A Simple Sag Generator Using SSRs
Osman S. Senturk
Student Member
Aalborg University
Department of Energy Technology
Pontoppidanstraede 101
Aalborg, 9220, Denmark
oss@et.aau.dk
Abstract -- Power line voltage sags are among the most
frequent and costly power quality problems. Most equipment
must be designed such that they can tolerate voltage sags (within
limits defined according to some standards). Furthermore, some
equipment must continue proper operation even under extreme
sag conditions (critical loads) and this property often may not be
accommodated inside the device itself and sag compensating
power conditioners have been developed for such purposes.
While in practice voltage sags are not wanted, generating sags
becomes necessary for the purpose of experimentally verifying
the performances of the equipment (both the equipment under
sag condition and the sag compensating power conditioner)
under sag conditions. In this work, a simple and economical, yet
highly performing sag generator is developed, its design
discussed, and its feasibility demonstrated by experiments. The
proposed SSR (solid state relay, a semiconductor power module
of triac characteristics) and variable transformer (variac) based
sag generator is built for three-phase 10kVA ratings and
balanced/imbalanced voltage sags are demonstrated in the
laboratory. The performance under resistive and inductive loads
is evaluated and finally the utilization of the sag generator in the
test of a series active filter based power quality conditioner is
demonstrated. The proposed approach provides an effective
solution for voltage sag generation.
Index Terms-- DVR, generator, power quality, sag, sag
generator, series active filter, solid state relay, SSR, thyristor,
variable transformer, voltage sag
I. INTRODUCTION
Power line voltage sags may typically be triggered by
natural causes (by lightning or by icing of transmission lines)
or by some loading conditions (start-up of large motor drives
or rectifiers without soft-starters/precharge circuits which
draw large inrush currents, arc furnaces exhibiting low
impedance and imbalanced load characteristics and drawing
large magnitude imbalanced currents). They are the most
frequent power quality problems in the power grid and they
usually have high economical impact on the voltage sensitive
loads. In process control systems, control boards and motor
drives, which are sensitive to sags may be adversely effected
due to voltage sag and processes may be halted. Repair and
restart of the processes usually is involved and costly. In the
978-1-4244-5287-3/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE
Ahmet M. Hava
Member
Middle East Technical University
Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Inonu Bulvari
Ankara, 06931, Turkey
hava@metu.edu.tr
class of electronic loads, which includes power electronics
based motor drives (inverter drives), constant power type
loads draw large current during deep voltage sags and trip the
drive (due to current overloading) or blow the fuses bringing
the system to a halt. During a deep sag, constant impedance
type loads may be forced out of their intended operating
region, rendering the load partially ineffective or more
drastically leaving it out of operation. In addition to the
downtime of the installation using the sag affected
equipment, the equipment damages and hazards are often
very high. In manufacturing lines, processes, public
infrastructures, etc., the cost of voltage sag based failure is
usually unacceptable that a method to mitigate the sag effect
is mandatory [1], [2].
In order to avoid the voltage sag problems, the sensitivity
of the equipment fed from the AC grid to voltage sags can be
decreased to sufficient levels by design or by utilization of
auxiliary devices. For example, in electronic boards fed from
switch-mode regulators and in inverter drives using AC/DC
rectifier stage, the rectifier stage can be designed to sustain
operation during voltage sags. In such systems, the rectifier
stage involves an electrolytic capacitor bank for rectifier
output voltage filtering. By increasing the size of the
electrolytic capacitor, the energy storage capability of the
device can be increased to a sufficient level to maintain
power to the load during a voltage sag. Alternatively the
design may involve a DC bus voltage control stage (using a
PWM boost rectifier) and the load can ride-through a sag
adequately. Further, in some applications, external (auxiliary)
units can be utilized for sag ride-through. For example, an
energy storage unit may be interfaced with the DC bus of the
rectifier (using a power electronic converter) and transfer
energy to the DC bus of the load during the sag such that the
rectifier DC bus is sustained at/above the critical level for
proper operation [3]-[5]. In the more radical and usually more
expensive approach, sag compensating power quality
conditioning devices (sag correctors, dynamic voltage
restorers (DVRs), uninterruptible power supplies (UPSs),
etc.) are inserted between the AC grid and the sensitive loads
[6].
4049
 Regardless the method for sag mitigation, based on the
equipment classifications involved, the sag sensitivity of
equipments must meet certain standards. For example,
information technology equipment must meet the ITIC
requirements, which define the sag duration and depth as
combined criteria and establish an operability envelope for
ride-through operation [7]. Similarly, power line conditioners
must meet certain sag ride-through conditions. For example,
in UPS systems and voltage regulators (static or variable
transformer-dc servo based) load regulation for a varying line
voltage range is defined. Typically, UPS systems provide
nominal output voltage for an input voltage variation of
±25% while voltage regulators usually are designed to
operate in a wider range. In all such cases, during the design,
development, and certification of such devices, voltage sag
tests (according to standards such as IEEE-1159 [8], or the
specification of manufacturer and customer) must be
conducted to confirm the sag ride-through capability of the
system. Therefore, in university and industry research
laboratories, standards and certification institutions, etc., sag
generators are required. As defined in the IEEE-1159
standards, typical sags last for 0.5-30 times the power line
period and their depth can be 10-90%. Thus, sag generators
must provide voltage sag in this range. In all the sag/surge
generating equipment, the main desirable feature is the easy
and free programmability of the sag duration and depth.
Though not as common as the sags, often surges [here, a
small percent line voltage rise (10-20%) is considered, rather
than the instantaneous line surges of kV range] also are
considered and if a sag generator can operate as a surge
generator, its functionality range can be further expanded. In
summary, voltage sag generator circuits are essential test
equipments for the purpose of sag mitigation studies.
Commercially available and/or literature-reported sag
generators are usually complex and expensive. They are
usually offered by a few international specialized test and
instrumentation equipment manufacturers as custom design
products at very high cost. For ratings less than several kVA,
autotransformer and electronic circuits based (linear or
switch-mode) sag generators [9], [10], and for higher power
ratings either autotransformer with tap changing windings
(using contactors or thyristor based static switches) [11]-[13]
or rotating machine (synchronous generator) [14] based
configurations are used. While the electronic units are limited
in power rating and usually complex and very expensive, the
latter types are bulky and complex. With all such systems
requiring advanced design, such equipments are best
purchased from a custom design manufacturer, and usually at
high cost and limited flexibility. The triac structured SSR
based sag generator in [15] has limited performance due to
the discontinuity in the voltage waveform. The method based
on using IGBT switches [16] can provide instantaneous
voltage sag, but involves snubbers and detailed gate drive
circuitry, which requires specialists’ effort to design such a
generator.
4050
In this work, a simple and economical, yet highly
performing sag generator will be developed and its
application for the test of a power quality conditioner will be
demonstrated. The proposed SSR and variable
autotransformer (variac) based sag generator has very simple
design and can be easily manufactured and operated,
therefore it is suitable for most R&D and test labs to evaluate
the performance of equipment under sag conditions (device
under test or a sag-compensating power quality conditioner).
To verify the proposed approach, the proposed SSR and
variac based sag generator will be designed for three-phase
10kVA ratings and balanced/imbalanced voltage sags will be
generated. The sag generator will be tested with R-L load and
its performance entering and exiting a sag condition will be
demonstrated. Finally, the utilization of the sag generator in
the test of a series active filter based power quality
conditioner will demonstrate that the proposed method
provides an effective method for voltage sag generation. In
the study only voltage sags will be considered and voltage
surge will not be reported. However, it should be noted that
the system hardware can be used for voltage surge generation
without any modification, provided that the variac has
voltage boost capability.
II. OPERATING PRINCIPLE
Designed for modularity and ease of use, commercially
available SSR products consist of back-to-back connected
thyristors, their gate drive circuits (with galvanic isolation),
snubbers, and overvoltage protection devices. They are
commercially offered as single-phase or three-phase modules.
Similar to the ASIPMs (application specific intelligent power
modules) (IGBT modules designed for motor drives, which
include gate drive and protection circuits), SSRs also require
a small DC power supply and they are driven via control
logic gate signals [17]. Therefore, the user of SSRs does not
have to be involved in power electronic circuit design, which
requires significant specialists’ education and experience.
Thus, using SSRs is easy for an engineer or technician with
basic electronics background.
The proposed voltage sag generator consists of three SSR-
controlled parallel paths per phase (Fig. 1) and it is inserted
between the line and the load in series configuration. The per-
phase structure involves three SSRs, a variable resistor, and a
variac. Its operation can be briefly explained as follows. The
SSRS path provides the nominal voltage (the healthy utility
voltage, representing the pre-sag condition). The path
involving the variac and the switch SSRV provides the pre-set
sag voltage to the load for as long a duration as intended. The
transition from the pre-sag (normal) condition to the pre-set
sag condition (and also from the sag condition to the normal
condition) involves the transfer resistor RT and SSRR in order
to assure continuous (gradually decaying) voltage at the load
terminals and retain the load current path. Instead of using
this transition path, the switches SSRS and SSRV could be
simultaneously enabled during the transition and large short-
circuit current would flow due to the output short-circuit of
the variable transformer. In such a design, either the power
circuit would have to be derated or stresses in the circuit
would be increased. Thus, this condition is avoided and the
resistive transition path is favored in the design. An SSR can
only turn-on at the first voltage zero-crossing after a turn-on
command and can only turn-off at the first current zero-
crossing after a turn-off command. Therefore, these three
SSR devices are controlled (their gate signals are
programmed) in the sequence shown in Fig. 2 in order to
generate a voltage sag and to recover from it.
+ vsag − of the SSRV turn-on signal (approximately Te/8=2.5ms later),
SSRS
RT
eS vS
SSRR
Utility Variac Load
SSRV
Fig. 1. The voltage sag generator with 3-SSR (per phase)
SV 1 turn-on signal and approximately 2.5ms later the SSRV turn-
0 t
SR 1
0 t
SS 1 signal is applied to SSRS and the load current transfers from
0 t
S sag1
0 t
12.5ms 2.5ms
1 the load type). The load voltage during the transition is
SV 0 t
SR 1
0 t
SS 1
0 t
S sag1
0 t
2.5ms 12.5ms
Fig. 2. Logic signals for initiating (top) and terminating (bottom)
a voltage sag
The sag command is provided with an external input to the
system via the logic signal of Ssag and “0” corresponds to
starting a sag while “1” corresponds to returning to normal
conditions. Under nominal load voltage conditions (Ssag=1),
4051
SSRS and SSRR are continuously enabled (SSRS=SSRR=1) and
in this case since RT exhibits a high impedance path
compared to the SSRS path, the current flows through SSRS
only. Once a sag is commanded (Ssag:1→0), the turn-off
signal is transmitted to SSRS. After SSRS is turned-off at the
first current zero-crossing, the load current transfers to the
path involving SSRR. In order to ensure that SSRS is turned-off
before turning-on the path with SSRV, the turn-on signal to
SSRV is generated by at least a half electrical period delay
such that a load current zero-crossing occurs and therefore
SSRS turn-off is guaranteed [for 50Hz power line considering
a 10ms half cycle (Te/2=10ms), a delay of approximately
td=Te/2+Te/8=12.5ms is sufficient]. Following the generation
the turn-off signal for SSRR is generated and at its zero-
crossing the load current transfers to the path involving the
variac, which gives the demanded sagged output voltage at
the load terminals. While the pre-sag condition output voltage
is the nominal utility grid voltage and the final voltage is the
demanded sag voltage, during the transition, the load voltage
is a gracefully decaying sine voltage. The decaying sine
voltage shape is determined by the pre-sag load current
magnitude and the RT value (which can be specified by
design).
For recovery from the voltage sag condition, the voltage
sag command removal (Ssag:0→1) is followed by the SSRR
off signal is generated. Hence, the load current transfers from
the path involving the variac to the path involving RT at the
first current zero-crossings after the SSRV turn-off command.
At least 10ms (approximately 12.5ms) later, the turn-on
the path with RT to the path with SSRS. Hence, nominal load
voltage resumes.
The SSR gate signal patterns described in this section
ensure both no voltage/current discontinuity at the load
terminal and no output short-circuit of the variac (regardless
determined by the transition resistor RT and the load current.
While the load current is defined by the load characteristics
external to the sag generator, the transition resistor is a design
variable, and its design will be addressed in the next section.
III. POWER CIRCUIT DESIGN
The design of the power circuit of Fig. 1 is relatively
simple. In a single-phase application, three single-phase SSR
modules, one variac and resistor are sufficient. In three-phase
applications, if only balanced sag is required a three-phase
variac can be used. If unbalanced sag is required, three
single-phase variacs become necessary. The three-phase
applications require three resistors and three three-phase SSR
modules. If only sag tests are required the voltage rating of
the variac becomes the line nominal voltage. If surge is also
considered, then maximum surge voltage becomes the variac
rating. The variac current rating is the nominal load current.
 In the design, the line voltage is assumed to be at its
nominal value, Es. A voltage sag with an amount of V*sag is
generated by the sag generator. When there is no sag, the
output voltage Vs is equal to Es, (V*sag=0 or 0% sag) and when
there is full sag, the output voltage is zero (V*sag=Es or 100%
sag). Depending on the intended sag amount the variac must
be adjusted properly. The output voltage during the sag
transition is determined by the transition resistor RT and the
load current IL as given in (1) for unity power factor (PF=1).
For gradual fall of the sagging voltage, the RT resistor voltage
drop should be less than the sag reference value as given in
the inequality of (2). Defining a base resistance value of RB as
in (3), and assuming that the sag range is 10-90% and the
load current range is 10-100% of the nominal load current,
the inequality of (2) gives the required range for RT as 0.1RB
and 9RB. For example, a 220V-10kVA three-phase sag
generator requires a variable resistor with a range between
1.5Ω and 135Ω. Staying in conduction only for one
fundamental cycle in a sag test, the power rating of RT should
be selected considering the sag test frequency.
application (4.4Ω). The variac voltage levels are adjusted
according to the demanded sag value. Various tests have been
conducted to demonstrate the performance of the sag
generator. The performance has been demonstrated on two
distinct load types corresponding to two different use
purposes. First, generating a sag for the purpose of testing the
behavior of a load under voltage sag conditions has been
considered, and here resistive (R) and inductive (RL) loads
have been employed. Secondly, to evaluate the performance
of a power quality conditioner under sagged utility voltage
conditions, the sag generator is employed, and here a series
active filter as harmonic isolator and load voltage regulator
has been used as a sag compensator. For both experiments,
the voltage sag command signal Ssag and the SSR gate signals
SS, SR, SV generated via the electronic circuit are in
accordance with the proposed timing (of Fig. 2) and shown in
Fig. 5.

VS = ES − RT I L (1)
*
V sag ≥ RT I L (2)
RB = ES I L , rated (3)

The SSR current rating is determined by IL,rated. For a given

SSR capable of carrying IL,rated, the heatsink applied to SSR
modules and ambient temperature determine the practical
SSR current rating due to thermal loading. Therefore, the
SSRs (especially SSRS and SSRV, which carries IL
continuously) should be equipped with the proper heatsink at
the predefined ambient temperature according to the SSR
datasheet [17].
Fig. 3. 10kVA sag generator power and control circuits

IV. THE SYSTEM HARDWARE DESCRIPTION AND

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
In order to verify the performance of the proposed system 1k to SSRS
a three-phase 10kVA, 220Vrms/phase sag generator circuit
was prototyped and its experimental studies conducted. The 1k
470n 47k 1k 10n
design target has been selected as 30% sag and rated load
current. Fig. 3 shows the power and control circuit of the sag 68k
generator. The load and the variac are not illustrated as they 555 1k
to SSRR
are standard components of every power laboratory and carry Timer
no significance in the investigation. In Table I, the power and 1k
330n 1k 10n
control circuit components are listed. While the power circuit
of the sag generator is as straightforward and simple as the 4k9 1k
figure illustrates, the control circuit has to be built as shown to SSRV
in Fig. 4 by the user using simple passive elements and logic
470n 47k 1k 10n
gates, which are widely available. The main function of the
control circuit is to implement the logic described in Fig. 2.
The variable resistor RT for the 10kVA rating is selected as Fig. 4. Sag generator control circuit diagram
10Ω wire wound type (wound from chromium-nickel wire)
with the adjustment ring set to the value suitable for the

4052
 TABLE I the full functionality of the circuit and proper emulation of a
THE SAG GENERATOR COMPONENT LIST
real sag condition. In Fig. 9, the inductive load test provides
Component Type #
SSR Celduc SVT868394 520V 50A 3
detailed information on the sag generator internal behavior.
Chromium-Nickel
Not only it shows that RT is necessary for voltage/current
Resistor 3 continuity at the load terminals, but also it indicates that there
wound porcelain 10Ω
3-phase variac 380V (in) 435V (out) 26A 1 is a circulating current in the variac. As a current larger than
Heatsink 170AS 300mm 1 the load current flows through the resistor during the
Miniature circuit breaker 400V 40A 2 transition, it becomes apparent that this current limited by RT
Diode 1N4001 3 circulates through the variac via and resistor branches. Thus,
Timer 555 (in monostable mode) 1 this circulating current should be taken into account during
BJT 2N2222 3 the design step. In Fig. 10, the three-phase voltage
Inverter logic gate 74HC00 1 waveforms for the inductive load are shown for the balanced
30% sag and its recovery sequence, which proves that the
proposed circuit is able to generate the three-phase voltage
sag commanded by the signal Ssag.

iS c
eS SSRS ab vS LY
SSRR RY
R SSRV
Utility Load
n
n
Variac

Fig. 6. Three-phase sag generator inductive (RL) load test circuit diagram

Fig. 5. Experimental control signals for initiating (top) and terminating

(bottom) a voltage sag: SV (purple), SR (blue), SS (green), and Ssag (yellow)

A. Resistive and Inductive Load Experimental Results

The experimental system circuit diagram for the resistive
and inductive load tests is shown in Fig. 6. The 10kVA,
220Vrms/phase inductive load has an impedance of ZL=21Ω
and ZL=(16+j16)Ω per phase for resistive and inductive cases,
respectively. For 30% balanced voltage sag, Fig. 7 shows
initiation and termination of a voltage sag sequence for
ZL=21Ω successfully. For the resistive load, Fig. 8 shows that
the resistor RT sustains the continuity of the load voltage and
current during the transition interval. On the same figure in Fig. 7. For the 21Ω resistive load, at the beginning (top) and the end (bottom)
the lower side, without RT, the load voltage and current of a %30 voltage sag, the sag generator output terminal voltage (purple,
100V/div) and input voltage (blue, 10V/div)
become discontinuous and deviate from a real sag condition.
Therefore, it becomes clear that the use of RT is essential for

4053
Fig. 8. For the 21Ω resistive load, at the beginning of a %30 voltage sag, the
sag generator output terminal voltage (purple, 100V/div), terminal current
(blue, 10A/div), SSRR current (green, 20A/div) and Ssag (yellow, 5V/div)
waveforms (time axis: 10ms/div) for the cases with SSRR (top) and without
SSRR (bottom)
Fig. 9. For the 16+16j Ω inductive load, at the beginning of a %30 voltage
sag, the sag generator output terminal voltage (purple, 100V/div), terminal
current (blue, 10A/div), SSRR current (green, 20A/div) and Ssag (yellow,
5V/div) waveforms (time axis: 10ms/div) for the cases with SSRR (top) and
without SSRR (bottom)
4054
Fig. 10. For the 16+16j Ω inductive load, the three-phase output terminal
voltage waveforms (100V/div) and Ssag (yellow, 5V/div) when the voltage
sag generator emulates %30 balanced voltage sag. (top): Sag and recovery.
(center): Zoom on the voltage sag initiation. (bottom): Zoom on the voltage
sag termination
B. Series Active Filter Experimental Results
The voltage sag generator has been successfully applied to
the three-phase series active filter (SAF) designed for a 10
kW harmonic voltage source type diode rectifier [18]. The
application with the SAF parameters listed in Table II is
shown in Fig. 11. Here, the SAF both provides harmonic
isolation such that the line current is sinusoidal and load
voltage regulation such that line voltage sags are
compensated properly. The sag generator helps test the
voltage regulation capability of the SAF under a line sag vLDC : 5V/div (480V offset)
condition. Fig. 12 shows the SAF response to the 30%
balanced voltage sag generated by the proposed circuit and vSa : 100V/div
shown by Fig. 13 at steady-state. Note that the nominal
voltage is 220Vrms and after the transient the sag condition
voltage is in the 142.6-146.4Vrms range (corresponding to
vSAFa : 50V/div
70% of 220Vrms). With the voltage sag generated as shown in
the figure, the SAF responds with high dynamics and restores
the load voltage such that the load DC bus voltage vLDC drops
by at most 5% and recovers this drop within 50ms while the iSa : 10A/div
source voltage vS drops by 30%. Thus, the sag generator
provides a good voltage sag emulation behavior and evaluates
the capability of the SAF as the power line conditioning
equipment. t : 50ms/div
In addition to the balanced sag case, Fig. 14 shows the
SAF response to the single-phase 30% voltage sag (as an Fig. 12. The compensation of the balanced 30% voltage sag by the SAF
based power conditioner. Top to bottom: Load DC bus voltage (vLDC,
unbalanced voltage sag) shown in Fig. 15. Similar to the 5V/div), sag generator phase-voltage (vSa, 100V/div), SAF phase voltage
balanced sag case, the sag generator creates appropriate sag (vSAFa, 50V/div), and load current (iSa, 10V/div)
voltages and the SAF restores the load voltage such that
negligible amount of second harmonic voltage content due to
the unbalance remains on vLDC.

+ vSAF −
iS c
eS vS
ab +
vLDC
vL
Utility −
c Nonlinear
ab
Rd C f Lf Load

n
Fig. 13. The three-phase terminal voltages of the sag generator at steady-state
Voltage Sag SAF for the 30% three-phase balanced sag
Generator
Aux. Power Supply vLDC : 5V/div (500V offset)

Fig. 11. The application of the voltage sag generator to the series active filter
based power conditioning system
vSa : 100V/div
TABLE II
SERIES ACTIVE FILTER PARAMETERS
eS Line phase-to-neutral voltage (50 Hz) 220 Vrms
LS Line inductance 200 µH vSAFa : 50V/div
CL Load capacitance 2.2 mF
RL Load resistance (10 kW) 24 Ω
N Transformer turns-ratio 2.5
VDC SAF DC bus voltage 500 V iSa : 10A/div
Lf Switching ripple filter inductance 2.2 mH
Cf Switching ripple filter capacitance 2.0 µF
Rd Switching ripple filter resistance 5.6 Ω
fPWM PWM frequency 20 kHz t : 50ms/div
Fig. 14. The compensation of the single-phase 30% voltage sag by the SAF
based power conditioner. Top to bottom: Load DC bus voltage (vLDC,
5V/div), sag generator phase-voltage (vSa, 100V/div), SAF phase voltage
(vSAFa, 50V/div), and load current (iSa, 10V/div)

4055

[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
Fig. 15. The three-phase terminal voltages of the sag generator at steady-state
for the 30% single-phase unbalanced sag [12]
[13]
V. CONCLUSION [14]
In this study, a simple and economical, yet highly
performing sag generator has been developed and its [15]
application for the test of a power quality conditioner has
been demonstrated. The proposed SSR and variable
[16]
transformer based sag generator has very simple design and
can be easily manufactured and operated, therefore it is
suitable for most R&D and test labs to evaluate the
[17]
performance of equipment under sag conditions (device
under test or a sag compensating power quality conditioner). [18]
In the paper, the design of the SSR system has been discussed
and a design example has been given. To verify the proposed
approach, the proposed SSR and variable transformer based
sag generator has been designed for three-phase 10kVA
ratings and balanced/imbalanced voltage sags have been
generated. Resistive and inductive load tests have illustrated
the feasibility of the method. Finally, the utilization of the sag
generator in the test of a series active filter based power
quality conditioner has demonstrated that the proposed
method provides an effective method for voltage sag
generation.
It is possible to replace the thyristor based SSRs of the
proposed circuit with the newly developing IGBT or
MOSFET based SSRs such that instantaneous sags (creating
phase jumps in three-phase systems) could also be generated.
Furthermore, automation of the sag tests via a microcontroller
based system is possible when using variable transformers
with DC motor based voltage regulation hardware.
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