencies are 0, 20, 40, 80, 160, 320, 640 and
have the same value at the beginning and at the end of two 1280 Hz for levels - I to 6 respectively. This leads to the

Characterization of any signal by a vector made up of
measurements of its energy at cach time-frequency range.
where the original signal had 2n data points.
Thc scale for Fig. 3 is logarithmic and uscs I O shades of
gray. A log scale is necessary becausc of thc irregular energy
distribution in time and frequency. Lighter colors indicate
more energy.
:s of
Most o f the energy of this signal is contained in the
medium frequencies (levels 2, 3 and 4) and cvenly distributed
along the time axis. Analysis of a range of inrush current
samples showed that a small number of time-frequency tiles
tend to hold a large percent of the cnergy.
The following schemc was used to reduce the number [if
parametcrs used for analysis. The signals that are being
analyzed hcre have frequency content centered around 60 Ha,
so their energy is not widely spread along the frequency axis.
If all coefficicnts are disciirded except those that corrcspond
to levels -I (cd, 2 (c4. cs, cg, c7) and 3 (cg. cg, C I O , C I I , clz. c13,
cl,,, clS). (with center frequencies 0, 80 and 160 Hz
respectively); each signal can be represented a s follows:
The database for testing of the dctection scheme was
creatcd as follows. 360 inrush currents were simulated for
encrgization angles ranging rrom 0 to 90 degrces; 400 arc
currents were simulated for different paramcters. Figs. 4 and
5 show the percent of total energy contained in those three
frcquency bauds for each cxperiment.
I
Fig. 4.
6I'crccnt10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
encrgy contninctl in levels -I,2 and 3 for 360 inrush curtents
with diffcrcnt voltage phme onglcs (0 to 90 rlegrces). 2" data snmples, f, =
40.96 kHa.
13.53
Fig. 5. Percent encrgy containcd in lcvcls -1, 2 and 3 Cor 400 diffcrenl arc
ctmcnts. 2" data samplcs, f, = 40.96 kHx.
89% to 95% of the total energy is contained in those thrce
frequency bands in the case of inrush currents; the total
energy in those bands goes k o m 83.5% to 87.5% in the case
of arc currents. This means that almost all of the energy o f
cach signal is prcserved when the other frequency bands are
dropped, so a faithful representation is achieved.
R. Clussification Technique
Each signal can be thought of as an cxperiment with
thirteen variables, which represent its energy in time and
frequency. Therefore, each type of current occupies a 13-
dimensional region of space.
20 samples of cach kind of signal were uscd in order lo
define these two regions of space. The inrush currents wcre
simulated for voltage phase angles of 6 = 4, 8, 12 ... 80
degrees. Each of thesc two groups of 20 experiments has 21
mean vector and a covariance matrix:
The two groups will be relerred to as Group A (arc
currents) and Group I (inrush currents). l'he niultivariate
Gaussian probability Distribution Function [ 101 is given in
(13):
where N is the numbcr of variables, x is the 1x13 experiment
vector, v. is the 1x13 mean veclor and Z, is thc 13x13
covariance matrix.
Each experiment x should be assigned to onc of two
groups, G,, or GI. This will be achievcd through Bayes'
theorem, which states that the probability o f obtaining vector
x given that G, happened is given by:
1354
Vector x is assigned to Group A if P(xIGA)> P(xIG,).
Substituting into (14) and simplifying both sides, assign to
group A i f
@A)+ (x-fiA$i’(x-~AT -ln(~(cA))
(15)
< I n ( ~ / ) + ( x - P / $ r l ( x - f i / r -In(P(G,))
Let
T
d,(x) = lnial+(x-fix$;’(x-fi~) (16)
Equation (16) shows the definition of the “discriminant
score” [ I l l , which can be interpreted as a “statistical
distance”. After further simplification, vector x should be
assigned to Group A i f
This result is valid for normal distributions. However, it
can be applied with only a minor modification to other
distributions:
Equation (18) is valid for distributions that are close to
normal and “sufficiently well behaved to be integrable” [ I I].
The parameter K has to be determined by trial and error, as
well as the a priori probabilities (P(GI) and P(GA)) when they
are not known. According to James [ I l l it is common
practice to adjust the a-priori probabilities in order to improve
the results. This reduces (18) to the statement “assign
experiment x to Group A if’:
d A ( 4 - d, <y (19)
As a first approximation to the problem an estimated value
of Y=O was used. This is equivalent to stating that there is an
equal probability of an arc or an inrush current happening at a
given time.
The final simplification is to define the “discriminant
function” W(x):
W(x)= d ~ ( x ) - d / ( x ) (20)
So now the classification rule can be stated as:
d W(x)< 0
W ( x )> 0
classify x as an arc current
classify x as an inrush current
V. SIMULATION RESULTS
The 13-dimentional spaces of Groups A and I were defined
(through a mean vector and covariance matrix) using twenty
currents in each case. The inrush currents used to define
group I correspond to energization angles of 0,3.75,7.5 .,. 75
degrees. The arc voltage (from 5 to 24 Volts) and the rate at
which it quenches are the parameters that define each arc
current. Twenty of these were used to define group A.
The value of the discriminant functions W(x) for each of
the 360 inrush currents and 400 simples of arc currents is
shown graphically for clarity.
I
Fig. 6. Discriminant function for inrush currents.
I I
0 100 2 00 300 400
Fig. 7 . Discriminant Function for arc cnmnts.
Figs. 6 and 7 clearly show that the discriminant function
W(x) is always greater than zero for inrush currents and less
than zero for arc currents. Therefore, the classification rule
works for 100%of the experiments.
The range of values obtained in each case was:
2.72~10’ < W(inrush currents) < 8 . 0 7 ~ 1 0 ’ ~
-4.1 l x l O 1 o < W(arc currents) < -6.63~10’
VI. CONCLUSIONS
The good results obtained with this method are due to the
following factors:
I ) The wavelet decomposition breaks up the energy of the
signals into both time and frequency, allowing for a more
complete and efficient description of each signal.
2) This method naturally emphasizes the difference between
fault and inrush currents, since thcir energy distribution
in time and frequency is very different (something that
would not be achieved by using the Fourier transform).
3) The classification schcme is an extremely powerful yet
simple way of assigning an observed signal to a
particular group.
4) The required calculations are very simple, it is only
necessary to perform a wavelet decomposition and the
calculation of W(x) in rcal time.
Neural networks could be used to improve the performance
of this algorithm. The dcvice could be able to learn from its
experience, redefining the space containing each group every
time a current is detected and classified (redefining the mean
vector and covariance matrix of thc group to which the signal
was assigned). It would also be useful to experiment with
other wavelets in urder to compare the results for this
particular application
 1355
APPENDIX A. TRANSFORMER INRUSH CURRENTS The values of the constants d, e and f a r e adjusted every
time the magnetizing characteristic reaches an extreme (every
half cycle). The boundary conditions that determine the
spline's constants are:

1f3(Bm,,) = Hi(BrnaX) (30)

H3(~Bm,x) = H 2 ( ~ ~ , , , ) (31)

Fig. 8. Circuit model of Lhc transformcr. Boundary conditions (30) and (31) mean that the cubic
spline must mcet the ascending and descending curves at the
The circuit used to implement the inrush current
simulation, Fig. 8, is governed by the differential equation: end of the half cycle and at some transition point. The
simulation in this case used a value of k=OS for the transition
dB point, which yielded a realistic B-H loop, Condition (32)
~ ( t =) R i f NA- (21)
dt forces the cubic spline to have the same slope as the
descending curve at the point where they mcet, which allows
where N is the number of turns, A the cross section of the for a smooth transition.
core and B the flux density. The circuit can be solved A similar procedure takes placc for the negativc half of the
cornputationally using the following equations [ 121: loop, when the algorithm switches from the descending to the
ascending curve.
I" = n ' At (22) A typical hysteresis loop for ( B ~ 0 . 0 7T, k=0.5, a=1500,
time at step n b=3333, c=3000, V=14 kV, N=2290 turns, k 1 2 . 8 CL, k 2 . 2
m, A=160 cm') is shown in Fig. 9.
vn = JZI/sin(2zcn +s) (23)
input voltagc at step n, where 6 is the angle of the input
voltage at energiaation.

difference equation based on (21).

R" =
+AB" (25)
advances the value of the flux density.

H" = f ( B " ) (26)

.so -40 40 20 40 60
I/ , A h )
calculates the value of the field intensity using a non-linear Fig. 9. Hystcrcsis loop: Remanent lntliiction Br=O.07 T, k=0.5, n=1500,
equation that matches the BIH characteristic of the core h=3333, c=3000, V=14 kV,N=2290 t o m s , 11=12.8 Q. k 2 . 2 m, A=160 CII?.
material

where 1 is the core length, helps to obtain the value of the

current at step n
The magnetizing characteristic was modeled using the
equation:
H I , Z= *a f bR + cB5 (28)
I I
wherc the 1 signs are used for the ascending and descending 0 20 40 60 XO 100 120 140
hysteresis branches respectively. These curves are joined at time (ms)
the extremes by cubic splines of the general form: Fig. IO. Inrush curwents for diffcrcent nnglcs of the inpul voltage at
energizntion (S=O, 45 and 90 degrccs).
Hg = d + e B + fB3 (29)
1356
APPENDIX B. INTERNAI, FAULT SIMULATION
For the purpose of this paper it was decided to use the
siiiiplified circuit shown in Fig. I I . Circuit sciicmntic or transformer
,vit~, i t r ~ Here
. it is assuiiied h a t at thc fault location an electric
arc takes place. The vli characteristic of the arc w a s
represented with the help of a nonlinear voltage so~trcethat
assumes constant arc voltage magnitude.
I -
F
Fig. I I . Circuit schcmntic of transformer with arc.
Iarc (mA)
Fig. 13. Arc curtcnls for three rlilfcrm m l u c s d'arc voltnge.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowlcdge the encouragetnent and
contributions cif Alexander E. Emanucl, who was instrumental
i n the prohleiii definition and execution ofthis research.
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[ I O ] S. M. Kay, 'Modcm Spcclml Estimation, Tliwry nnd Application".
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[ 121 M. Raw, K. Nnso, "Compotcrizcd Evnlwtion of Ihc Mngneliring
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BIOGRAPHIES
Mois6s Gdmez-Mornnte was born i n
Pucl,lo, hlenico. on Dcccmhcr 23, 1972. Hc
rccci\,ctl tlic R.S. (Elcclricol and
Mcchanici~l) dcgrcc f i m l Ihc hstituto
Tccnoldgicn y tlc. Estudios Superinm tlc
Montcrrcy. MCnico, in 199s. Since 1996 hc
lhns bccn working towwds tllc M S.E.E.
degree in lhc Dcprtrncnt or Elcctricnl nntl
Computer Enginwring, Worcester
Pdytcchnic lnstitnte. Worccstev, M A Ilc is
currently ii student mcmber o1 tlic IEEE.
I h ~ i s s eNieolctti is titi Ariocintc Profwsor
in thc Electrical nnd Computer Eoginecring
Dcportment at Worcester Polytzclinic
hslitutc. Shc rcccivcil h a Ph.D. dcgrcc
Cram Ilrcxal University in 1991. Slic was
sclcclcil ;is tlic WPI Joscph S;nio
I>iilingoished Fellow i n 1903, and \vas the
rccipimt of lhc WPI Eta Kkippa Nn
Outstanding I'lofcssor or ilic Ycm Award in
1992.
Memberships: IEEE, Acousticnl Society of
Amcricn, American Socicty of
Nondestlacli\,e Tcsting. Society of Women
Engineers, Aincrican Association or
Univcrsity, Tilu Hcla Pi Honor Socicty, Eta
Kappa Nu I~lonorSocicty, and Sigma Xi.

DISCUSSION
Toshihisi Funsbasbi, Senior Member, Meidensha
Corpomion, Tokyo, 103-8515,Y a p :
A wavelet-based signal processing technique i s onc of new
tools for power V t e m transients analysis p 4 ] , W ] . Some
applications of thc tcchaiquc havc bccn "pcncd for power
quality assessment pl], data compression p6],[D7I3
protection p 3 1 , p B I and analysis far powcr quality probtcm
solution p 2 J . In the area of protection, the author
devclopod a new method fo distinguish behveen internal
fault and inrush cunents of powcr transfomcm. Some
questions and comments are raised.The author's comments
will be appreciatedfor the reader's better underSt2.nding the
paper.
It is stated that the d i n g function 0 (x) must bo found p61
from itemtion of quation (1). If coc&cients 6. c~,-**m
constants, what variable in (1) is determined from iteration?
What is f(x)7 How the scaling function O(x) i s dofinod?
The right band side of the equation might be Q rD (2x)ki
Q g x - l p , and the lasf term %.I O(Zx-N+l).xather than p7]
&.I Q (B-9.
In Fig.2, the number of data points seems to be 2". m e
labcl of x-axis seem to be number of data points. What is
the Label ofy-EA? f(x) or (D(x)? What nre the labels of x-
axis in Fig.4,5,6 and 77 Why figure axis labels am not
specified in some papers concerning wavelet
-
transformation7
In the map shown in Fig.3 the energy of imsh currents
localized in the medium range, i.e., in the second,
third and fonrth levels (t=2,3,4) rather than in the f m
Icvcls. In additioq this analysis (Tig.3) could be performed
by moving the window of Fourier analysi?, i.e. using &e
Windowed Disnete Fourier Transform WFl? PZI. As
shown in Fig.4 of ref- p2], the differenoe between
WDFr and DWT @ismete Wavelet Transfarm) is nnlfonnl
logarithmic merage of the transform. X-axis of Pig3
seems to bo number of data points and T m 2 0 0 0 / 4 0 9 6 0
k0.05 (sec). This means three cycles of GO IIZ fundamental
ftequency si& are used for analysis. On the mnuary, in
P i g 1 15cyolcs ofthe signal am used. Comparison between
Fowicr and Wavelet tran.sfom hi inoipient fault &&on
can not be performed fmm these figures.
In this papm as the type of wavelet, the Daubechies 6
Mother Wavelet is wed. The reawn why this tmmform is
selected is to be shown. Also, to descni the type of the
software used for simulation will be appreciated
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"Wavwlets and Electromagnetic Power System
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'prans~onn~, roc. 33"' universities Power
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Manuscrip1 rcccived April I , 1999.
Moisks G 6 m e z - M o r a n t e and Denise Nicoletti:
Mr. Funabashi's concerns about Equation 1 are a result of a
printing mistake. Equation 1 should be:
f(n) = c,4(2x) + c,4(2x - 1) + ,,. + c,,@(2n - ( N - 1))
Also, f(x) is the function or signal to be analyzed.
On the labeling of axes: For Figure 2: the x-axis is the data
point, and the y-axis is W(x), thc mother wavelet a defined in
Eq. (2). The x-axes for Figures 4 and 6 is the angle (in
degrecs) of tbc voltage waveform at energization. Experiments
were run using 90 values lor the angle, evenly spaced from 0
to 90. For Figures 5 and 7, the x-axis reprcsents tlie results
for each of 400 experiments. In these cases, the number is just
an idcntifier lor each experiment and not directly linked to any
parameter. We do not hiow why figure axis labels are not
specified in some papers concerning wavclet transformation.
Wc agree with the discussion (and this is stated in the paper)
that the cnergy is located in levels 2, 3 and 4. Equation (10)
uses the values of coefficients lor levels -1, 2 and 3 because
using level 4 would imply 16 more cwfficients (versus one for
lcvel -l),which would more tlian double the size of the vcctor
s (Equation 11) and would have a very negative impact on
number of calculations for the dctection scheme. Furthermore,
1358
as Figurcs 4 and 5 show, a large enough percentagc of tlie
energy is contained iu levels -1, 2 and 3 that the
reprersentation is trustworthy.
Wavelets break up the time-frequency plane into long time
intervals at low frequencies and small time intervals at high
frequcncies, which yields a more efficient decomposition of the
signal than the WDFT. Furthermore, a major adviantage is
that one wavelet transform yields the iuformatioii for the
whole time-frequency plane, while this analysis takes several
DFTs, one on each portion of the time span. As to the
comparison or Figures 1 and 3: Figure 1 is an example of the
evolution through time of the harmonic components of an
iiuush current; while Figure 3 is an example of an energy map
of the time-frequency plane for an inrush current, obtained with
wavelet decomposition. They are not meant to be compared
with each other.
The Daubechies wavelct was used because it is thc most
common, most widely h o w n , most natural first approach to
wavelets. The sixth level was arbiaarily chosen by balancing
the need for fast computatioris versus signal resolution. As
stated at the end of the conclusions, one of the future directions
of this research would be the investigation of other wavelets.
Matlab was used for all simulations.
Manuscript reccivcd Sunc 1, 1999.