Early Quantum Theory

Dr. Mohamad Syafie Mahmood

Subchapters

2.1 Electrons: Properties, motion in magnetic and

electric fields
2.2 J.J. Thomson’s experiment, Millikan’s experiment
2.3 Wave particle duality
2.4 Wave nature of matter and the de Broglie
wavelength
2.5 Electron diffraction
2.6 Planck’s quantum hypothesis

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 Electron

• Common symbol is e -.
1
• Mass: approximately 1836 of the proton, ≈ 9.11 × 10−31 kg.

• It is a subatomic particle that carries negative one elementary charge, −1e,

−1.602 × 10−19 C.

• Has no known components of substructure,

• It is considered as elementary particle.

• Has intrinsic angular momentum (spin) of half integer value.

• Therefore a fermion.

• Belong to the first generation lepton particle family.

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 Electron

• Together with atomic nuclei electrons makes up atoms.

• Attractive Coulomb force between an electron and a proton bounds electrons

in the atoms.

• Exchange and sharing of the electrons between atoms causes electron

bonding.

• Due to electromagnetic properties, electric or magnetic field exerts force on

electrons, where it effects its motion.

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Properties, motion in magnetic and
electric fields
Force on a point charge in an electric field
• Force exerted in an electric field to a charged particle:
𝐹Ԧ = 𝑞𝐸
• Therefore, an electron will experience a force toward cathode (positive charge).

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Properties, motion in magnetic and
electric fields
Force on a moving electron in a magnetic field
• When a charge moving perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field, its trajectory will be
circle.
• The force will be
𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵 sin 𝜃

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 J.J. Thomson’s Experiment

• Major accomplishment of Thomson is discovery of electron.

• Based on his findings, he concluded that an electron is a
particle that is smaller than an atom and negatively charged.
• From that, he hypothesized the plum pudding model of
atom.
• The tiny negatively charged electrons were embedded in a
positively charge cloud.

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 J. J.
Thomson’s
Experiment

• He famously conducted experiments using cathode ray tubes

leading to discovery of electron.
• The tube is vacuumed and coated with phosphorescent paint at the
end of tube.
• He found that emitted ray from cathode bend under influence of an
electric field.
• Using the result, we are able to determine its charge to mass ratio.

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Determining the charge to mass ratio
of electron
• The equilibrium of force by magnetic field and electric field
determine the initial velocity of electron when there are no
deflection.
𝐸
𝐹𝐸 + 𝐹𝐵 = 0, 𝑒𝐸 − 𝑒𝑣𝐵 = 0 → 𝑣 =
𝐵
𝑙 𝑙𝐵
• Time to traverse plate 𝑡 = = .
𝑣 𝐸

• When the magnetic field is off, the electric field is tuned such that it
hit the edge of positive plate.
𝐹𝐸
• Using 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎, y-axis acceleration is 𝑎 = . Consider 𝑠 distance of
𝑚
electron entering point to positive plate.
2
1 𝑒𝐸 𝑙𝐵
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑡 2 → 𝑠 =
2 2𝑚 𝐸

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Determining the charge to mass ratio
of electron
• The charge to mass ratio is
𝑒 2𝑠𝐸
=
𝑚 𝑙2𝐵2
• The value accepted today is
1.7588196 × 1011 C/kg

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 Millikan’s Experiment

• The electron’s charge was carefully measured by

Millikan in his oil-drop experiment.
• By balancing the gravitational and electric forces on
tiny charged droplet of oil suspended between two
metal electrodes.

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Determining charge and mass of an
electron
• When the droplets are suspended in the setup, the gravitational and electric forces are balanced.
𝑀𝑔 = 𝑞𝐸

• The mass the droplet is determined by leaving it free fall. Using air resistance with coefficient of 𝛾, the terminal
velocity will be
𝑀𝑔
𝑣=
𝛾
• Using Thomson charge to mass ratio can be used to determine charge 𝑞.
• Now accepted values are
• 𝑒 = −1.602177 × 10−19 C
• 𝑚𝑒 = 9.109384 × 10−31 kg
• The last remaining technical problem is that it is not known how many electrons are stripped off each drop before the
experiment is performed.
• Thus, each drop will have a different charge 𝑞 that is a multiple of the fundamental charge unit 𝑒.

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 Wave particle Duality

• In classical physics, particles and waves are

mutually exclusive; they exhibit completely
different behaviours.
• Full description of a particle requires one
parameter, the position vector 𝑟Ԧ 𝑡 .
• For a wave, it has two, the amplitude and
phase, 𝜓 𝑟,
Ԧ 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝜙 .
• In summary, waves exhibit interference
patterns, particles do not.

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Quantum view of Particles and
Waves

• In quantum theory, radiation have wave-particle duality properties.

• Using electron sourced dual slits experiment as an example, it
shows that in quantum it has indeterministic behaviour.
• When an electron passes dual slits without detection, it produces
interference pattern.
• However, when we want to determine which slit had the electron
passed, it is not exhibit interference pattern.
• Indeterministic property of particle prevents us to perform detailed
tracing of a particle.
• This inspired Heisenberg to postulate uncertainty principle.

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Wave Nature of Matter
de Broglie’s Matter Waves
• de Broglie in 1923 suggest that wave-particle duality is not restricted to radiation, but must be
universal.
• The relation can be generalised to any material particle with non-zero rest mass.
• Using momentum of photon
ℎ𝜈 ℎ
𝑝= =
𝑐 𝜆
• The de Broglie relation (matter wave) can be expressed as
ℎ ℎ
𝜆= = ,
𝑝 𝑚𝑣
Planck’s constant, ℎ = 6.626070 × 10−34 kg ∙ m2 /s.

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Examples

a) Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of a 0.20 kg ball moving

with a speed of 15 m/s.
b) Determine the wavelength of an electron that has been
accelerated through a potential difference of 100 V.

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2.5 Electron diffraction
• Due to wave-particle duality, wave behaviour is also observed in particle.
• Using electron as wave source, we are able to investigate structure at
smaller scale than X-ray spectroscopy. (1.97 pm for 300 keV electrons vs.
about 100 pm of X-ray)
• This can be used to measure the distance between two crystal planes.
• The relationship is given by Bragg’s law.
2𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆

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Example

Assume that the electrons strike perpendicular to the surface of a solid,

and that their energy is low, K = 100 eV, so that they interact only with the
surface layer of atoms. If the smallest angle at which a diffraction maximum
occurs is at 24°, what is the separation 𝑑 between the atoms on the
surface?

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Planck’s Quantum Hypothesis

• In relation to blackbody problem, Max Planck proposed an empirical

formula that fit the intensity of radiation data, 𝐼;
2𝜋ℎ𝑐 2 𝜆−5
𝐼 𝜆, 𝑇 = ℎ𝑐
𝑒 𝜆𝑘𝑇 −1
• 𝜆: wavelength 𝑇: temperature
• ℎ = 6.626 × 10−34 Js: Planck’s constant 𝑘: Boltzmann’s constant

• Planck’s constant was estimated by fitting the formula into blackbody

radiation curve.

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Planck’s Quantum Hypothesis
• To provide theoretical basis for his formula, he made a new and radical
assumption;
The energy oscillations of atoms within molecules cannot have any value, instead each
has energy which is a multiple of a minimum value related to frequency of oscillation.
Minimum energy, 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈, 𝜈: 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
• This suggest that energy of any molecular vibration could be only an integer number
multiple of minimum energy,
𝐸𝑛 = 𝑛ℎ𝜈, 𝑛: 1,2,3, … .
• This is the Planck’s quantum hypothesis. Where the energy are quantised.

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Examples

a) Find the energy of the photons in a beam whose vacuum wavelength is

526 nm.
b) Compute the frequency, vacuum wavelength, and energy in Joules of a
photon having an energy of 2 eV.

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 End
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