NetworkProgramming CH 01

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NETWORK PROGRAMMING
BCA -‐ VI SEMESTER

iSaroz
sarojpandey.com.np
sarojpandey.com.np -‐ 1
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Network Programming -‐ BCA 352 CS -‐ Year: III Semester: II

Full Marks: 100 [Internal: 40 & External: 60]

Objectives:
At the end of this course, the students would be able to design and implement network client server
applications.

Contents:
1. Introduction to Network Programming: [5 Hrs.]
Introduction to Computer Network: Client /Server Model, Protocol Suite (ISO/OSI, TCP/IP), Unix
Standards (POSIX, Open Group, IETF), Network Utilities (telnet, netstat, ifconfig, ping, ftp)

Introduction to Programming: Programming Standards, Wrapper functions, Header files,

libraries and program documentation.
2. Elementary Operating System Calls: [5 Hrs.]
Elementary Operating System Calls: fork, exec and its family, waitpid, wait, pipes, fifo, signals
(SIGCHLD, SIGINT, SIGIO), read, write, readn, writen.
3. TCP/UDP Transport Layer Protocols: [4 Hrs.]
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): features, connection establishment and termination,
states in communication (LISTEN, TIME_WAIT, ESTABLISHED, BLOCKED)

UDP (User Datagram Protocol): features, uses, comparison with TCP. TCP and UDP Buffer sizes
and limitations.
4. Elementary Socket Calls: [4 Hrs.]
Socket Address Structure: for IPV4, IPV6, UNIX domain socket and Generic socket address
structure, Value-‐result argument. Byte Ordering and manipulating function: htonl, htons, ntohl,
ntohs, inet_addr, inet_aton, inet_ntoa, inet_pton.
5. TCP Socket Calls: [4 Hrs.]
Socket, function, connect function, bind function, listen function, accept function, close function,
getsock_name and get_peer_name function (Example: echo server and client).
6. I/O multiplexing withSelect & Poll: [3 Hrs.]
I/O models: Blocking I/O, non-‐blocking I/O, I/O multiplexing, signal driven I/O (SIGIO) and
Asynchronous I/O model.

Introductions to select function, shutdown function and poll function.

7. Socket Options: [2 Hrs.]
Getsockopt and setsockopt functions, Generic IPV$ socket options, TCP socket options.

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8. UDP Sockets Calls for data transmission and connection: [3 Hrs.]
Socket calls recv_from and send_to functions, UDP client with connect, Determine outgoing
interface with UDP. Protocol Independent Services.
9. Name and Address Conversion: [2 Hrs.]
Basic Name and Address Conversion Function: Review of Domain name system, gethostbyname,
gethostbyaddr, uname function, getservbyname and getservbyport function.

Other I/O functions: recv, send, readv, writev, recvmsgsndmsg, socket timeouts and data
handling.
10. Unix Domain Protocol: [3 Hrs.]
Unix Domain socket address structure, socket pair function, socket functions, UDP Stream
Client/Server, Unix domain datagram, passing descriptor.
11.Client and Server Design Alternative: [2 Hrs.]
TCP Client Alternative, Iteration Server, Concurrent server, Networked servers.
12. Daemon processes, inetd super servers: [2 Hrs.]
Sysloged (syslog function), daemon_init function, inetd daemon.
13.Broadcast and Multicast: [3 Hrs.]
Introduction, Broadcast and Multicast addresses, comparison between broadcast, unicast and
Multicast socket options.
14. IP Layers and Raw Socket: [3 Hrs.]
Introduction, Raw socket creation, Input and Output (ping example).

Lab Exercise: Laboratories of elementary or system calls, TCP and UDP socket including select and poll,
socket options and name conversion strictly using C/C++ and Linux.

Class project: Project class includes the project covering the advanced topics in Windows / Linux /
Unix Environment using Java/C/C++.

Textbooks:
1. Stevens W.R., "Unix Network Programming", Vol-‐1.
2. Stevens W.R., "Unix Network Programming", Vol-‐II
3. Doglous E. Comer, "Internetworking with TCP/IP", Vol -‐ III

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CHAPTER 01: Introduction to Network Programming
Introduction to Computer Network
A computer network, or simply a network, is a collection of computers and other hardware
interconnected by communication channels that allow sharing of resources and information.
Where at least one process in one device is able to send/receive data to/from at least one
process residing in a remote device, then the two devices are said to be in a network. A network
is a group of devices connected to each other. Networks may be classified into a wide variety of
characteristics, such as the medium used to transport the data, communication protocol used,
scale, topology, benefit, and organizational scope.

Client /Server Model
The term client-‐server refers to a popular model for computer networking that utilizes client and
server devices each designed for specific purposes. The client-‐server model can be used on the
Internet as well as local area networks (LANs). Examples of client-‐server systems on the Internet
include Web browsers and Web servers, FTP clients and servers, and the DNS.

The model assigns one of two roles to the computers in a network: Client or server. A server is a
computer system that selectively shares its resources; a client is a computer or computer
program that initiates contact with a server in order to make use of a resource. Data,
CPUs, printers, and data storage devices are some examples of resources.

This sharing of computer resources is called time-‐sharing, because it allows multiple people to
use a computer (in this case, the server) at the same time. Because a computer does a limited
amount of work at any moment, a time-‐sharing system must quickly prioritize its tasks to
accommodate the clients.
Clients and servers exchange messages in a request-‐response messaging pattern: The client
sends a request, and the server returns a response. To communicate, the computers must have a
common language, and they must follow rules so that both the client and the server know what
to expect. The language and rules of communication are defined in a communications protocol.
All client-‐server protocols operate in the application layer.

Whether a computer is a client, a server, or both, it can serve multiple functions. For example, a
single computer can run web server and file server software at the same time to serve different
data to clients making different kinds of requests. Client software can also communicate with
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server software on the same computer. Communication between servers, such as to synchronize
data, is sometimes called inter-‐server or server-‐to-‐server communication.
Role of Clients
• Establish a connection with the server, given its address.
• After connection establishment, receive commands from the user, perform necessary translation
as per the protocol and send them to the server.
• Receive messages from the server, translate them to human readable form and display them.
This can be summarized as:
get the server's address
form a working address that can be used to talk over Internet.
connect to the server
while (not finished) do:
wait until there's either information from the server, or from the
user.
If (information from server) do
parse information
show to user, update local state information, etc.
else {we've got a user command}
parse command
send to server, or deal with locally.
done
Role of Servers
• Accept connection request from a client.
• Receive request from the client and return results.
• Close connection when done.
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this forms the main loop a Multi-‐Client Server performs:
bind a port on the computer, so Clients will be able to connect
forever do:
listen on the port for connection requests.
accept an incoming connection request
if (this is an authorized Client)
while (connection still alive) do:
receive request from client
handle request
send results of request, or error messages
done
else
abort the connection
done
Multi Client Servers

These are servers that talk to a several Clients at the same time. They need to be able to:
• Accept new connection requests from Clients.
• Receive requests from any Client and return results.
• Close any connection that the client wants to end.
this forms the main loop a Multi-‐Client Server performs:

bind a port on the computer, so Clients will be able to connect
listen on the port for connection requests.
forever do:
wait for either new connection requests, or requests from existing
Clients.
if (this is a new connection request)
accept connection
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if (this is an un-‐authorized Client)
close the connection
else if (this is a connection close request)
close the connection
else { this is a request from an existing Client connection}
receive request from client
handle request
send results of request, or error messages
done

Client Server
• Process that request for a service • Process that accepts the client
request, handles them and provides
the service
• Initiates the connection • Do not initiate the connection, rather
establishment responds to the connection request
from the clients.
• Runs for comparatively short time • Runs for longer time; some server
never terminate

Protocol Suite (ISO/OSI, TCP/IP)
ISO/OSI REFERENCE MODEL
Transferring of data between different communications devices is divided into logical layers called OSI
layers; these layers are seven in number. OSI model stands for Open Systems Interconnection, Xerox
Corporation and Intel designed it in 1984 and later ISO (International Standard Organization)
standardized it. OSI is logical framework for standards for computer networks and data communication.
OSI model is used as set standards for computer networking worldwide. Major networking protocols are
specifically designed keeping OSI model in view.

Their principles are as follows:
1. A layer should be created where a different level of abstraction is needed.
2. Each layer should perform a well-‐defined function.
3. The function of each layer should be defined by internationally standardized protocols.
4. The layer boundaries should be chosen to reduce the information flow across the
interfaces.
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5. The number of layers should be large enough that some distinct functions not be
thrown t o g e t h e r i n t h e s a m e l a y e r o f necessity a n d s m a l l e n o u g h t h a t t h e
architecture does not become bulky.

The OSI’s 7-‐layer reference model is an attempt to abstract features common to all approaches to data
communications, and organize them into layers or modules such that each layer only worries about the
layer directly above it and the one directly below it. Those 7 layers are as follows:

1. Physical layer
2. Data Link layer
3. Network layer
4. Transport layer
5. Session layer
6. Presentation layer
7. Application layer
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These layers helps dividing different tasks of communication and transferring data within the network into
subtasks, that’s how one completes cycle of communications between network(s) is completed. Each layer
completes its tasks independently. These layers are also divided into upper and lower layers.

Physical Layer: Layer 1
As the name suggests, Physical layer handles all sorts of physical aspects including, networking cables,
networking cards/adaptors and other physical devices require for networking. It defines bit steam on physical
media. It is responsible for providing interfaces between networks and network communication devices. Physical
layer also handles mechanical, electrical and optical aspects on the network. It is concerned w i t h transmitting
r a w b its o ver a communication channel.

Data Link Layer: Layer 2
Communication links and its procedures are handled by data link layers. The main function of the data -‐link layer
is to take a raw transmission facility and transform it into a line that appears free of undetected transmission
errors to the network layer. It is done by breaking the input data into data frames (typically a few hundred or a
few thousand bytes), transmit the frames subsequently and process the acknowledgement frames sent back by
the receiver.
The physical layer merely accepts and transmits a stream of bits without any concern with meaning or structure.
It is up to the data link layer to create and recognize frame boundaries. This can be done by attaching special bit
patterns the beginning and end of the frame.
A noise burst on the line can destroy a frame completely. In such cases, the data link layer software on the source
machine can retransmit the frame. A duplicate frame could be sent if the acknowledgement frame from the
receiver back to the sender were lost. It is up to this layer to solve the problems caused by damaged, lost and
duplicate frames. Another issue that arises in the data link layer is how to keep a fast transmitter from drawing a
slow receiver in data. Some traffic regulation mechanism must be employed to let the transmitter known how
much buffer space the receiver has at the moment.
Network Layer: Layer 3

Network layer is of great importance when it comes to talk about communication between networking devices.
This layer helps in determining the data being transferred between different network devices.

It is related with controlling the operation of the subnet. A key design issue is to determine how packets
are routed from source to destination. If too many packets are present in the subnet at the time, they will
get in each other’s way similar to bottlenecks. It is the duty of the network layer to control such congestion.

Many problems arise when a packets travel form one network to another up to its destination. The
addressing used by the second network may differ from the first one; the packet size may be large
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enough for the second network, protocols may differ and so on. Hence network layer has to
overcome all these problems to allow heterogeneous networks to be interconnected.

Network layer also translate logical address into actual physical address for example, converting computer name
in to MAC address. The layer is held responsible for controlling the core processes of networking, for example,
routing, managing network and its problem, addressing etc. Router/Switches are the hardware which work on
network layers, if sending devices are unable to break down data into packets similar to receiving devices then
network layer comes in and breakdown the data into smaller unites and then re-‐assemble the data at receiving
end. It handles the core processes of networking, network layer routes data in form of packets according to
network address. It is responsible to send all the data to specific destination with in the network. Protocols used
are RIP, ARP, and ICMP etc.

Transport Layer: Layer 4
Transport layer handles the delivery of data packets at their respective ends and destinations. It is also
responsible for identifying errors and duplication of data through out with in the network. Once data is
transferred to their respective ends successfully it provides acknowledgement about it and resends the data on
receiving errors during transferring. Transport layer keep the connection alive during the data transmission and
also handles error during the course of transferring of data within the network.
It’s basic function is to accept data from the session layer, split it up into smaller units if need be, pass
these to the network layer and ensure that the pieces all arrive correctly at the o t h e r e n d . Under normal
conditions, the transport layer creates a distinct network connection for each transport connection required
by the session layer. If the transport connection requires a high throughput, the transport layer might
create multiple network connections, dividing the data among the network connections to improve
throughput. But if it sounds expensive, the transport layer might multiplex several transport connections
on the same network to reduce c o s t . Overall, t h e tr a n s p o r t l a y e r i s required to make t h e
m u ltip lex in g transparent to the session layer. The transport layer also determines what type of service to be
provided to the session layer, and ultimately the users of the network. The most popular type of transport connections
is an error -‐free -‐p oint-‐t o-‐point channels that delivers message or bytes in the order in which they were sent.

Session Layer: Layer 5
Session layer is designed to manage established sessions between two different nodes (users) within
the network. Session layer is also responsible to establish connection then identifies who and how
much data is to be sent how much time is required for it. Session layers keeps the connection alive,
incase if it is disconnection during the transfer, it reconnects and continues the session.

It allows users on different machines to establish sessions between them. A session allows ordinary
data transport like transport layer do, but also provides enhanced services useful in some

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applications. A session might be sued to allow a user to log into remote timesharing system or to
transfer a file between two machines.

Presentation Layer: Layer 6
Presentation layers works as interfacing layer between different formats. It present data into similar format and
update the difference of formats between two different systems. It also provide interface between application
data to network data format. It is used for protocol conversions, encryptions, decryptions and data compressions.
Cryptography is done with in presentation layer.

Application Layer: Layer 7
This is upfront layer that helps in interfacing for communication and data transfer with in the network. It also
provides support services like transfer services, handles network access, e-‐mailing, error management and user
application support.

The next function of this layer is file transfer. Different file systems have different file naming
conventions, different ways of representing text lines and so on. Transferring a file between two different
systems requires handling these and other incompatibilities. Thus electronic mail, remote job entry, directory
look up, etc. belongs to the application layer.

The TCP/IP Reference Model
ARPANET was a research network sponsored by US Department of Defense. It eventually connected
hundreds of universities and government installations through leased telephone lines. When satellite and
radio networks were added later, the existing protocols had trouble internetworking with them. So new
reference architecture was needed, which would be able to connect multiple networks together in a
seamless way. This was known as TCP/IP Reference Model.

The TCP/IP reference model.

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1. The Internet Layer: The Internet Layer holds the whole architecture together. It is a packet-‐
switching network based on a connectionless inter network layer. Its function is to permit hosts to
inject packets into the network and let them to travel independently to their destinations. The
Internet Layer d e f i n e s a n o ffic ia l packet format and protocol called Internet Protocol (IP).
Thus this layer’s function is to deliver IP packets to their proper destination.

2. The Transport Layer: The Transport Layer allows peer entities on the source and destination hosts
to carry on a conversation. Here, two end-‐t o-‐end protocols have been defined. The first one TCP is
a reliable connection-‐oriented protocol that allows a byte stream originating on one machine to be
delivered on any other machine in the Internet without error. It fragments the incoming byte
stream into discrete messages and passes each one on to the Internet Layer. At the destination,
the receiving TCP/IP process reassembles the received messages into the output stream. TCP/IP also
handles the flow control. The second is UDP (User Datagram Protocol), an unreliable connectionless
protocol for applications that do not want TCP’S sequencing or flow control. It is widely used for
one-‐shot, client-‐server type request-‐reply queries and applications in which prompt delivery is
important than accurate delivery like transmitting speech or voice.

3. The Application L ayer: The TCP/IP model does not have session or presentation layers. The
Application layer is directly on top of transport layer. It contains all the higher-‐level protocols. The
early one included v i r t u a l te r m in a l (Telnet), f i l e transfer (FTP) and electronic mail (SMTIP).
Telnet protocol allows a user on one machine to log into a distant machine and work there. FTP
provides a way to move data efficiently from one machine to another. Email was originally just a
kind of file transfer, but later, a specialized protocol was developed for it. There some other new
protocols like Domain Name Service for mapping host names to their network address or vice-‐
versa, NNTP for moving news articles around and HTTP for fetching pages on the World Wide Web,
etc.

4. The Host-‐to-‐Network Layer: The TCP/IP reference model does not really say much about what
happen below the Internet Layer, except to port out that the host has to connect to the network
using same protocol so it can send IP packets over it. This protocol is not defined and varies from
host to host and network to network.
A Comparison of the OSI and TCP Reference Models
[ASSIGNMENT 01]

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TCP vs UDP
There are two types of Internet Protocol (IP) traffic. They are TCP or Transmission Control Protocol and UDP or
User Datagram Protocol. TCP is connection oriented – once a connection is established, data can be sent
bidirectional. UDP is a simpler, connectionless Internet protocol. Multiple messages are sent as packets in chunks
using UDP.
Comparison chart
TCP UDP
Acronym for: Transmission Control Protocol User Datagram Protocol or Universal
Datagram Protocol
Function: As a message makes its way across UDP is also a protocol used in message
the internet from one computer to transport or transfer. This is not
another. This is connection based. connection based which means that one
program can send a load of packets to
another and that would be the end of the
relationship.
Usage: TCP is used in case of non-‐time UDP is used for games or applications that
critical applications. require fast transmission of data. UDP's

stateless nature is also useful for servers that
answer small queries from huge numbers of
clients.
Examples: HTTP, HTTPs, FTP, SMTP Telnet etc. DNS, DHCP, TFTP, SNMP, RIP, VOIP etc.
Ordering of data TCP rearranges data packets in the UDP has no inherent order as all packets are
packets: order specified. independent of each other. If ordering is
required, it has to be managed by the
application layer.
Speed of transfer: The speed for TCP is slower than UDP. UDP is faster because there is no error-‐
checking for packets.
Reliability: There is absolute guarantee that the There is no guarantee that the messages
data transferred remains intact and or packets sent would reach at all.
arrives in the same order in which it
was sent.

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TCP UDP
Header Size: TCP header size is 20 bytes UDP Header size is 8 bytes.
Common Header Source port, Destination port, Check Source port, Destination port, Check Sum
Fields: Sum
Streaming of data: Data is read as a byte stream, no Packets are sent individually and are
distinguishing indications are checked for integrity only if they arrive.
transmitted to signal message Packets have definite boundaries, which
(segment) boundaries. are honored upon receipt, meaning a
read operation at the receiver socket will
yield an entire message as it was
originally sent.
Weight: TCP requires three packets to set up UDP is lightweight. There is no ordering
a socket connection, before any user of messages, no tracking connections, etc.
data can be sent. TCP handles It is a small transport layer designed on
reliability and congestion control. top of IP.
Data Flow Control: TCP does Flow Control. TCP UDP does not have an option for flow
requires three packets to set up a control
socket connection, before any user
data can be sent. TCP handles
reliability and congestion control.
Error Checking: TCP does error checking UDP does error checking, but no recovery
options.
Fields: 1. Sequence Number, 2. AcK 1. Length, 2. Source port, 3. Destination
number, 3. Data offset, 4. Reserved, port, 4. Check Sum
5. Control bit, 6. Window, 7. Urgent
Pointer 8. Options, 9. Padding, 10.
Check Sum, 11. Source port, 12.
Destination port
Acknowledgement: Acknowledgement segments No Acknowledgment

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Differences in Data Transfer Features
TCP ensures a reliable and ordered delivery of a stream of bytes from user to server or vice
versa. UDP is not dedicated to end to end connections and communication does not check readiness of
receiver.
Reliability
TCP is more reliable since it manages message acknowledgment and retransmissions in case of
lost parts. Thus there is absolutely no missing data. UDP does not ensure that communication
has reached receiver since concepts of acknowledgment, time out and retransmission are not
present.
Ordering
TCP transmissions are sent in a sequence and they are received in the same sequence. In the
event of data segments arriving in wrong order, TCP reorders and delivers application. In the
case of UDP, sent message sequence may not be maintained when it reaches receiving
application. There is absolutely no way of predicting the order in which message will be
received.
Connection
TCP is a heavy weight connection requiring three packets for a socket connection and handles
congestion control and reliability. UDP is a lightweight transport layer designed atop an IP.
There are no tracking connections or ordering of messages.
Method of transfer

TCP reads data as a byte stream and message is transmitted to segment
boundaries. UDP messages are packets which are sent individually and on arrival are checked
for their integrity. Packets have defined boundaries while data stream has none.
Differences in how TCP and UDP work

A TCP connection is established via a three way handshake, which is a process of initiating and
acknowledging a connection. Once the connection is established data transfer can begin. After
transmission, the connection is terminated by closing of all established virtual circuits.

UDP uses a simple transmission model without implicit hand-‐shaking dialogues for guaranteeing
reliability, ordering, or data integrity. Thus, UDP provides an unreliable service and datagrams may
arrive out of order, appear duplicated, or go missing without notice. UDP assumes that error checking
and correction is either not necessary or performed in the application, avoiding the overhead of such

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processing at the network interface level. Unlike TCP, UDP is compatible with packet broadcasts
(sending to all on local network) and multicasting (send to all subscribers).
Different Applications of TCP and UDP

Web browsing, email and file transfer are common applications that make use of TCP. TCP is used to
control segment size, rate of data exchange, flow control and network congestion. TCP is preferred
where error correction facilities are required at network interface level. UDP is largely used by time
sensitive applications as well as by servers that answer small queries from huge number of clients. UDP
is compatible with packet broadcast -‐ sending to all on a network and multicasting – sending to all
subscribers. UDP is commonly used in Domain Name System, Voice over IP, Trivial File Transfer
Protocol and online games.

Unix Standards (POSIX, Open Group, IETF)
POSIX
POSIX, an acronym for "Portable Operating System Interface", is a family of standards specified by the
IEEE for maintaining compatibility between operating systems. POSIX defines the application
programming interface (API), along with command line shells and utility interfaces, for software
compatibility with variants of Unix and other operating systems.

POSIX defines a standard operating system interface and environment, including a command
interpreter (or “shell”), and common utility programs to support applications portability at the source
code level. It is intended to be used by both application developers and system implementers and
comprises four major components (each in an associated volume):

• General terms, concepts, and interfaces common to all volumes of this standard, including utility
conventions and C-‐language header definitions, are included in the Base Definitions volume.
• Definitions for system service functions and subroutines, language-‐specific system services for
the C programming language, function issues, including portability, error handling, and error
recovery, are included in the System Interfaces volume.
• Definitions for a standard source code-‐level interface to command interpretation services (a
“shell”) and common utility programs for application programs are included in the Shell and
Utilities volume.

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• Extended rationale that did not fit well into the rest of the document structure, which contains
historical information concerning the contents of POSIX.1-‐2008 and why features were included
or discarded by the standard developers, is included in the Rationale (Informative) volume.

The following areas are outside the scope of POSIX:
• Graphics interfaces
• Database management system interfaces
• Record I/O considerations
• Object or binary code portability
• System configuration and resource availability

POSIX describes the external characteristics and facilities that are of importance to application
developers, rather than the internal construction techniques employed to achieve these capabilities.
Special emphasis is placed on those functions and facilities that are needed in a wide variety of
commercial applications.
The POSIX specifications for Unix-‐like operating system environments originally consisted of a single
document for the core-‐programming interface, but eventually grew to 19 separate documents (E.g.
POSIX.1, POSIX.2 etc.). The standardized user command line and scripting interface were based on
the Korn shell. Many user-‐level programs, services, and utilities including awk, echo, ed were also
standardized, along with required program-‐level services including basic I/O (file, terminal,
and network) services. POSIX also defines a standard threading library API which is supported by most
modern operating systems.
As of 2009, POSIX documentation is divided in two parts:
• POSIX.1-‐2008: POSIX Base Definitions, System Interfaces, and Commands and Utilities (which
include POSIX.1, extensions for POSIX.1, Real-‐time Services, Threads Interface, Real-‐time
Extensions, Security Interface, Network File Access and Network Process-‐to-‐Process
Communications, User Portability Extensions, Corrections and Extensions, Protection and Control
Utilities and Batch System Utilities)
• POSIX Conformance Testing: A test suite for POSIX accompanies the standard: PCTS or the POSIX
Conformance Test Suite.
[The development of the POSIX standard takes place in the Austin Group, a joint working group linking the Open Group and the
ISO organization.]

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POSIX.1
• POSIX.1, Core Services (incorporates Standard ANSI C) (IEEE Std. 1003.1-‐1988)
• Process Creation and Control
• Signals
• Floating Point Exceptions
• Segmentation / Memory Violations
• Illegal Instructions
• Bus Errors
• Timers
• File and Directory Operations
• Pipes
• C Library (Standard C)
• I/O Port Interface and Control

POSIX.1b
• POSIX.1b, Real-‐time extensions (IEEE Std 1003.1b-‐1993)

• Priority Scheduling
• Real-‐Time Signals
• Clocks and Timers
• Semaphores
• Message Passing
• Shared Memory
• Asynch and Synch I/O
Memory Locking Interface
•

POSIX.1c
• POSIX.1c, Threads extensions (IEEE Std 1003.1c-‐1995)

• Thread Creation, Control, and Cleanup
• Thread Scheduling
• Thread Synchronization
• Signal Handling

POSIX.2
• POSIX.2, Shell and Utilities (IEEE Std 1003.2-‐1992)

• Command Interpreter
• Utility Programs

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After 1997, the Austin Group developed the POSIX revisions. The specifications are known under the name Single UNIX
Specification, before they become a POSIX standard when formally approved by the ISO.
POSIX.1-‐2001
POSIX.1-‐2001 or IEEE Std 1003.1-‐2001 equates to the Single UNIX Specification version 3
This standard consisted of:
• the Base Definitions, Issue 6,

• the System Interfaces and Headers, Issue 6,
• the Commands and Utilities, Issue 6.
POSIX.1-‐2001
IEEE Std 1003.1-‐2004 involved a minor update of POSIX.1-‐2001. It incorporated two

technical corrigenda. Its contents are available on the web.
POSIX.1-‐2008
As of 2009 POSIX.1-‐2008 or IEEE Std 1003.1-‐2008 represents the current version. A free online copy is
available.
This standard consists of:
• the Base Definitions, Issue 7,

• the System Interfaces and Headers, Issue 7,
• the Commands and Utilities, Issue 7.

OPEN GROUP
The Open Group is a global consortium that enables the achievement of business objectives through IT standards.
With more than 400 member organizations, they have a diverse membership that spans all sectors of the IT
community — customers, systems and solutions suppliers, tool vendors, integrators and consultants, as well as
academics and researchers to:
• Capture, understand and address current and emerging requirements, and establish policies and share best
practices
• Facilitate interoperability, develop consensus, and evolve and integrate specifications and open source
technologies
• Offer a comprehensive set of services to enhance the operational efficiency of consortia
• Operate the industry’s premier certification service
The Open Group is a vendor and technology-‐neutral industry consortium, currently with over four
hundred member organizations. It was formed in 1996 when X/Open merged with the Open Software
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Foundation. Services provided include strategy, management, innovation and research, standards,
certification, and test development. The Open Group is most famous as the certifying body for the UNIX
trademark and its publication of the Single UNIX Specification technical standard, which extends the
POSIX standards and is the official definition of a UNIX system.

The Open Group also develops and manages the Open Group Architecture Framework standard, which
is an industry standard enterprise architecture framework. The Open Group members include a range
of IT buyers and vendors as well as government agencies, for example, Fujitsu, Oracle, Hitachi, HP, IBM,
, NEC, US Department of Defense, NASA and others.

• The Open Group published x/open portability guide in 1989.
• Next issue was published in 1992 followed by version 2 in 1994.
• In 1997, version 2 of the single Unix specification was announced. Products conforming to this
specification are called UNIX 98. The number of interfaces required by UNIX 98 increases from
1170 to 1434, although for a workstation, this jumps to 3030 because it includes the CDF
(Common Desktop Environment).

IETF
IETF is short for Internet Engineering Task Force, the main standards organization for the Internet. The
IETF is a large open international community of network designers, operators, vendors, and
researchers concerned with the evolution of the Internet architecture and the smooth operation of the
Internet. It is open to any interested individual.

The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) develops and promotes Internet standards, cooperating
closely with the W3C and ISO/IEC standards bodies and dealing in particular with standards of
the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP). It is an open standards organization, with no formal membership
or membership requirements.
All participants and managers are volunteers, though their employers or sponsors usually fund their work; for instance, the
current chairperson is funded by VeriSign and the U.S. government's National Security Agency.

Network Utilities (telnet, netstat, ifconfig, ping, ftp)
• telnet
A terminal emulation program for TCP/IP networks such as the Internet. The Telnet program
runs on your computer and connects your PC to a server on the network. You can then enter

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commands through the Telnet program and they will be executed as if you were entering them
directly on the server console. This enables you to control the server and communicate with
other servers on the network. To start a Telnet session, you must log in to a server by entering a
valid username and password. Telnet is a common way to remotely control Web servers.
telnet [-‐8] [-‐E] [-‐L] [-‐c] [-‐d] [-‐r] [ -‐e escape_char ] [ -‐l user ] [-‐n file ] [ host [ port ] ]
-‐8 Specifies an 8-‐bit data path. Negotiating the TELNET BINARY option is attempted for both input
and output.
-‐E Stops any character from being recognized as an escape character.
-‐L Specifies an 8-‐bit data path on output. This causes the BINARY option to be negotiated on output.
-‐c Disables the reading of the user's telnetrc file.
-‐d Sets the initial value of the debug toggle to TRUE.
-‐r Specifies a user interface similar to rlogin. In this mode, the escape character is set to the
tilde (~) character, unless modified by the -‐e option. The rlogin escape character is only
recognized when it is preceded by a carriage return. In this mode, the telnet escape
character, normally '^]', must still precede a telnet command. The rlogin escape character
can also be followed by '.\r' or '^Z', and, like rlogin, closes or suspends the connection,
respectively. This option is an uncommitted inter-‐ face and may change in the future.
-‐e escape_char Sets the initial escape character to escape_char. escape_char may also be a two character sequence
consisting of '^' followed by one character. If the second character is '?', the DEL character is
selected. Otherwise, the second character is converted to a control character and used as the
escape character. If the escape character is the null string (that is, -‐e ''), it is disabled.
-‐l user When connecting to a remote system that understands the ENVIRON option, then user will be sent
to the remote system as the value for the ENVIRON variable USER.
-‐n file Opens trace file for recording trace information.

• netstat
Print network connections, routing tables, interface statistics, masquerade connections, and
multicast memberships.
netstat [-‐a] [-‐b] [-‐e] [-‐f] [-‐n] [-‐o] [-‐p protocol] [-‐r] [-‐s] [-‐t] [-‐x] [-‐y] [time_interval] [/?]

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-‐a = This switch displays active TCP connections, TCP connections with the listening state, as well
as UDP ports that are being listened to.
-‐b = This netstat switch is very similar to the -‐o switch listed below, but instead of displaying the
PID, will display the process's actual file name. Using -‐b over -‐o might seem like it's saving you a
step or two but using it can sometimes greatly extend the time it takes netstat to fully execute.
-‐e = Use this switch with the netstat command to show statistics about your network connection.
This data includes bytes, unicast packets, non-‐unicast packets, discards, errors, and unknown
protocols received and sent since the connection was established.
-‐f = The -‐f switch will force the netstat command to display the Fully Qualified Domain
Name(FQDN) for each foreign IP addresses when possible.

-‐n = Use the -‐n switch to prevent netstat from attempting to determine host names for foreign IP
addresses. Depending on your current network connections, using this switch could considerably
reduce the time it takes for netstat to fully execute.
… … …
• ifconfig
ifconfig (short for interface configuration) is a system administration utility in Unix-‐like
operating systems to configure, control, and query TCP/IP network interface parameters from a
command line interface (CLI) or in system configuration scripts.
ifconfig [interface]
ifconfig interface [aftype] options | address ...

Options
interface
The name of the interface. This is usually a driver name followed by a unit number, for
example eth0 for the first Ethernet interface.
up
This flag causes the interface to be activated. It is implicitly specified if an address is assigned to
the interface.
down
This flag causes the driver for this interface to be shut down.
… … …
E.g.
ifconfig eth0 : View the network settings on the first Ethernet adapter installed in the computer.

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ifconfig –a : Display info on all network interfaces on server, active or inactive.
ifconfig eth0 down : If eth0 exists would take it down causing it cannot send or receive any
information.
ifconfig eth0 up : If eth0 exists and in the down state would return it back to the up state allowing
to to send and receive information.

ifconfig eth0 192.168.1.102 netmask 255.255.255.0 broadcast 192.168.1.255 : Assign eth0 with the
above values for IP, netmask and broadcast address.

• ping
Short for Packet InterNet Groper, ping is a utility used to verify if a network data packet is
capable of being distributed to an address without errors. The ping utility is commonly used to
check for network errors. It sends ICMP ECHO_REQUEST packets to network hosts.
Syntax
ping -‐s [-‐d] [-‐l] [-‐L] [-‐n] [-‐r] [-‐R] [-‐v] [ -‐i interface_address ] [-‐I interval] [-‐t ttl] host [packetsize] [count]
-‐d Set the SO_DEBUG socket option.
-‐l Loose source route. Use this option in the IP header to send the
packet to the given host and back again. Usually specified with the -‐R
option.
-‐L Turn off loopback of multicast packets. Normally, if there are
members in the host group on the out-‐ going interface, a copy of the
multicast packets will be delivered to the local machine.
-‐n Show network addresses as numbers. Ping normally displays

addresses as host names.
-‐r Bypass the normal routing tables and send directly to a host on an
attached network. If the host is not on a directly attached network,
an error is returned. This option can be used to ping a local host
through an interface that has been dropped by the router daemon.
-‐R Record route. Sets the IP record route option, which will store the
route of the packet inside the IP header.
-‐v Verbose output. List any ICMP packets, other than ECHO_RESPONSE,
that are received.
-‐i interface_address Specify the outgoing interface address to use for multicast packets.
The default interface address for multicast packets is determined

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from the routing tables.
-‐I interval Specify the interval between successive transmissions. The default is
one second.
-‐t ttl Specify the IP time to live for unicast and multicast packets. The
default time to live for multicast is one hop.
host The network host.
packetsize Specified size of packet. Default is 64.
count Amount of times to send the ping request.
Examples
ping google.com

• ftp & its commands
[SELF STUDY 01. Ref: Web Technology]

Introduction to Network Programming

Computer network programming involves writing computer programs that enable processes to
communicate with each other across a computer network.

Network programming is client–server programming
Inter process communication, even if it is bidirectional, cannot be implemented in a perfectly
symmetric way: to establish a communication channel between two processes, one process must take
the initiative, while the other is waiting for it. Therefore, network programming unavoidably assumes a
client–server model: The process initiating the communication is a client, and the process waiting for
the communication to be initiated is a server. The client and server processes together form a
distributed system. In a peer-‐to-‐peer communication, the program can act both as a client and a server.

Network programming is socket programming
The endpoint in an inter process communication is called a socket, or a network socket for
disambiguation. Since most communication between computers is based on the Internet Protocol, an
almost equivalent term is Internet socket. The data transmission between two sockets is organized by
communications protocols, usually implemented in the operating system of the participating
computers. Application programs write to and read from these sockets. Therefore, network
programming is essentially socket programming.
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We write network programs using APIs. There are 2 APIs for that.
• SOCKETS
• XTI (X/Open Transport Interface) developed by AT & T

Programming Standards
[SELF STUDY 02.]

Wrapper functions
A wrapper function is a function in a computer program whose main purpose is to call a second
function with little or no additional computation. This is also known as method delegation. Wrapper
functions can be used for a number of purposes.
• Each and every system call has potentiality to fail.
• System calls may fail due to various reasons like resource limitation, wrong parameters etc.
• Real Program to be implemented can’t ignore these errors.
• Handling error in the main routine itself involves many nested if-‐else ladders or switch
statements, making the flow of the program difficult to understand.
• So, we define the new function that makes the system call, handles error (if any) and returns
back the output of the system call (if success). This is called wrapper function.
• Thus, by using wrapper function, we get clean and understandable program code and errors are
also handled properly.
• To distinguish it from system calls, a wrapper function name begins with a capital letter; while
system call has a name with all small letter.
• By, convention, a wrapper function and the system call that it invokes have the same name
except for the initial letter.
• Also, they have same type, sequence and number of parameters as well as same return type.

Example
int main()
{
char *buff[100];
int fd, n;
Mkfifo(“/usr/bin/myinfo.fifo”, S_IRDWR);
fd=open(“/usr/bin/myfifo.fifo”,O_RDONLY);
n=Read(fd, buff, 100);
buff[n]=’\0’;
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printf(“%s”,buff);
return 0;
}
int Mkinfo (const char *pname, mode_t mode)
{
int err;
err=mkfifo(pname,mode);
if(err==-1)
{
switch(errno)
{
case E_ACCESS: printf(“Access Violation.”);
exit(0);
case E_EXIST: printf(“Already Exists.”)

exit(0);
.
.
.
default: perror("Other ERROR”);
exit(0);
}
return 0;
}

Header files
A header file is a file that allows programmers to separate certain elements of a program's source code
into reusable files. Header files commonly contain forward declarations of classes, subroutines,
variables, and other identifiers. Programmers who wish to declare standardized identifiers in more
than one source file can place such identifiers in a single header file, which other code can then include
whenever the header contents are required. This is to keep the interface in the header separate from
the implementation.
Header files serve two purposes:
• System header files declare the interfaces to parts of the operating system. You include them in your
program to supply the definitions and declarations you need to invoke system calls and libraries.

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• Your own header files contain declarations for interfaces between the source files of your program. Each
time you have a group of related declarations and macro definitions all or most of which are needed in
several different source files, it is a good idea to create a header file for them.
Some Header Files Used in Network Programming
o <sys/types.h>
o <unistd.h>
o <sys/uio.h>
o <errno.h>
o <sys/ioctl.h>
o <fcntl.h>
o <sys/socket.h>
o <netdb.h>
o <netinet/in_systm.h>
o <netinet/ip_icmp.h>
o <netinet/udp.h>
o <netinet/ip.h>
o <netinet/in.h>
o <arpa/inet.h>
o <arpa/nameser.h>
o <resolv.h>
o <net/if.h>
o <strings.h>
Libraries and Program Documentation

[ASSIGNMENT 02 + SELF STUDY 03]


NetworkProgramming CH 01

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Full Marks: 100 [Internal: 40 & External: 60]

Introduction to Programming: Programming Standards, Wrapper functions, Header files,

Introductions to select function, shutdown function and poll function.

Role of Clients

• Establish a connection with the server, given its address.

This can be summarized as:

get the server's address

connect to the server

while (not finished) do:

If (information from server) do

show to user, update local state information, etc.

else {we've got a user command}

send to server, or deal with locally.

Role of Servers

• Accept connection request from a client.

• Receive request from the client and return results.

• Close connection when done.

listen on the port for connection requests.

accept an incoming connection request

if (this is an authorized Client)

while (connection still alive) do:

receive request from client

send results of request, or error messages

abort the connection

Multi Client Servers

2. Data Link layer

Network Layer: Layer 3

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A Comparison of the OSI and TCP Reference Models

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critical applications. require fast transmission of data. UDP's

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Acknowledgement: Acknowledgement segments No Acknowledgment

Method of transfer

Differences in how TCP and UDP work

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Different Applications of TCP and UDP

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As of 2009, POSIX documentation is divided in two parts:

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• POSIX.1b, Real-­‐time extensions (IEEE Std 1003.1b-­‐1993)

• POSIX.1c, Threads extensions (IEEE Std 1003.1c-­‐1995)

• POSIX.2, Shell and Utilities (IEEE Std 1003.2-­‐1992)

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This standard consisted of:

• the Base Definitions, Issue 6,

IEEE Std 1003.1-­‐2004 involved a minor update of POSIX.1-­‐2001. It incorporated two

This standard consists of:

• the Base Definitions, Issue 7,

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-­‐c Disables the reading of the user's telnetrc file.

-­‐n file Opens trace file for recording trace information.

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-­‐d Set the SO_DEBUG socket option.

-­‐n Show network addresses as numbers. Ping normally displays

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from the routing tables.

host The network host.

packetsize Specified size of packet. Default is 64.

count Amount of times to send the ping request.

Introduction to Network Programming

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• POSIX.1b, Real-‐time extensions (IEEE Std 1003.1b-‐1993)

• POSIX.1c, Threads extensions (IEEE Std 1003.1c-‐1995)

• POSIX.2, Shell and Utilities (IEEE Std 1003.2-‐1992)

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IEEE Std 1003.1-‐2004 involved a minor update of POSIX.1-‐2001. It incorporated two

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-‐c Disables the reading of the user's telnetrc file.

-‐n file Opens trace file for recording trace information.

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-‐d Set the SO_DEBUG socket option.

-‐n Show network addresses as numbers. Ping normally displays

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