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Light-harvesting porphyrazines to enable

Cite this: Nanoscale, 2019, 11, 22286
intramolecular singlet fission†
Diana-Paola Medina,‡a Ilias Papadopoulos,‡b Giulia Lavarda,a Henrik Gotfredsen,c
Parisa R. Rami,d Rik R. Tykwinski, *d M. Salomé Rodríguez-Morgade, *a,e
Dirk M. Guldi *b and Tomás Torres *a,e,f

Received 22nd September 2019,
Accepted 31st October 2019
DOI: 10.1039/c9nr08161e
rsc.li/nanoscale
A porphyrazine featuring complementary absorption to a pentacene dimer was chosen to fill the absorp-
tion gap of the latter in the range of 450 to 600 nm to realize panchromatic absorption through the
visible region out to ca. 700 nm. Of even greater relevance is the quantitative intramolecular Förster reso-
nance energy transfer (i-FRET) to funnel energy to the pentacene moieties, where efficient intramolecular
singlet fission (i-SF) converts the singlet excited state into the corresponding triplet excited states.
Remarkably, the triplet quantum yield either via direct excitation or via indirect i-FRET is up to 200% ±
20% in polar solvents.

Introduction panchromatic light harvesting have only been rarely addressed.

Singlet fission (SF) is the spin-allowed transition of a singlet
excited state (S1S0) into a pair of correlated triplet excited
states 1(T1T1).1–3 In contrast to intersystem crossing, the
singlet multiplicity is maintained throughout the process of
SF. By virtue of this property, SF has the potential to surpass
the Shockley–Queisser limit of single junction solar cells.4–6 As
a matter of fact, the last decade has seen numerous efforts to
identify new SF materials, namely acenes,1,2,7,8 rylenes,9–11 and
diketopyrrolopyrroles,12,13 as well as studies directed towards
deciphering the mechanistic intricacies of the singlet to triplet
transitions during SF.14,15 Considering the tremendous pro-
gress toward understanding the various mechanistic facets of
SF, the lack of efforts in finding ways for enhancing the SF
response is rather surprising. For example, the improvement
of chromophore stability and, in particular, the efficient/
a
Departamento de Química Orgánica, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid,
Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain. E-mail: salome.rodriguez@uam.es,
tomas.torres@uam.es
b
Department of Chemistry and Pharmacy & Interdisciplinary Center for Molecular
Materials (ICMM), University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Egerlandstraße 3,
91058 Erlangen, Germany. E-mail: dirk.guldi@fau.de
c
Department of Chemistry, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 5,
DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
d
Department of Chemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 2G2,
Canada. E-mail: rik.tykwinski@ualberta.ca
e
Institute for Advanced Research in Chemical Sciences (IAdChem),
Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
f
IMDEA-Nanociencia, c/ Faraday 9, Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
† Electronic supplementary information (ESI) available. See DOI: 10.1039/
c9nr08161e
‡ These authors contributed equally to this work.
To this end, we have recently reported a series of subphthalo-
cyanine–pentacene conjugates (SubPc–Pnc2), in which SubPc
plays the role of an energy donor and, thus, enhances the per-
formance of SF in Pnc2.16 The strong absorption of the SubPc
chromophore in the visible range of the solar spectrum results
in, after irradiation, intramolecular Förster resonance energy
transfer (i-FRET) from SubPc to Pnc2 on the subpicosecond
timescale, followed by subsequent intramolecular SF (i-SF) on
the timescale of tens of picoseconds. The synergy of the two
chromophores improves the overall light response of the
SubPc–Pnc2 conjugates in terms of SF. The properties of SubPc
are, however, relatively difficult to tune by peripheral substi-
tution.17 Therefore, the study of alternative “antennae”
chromophores is essential.
In the current work, we have built on the concept of syner-
gistic light absorption and used zinc porphyrazines (ZnPz)
(Fig. 1) to complement the pentacene chromophore. Our
choice of the porphyrazine chromophore is guided by two
main design criteria. One, the absorption profile of peripher-
ally alkyl-substituted metal porphyrazines (MPzs) includes
strong maxima in the region of 580–600 nm that could mini-
mize the spectral crosstalk of the ZnPz–Pnc2 conjugate.18–20
Two, FRET is extremely sensitive to the separation distance
between fluorophores, and the attachment of a Pnc2 dimer to
the periphery of ZnPz provides a structural orientation of the
donor–acceptor pair that is quite different from that of the pre-
vious SubPc–Pnc2 conjugates. Additional motivation comes
from a recently reported series of A3B-type ZnPzs endowed
with a carboxylic acid functional group that is directly amen-
able to chemical manipulation to link to a Pnc2 dimer.21
Hexapropyl substitution showed appropriate electronic fea-

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Scheme 1 Synthesis of conjugate 1 and Pz1.

Fig. 1 Structures of ZnPz–Pnc2 conjugates 1 and 2.

tures among the reported ZnPzs,18,21 which would allow the

required spectral overlap between the donor and acceptor for
FRET. With very few exceptions,22 FRET has not been exploited
using Pzs. Inspired by the considerations highlighted above,
we have designed two different ZnPz–Pnc2 conjugates 1 and 2
(Fig. 1), in which ZnPz and Pnc2 are connected through an iso-
meric carboxylic ester linkage. In conjugate 1, the carbonyl
moiety of the linker is attached to the pentacene dimer, with
ZnPz bearing the alkoxy fragment, whereas in conjugate 2,
ZnPz has the carbonyl group, while pentacene features the
alkoxy functionality. This subtle structural difference between
1 and 2 is expected to slightly modulate the electronic features
of the two components, i.e. ZnPz and Pnc2, with a consequent
influence on the FRET–SF cascade. Therefore, we report the
synthesis and characterization of 1 and 2, together with an in-
depth photophysical investigation, by which we gained valu-
able insight into the application of ZnPzs in SF materials, as
Scheme 2 Synthesis of conjugate 2 and Pz2.
well as the efficiencies of i-FRET and i-SF in 1 and 2.

Results and discussion PzCOOH, could be obtained by the reduction of a common

Synthesis
Conjugates 1 and 2 were prepared by esterification reactions of
PzOH with Pnc2COOH 23 (Scheme 1) and PzCOOH 18 with
Pnc2OH 24 (Scheme 2), respectively, in a 1 : 1 mixture of THF
and DMF, in the presence of 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethyl-
aminopropyl)carbodiimide (EDC) and DMAP.
Under similar reaction conditions, two ZnPz reference com-
pounds were synthesized, namely Pz1 (Scheme 1) and Pz2
(Scheme 2). It is noteworthy that both precursors, PzOH and
Pz intermediate containing a butyl ester moiety (5, see
Scheme S1†) via either reduction with LiAlH4 in THF or basic
hydrolysis, respectively.18 The characterization of 1, 2, Pz1, and
Pz2 was carried out by 1H-NMR, 13C-NMR and UV-Vis spec-
troscopy, as well as MS (MALDI-TOF and HR MALDI-TOF).
The MS spectra of 1 and 2 (Fig. S10 and S12†) show the iso-
topic clusters corresponding to the expected molecular ions
[M]+ at m/z 1772–1781, while HRMS MALDI-TOF shows the
corresponding ions at m/z 1772.8027 for 1 and 1772.8038 for 2
(calculated for C116H116N8O2Si2Zn = 1772.8046). Fig. S8† shows

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the 1H NMR spectra of 1 and 2. The most important differ-

ences between the two conjugates are observed in the moieties
that are directly attached to the carboxylate linker, in particu-
lar, the three signals corresponding to the ZnPz isoindole and
the two signals assigned to the arylene spacer connecting the
two pentacene fragments. For 1, the former appear more
shielded at 9.65, 9.53 and 8.51 ppm, while the latter are
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detected at 8.86 and 8.81 ppm, shifted downfield as a result of

the carbonyl substituent. In contrast, 2 shows the isoindole
signals at 10.26, 9.59 and 9.08 ppm, deshielded by the carbo-
nyl substituent, with the two signals of the arylene ring
appearing at 8.68 and 8.48 ppm. In addition, the resonance
corresponding to the benzyl protons appears more deshielded
in 1 (6.18 ppm), when it is connected to the ZnPz fragment,
than in 2 (5.98 ppm), when it is attached to the arylene spacer.
Similar effects have been observed in the 1H NMR spectra of
Pz1 and Pz2 (Fig. S13†). Specifically, the isoindole signals
appear at 9.50, 9.39 and 8.29 ppm for Pz1 and at 10.05, 9.44
and 8.83 ppm for Pz2. Two doublets at 8.29 and 8.16 ppm for
Pz1 and at 7.69 and 7.49 ppm for Pz2 account for the phenyl-
ene ring, while the benzyl singlets appear at 5.95 ppm for Pz1
and at 5.60 ppm for Pz2.

Photophysics Fig. 2 (a) Normalized steady-state absorption spectra of Pz1 (grey),

Steady-state spectroscopic measurements were performed first
to investigate the ground- and excited-state interactions
between the ZnPz and Pnc2 fragments (Fig. 2 and S18–S20).†
The absorption spectra of Pnc2COOH and Pnc2OH revealed
the characteristic vibrational fingerprints of pentacene in the
short-wavelength region, that is, between 300 and 450 nm and
in the long-wavelength region, that is, between 550 and
750 nm. For Pz1 and Pz2, a broad B-band absorption and a set
of Q-band absorptions are observed at around 350 nm and in
the range from 500 to 650 nm, respectively.§ The absorption
spectra of the conjugates 1 and 2 are a linear superimposition
of the spectra of individual chromophores, from which we con-
clude that there are no, or only weak, ground-state interactions
between ZnPzs and Pnc2.
By shifting our focus to steady-state fluorescence measure-
ments, we are able to examine the excited-state interactions.
Regardless of the solvent polarity, exciting Pnc2COOH and
Pnc2OH at the long-wavelength absorption region results in fluo-
rescence maxima at about 665 nm and fluorescence quantum
yields (ΦF) of about 0.02 and 0.01, respectively. Upon excitation
of Pz1 and Pz2 into their Q-band region in toluene, we find fluo-
rescence maxima at 625 nm, fluorescence quantum yields of
0.21/0.26, respectively, and fluorescence lifetimes of 2.52/2.89
ns, respectively. Increasing the solvent polarity by using benzo-
nitrile leads to only minor changes (see Fig. S18–S20†).¶
In stark contrast, excitation of 1 and 2 into the ZnPz
Q-band region results in nearly quantitative quenching of the
§ Pz1 shows a subtle splitting of the 615 nm Q-band absorption in toluene.
¶ Fluorescence quantum yields are 0.20 (Pz1) and 0.25 (Pz2), while fluorescence
lifetimes are 2.51 ns (Pz1) and 2.88 ns (Pz2).
Pnc2COOH (light grey), and 1 (black) in toluene. (b) Normalized steady-
state fluorescence spectra of Pz1 (grey), Pnc2COOH (light grey), and 1
(black) in toluene. Pnc2COOH centered absorption (∼660 nm) and Pz1
centered fluorescence (∼626.5 nm) are used as points of normalization,
respectively.
ZnPz fluorescence at 625 nm. From fluorescence quantum
yields of approximately 0.01, we achieve 90% quenching.
Simultaneously, the fluorescence characteristic of the Pnc2
group is observed, centered at 665 nm. Performing time-corre-
lated single photon counting (TCSPC) measurements, with an
excitation at the associated ZnPz Q-band and detection at the
Pnc2 centered emission at 665 nm, corroborated efficient
i-FRET, through which singlet excited-state energy is funneled
from ZnPz to Pnc2. At the same time, the ZnPz fluorescence
lifetime in 1 and 2 is as short as 100 ps. A summary of the
most relevant photophysical properties of Pz1/Pz2 and
Pnc2COOH/Pnc2OH, as well as conjugates 1 and 2, in toluene
is given in Table 1.
To gain deeper insights into the excited-state deactivation,
femtosecond (fsTA) and nanosecond (nsTA) transient absorp-
tion experiments were conducted. For Pz1, Pz2, 1, and 2,
570 nm was selected as the excitation wavelength, while
633 nm was the excitation wavelength for experiments with
Pnc2COOH and Pnc2OH. Exemplary fsTA and nsTA spectra are
given for Pz1 and Pnc2COOH in toluene in Fig. 3 and 4. In the
case of Pz1 and Pz2 (Fig. S21†), a two-species kinetic model
was employed to fit the transient data.
The first species formed is the ZnPz singlet excited state
1
(S1)Pz, with maxima at ca. 508 and 670 nm and ground-state
bleaching (GSB) between 555 and 645 nm. All of the aforemen-

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Table 1 Summary of the photophysical properties of Pz1/Pz2 and and GSB in the range from 555 to 645 nm. Turning to
Pnc2COOH/Pnc2OH, as well as conjugates 1 and 2 in toluene Pnc2COOH and Pnc2OH (Fig. S22†), a three-species kinetic
model is required. Initially, the immediate population of the
λabs/nm λem/nm
ϕF τF singlet excited state 1(S1S0)Pnc2 is noted, which features
Compounds ZnPz Pnc2 ZnPz Pnc2 ZnPza ZnPza maxima at 450, 508, and 1375 nm, as well as GSB between 550
and 750 nm, in the visible and near-infrared (NIR) region. The
Pnc2COOH — 660 — 666.5 ∼0.02b <200 psb,c
Pnc2OH — — ∼0.01b <100 psb features of 1(S1S0)Pnc2 are rapidly replaced by those of the
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659 664.5
Pz1 607 — 626.5 — 0.21 2.52 ns singlet correlated triplet pair state (1(T1T1)Pnc2) as the final
Pz2 617 — 624 — 0.26 2.89 ns
species. Most important is the GSB intensification, which
1 609.5 661 628 667.5 <0.01 <100 psc
2 617.5 659 625.5 666 <0.01 <200 psc goes hand-in-hand with the formation of maxima at 473 and
a
505 nm. All this takes place on a time scale of >200 ps, from
Values refer to the zinc porphyrazine (ZnPz) centered fluorescence, if
not stated otherwise. b Values refer to the pentacene (Pnc2) centered which we conclude the formation of more than one triplet
fluorescence. c The lifetime is below the resolution limit of our time- excited state per Pnc2 and from which we confirm that SF is
correlated single photon counting (TCSPC) setup. operative en route toward the Pnc2 triplet excited state for-
mation. The (1(S1S0)Pnc2) to (1(T1T1)Pnc2) transition proceeds
in line with previous studies via an intermediate singlet
tioned are populated simultaneously with the 570 nm excited state with a charge transfer (CT) character
photoexcitation. (CT(S1S0)Pnc2). Inspection of the fsTA measurements (Fig. 5)
Following the formation of the ZnPz singlet excited state carried out with 1 and 2 (Fig. S23†) reveals characteristics
1
(S1)Pz, intersystem crossing (ISC) slowly produces a triplet stemming from the Pz1/Pz2 and Pnc2COOH/Pnc2OH refer-
excited state 3(T1)Pz, with maxima at around 480 and 650 nm ence compounds.25

Fig. 3 (a) Differential absorption spectra obtained from fsTA experiments (570 nm) of Pz1 in toluene with several time delays between 0 and
5250 ps at rt, with the inset showing kinetics at the respective wavelengths. (b) Evolution associated spectra of the transient absorption data of Pz1
shown in (a), with the initially formed singlet excited state 1(S1)Pz1 (black) and triplet excited state 3(T1)Pz1 (orange). The inset shows the relative popu-
lations of the respective states. (c) Differential absorption spectra obtained from nsTA experiments (570 nm) of Pz1 in toluene with several time
delays between 0 and 400 μs at rt, with the inset showing kinetics at the respective wavelengths. (d) Evolution associated spectra of the transient
absorption data of Pz1 shown in (c), with the initially formed singlet excited state 1(S1)Pz1 (black) and triplet excited state 3(T1)Pz1 (orange). The inset
shows the relative populations of the respective states.

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Fig. 4 (a) Differential absorption spectra obtained from fsTA experi-
ments (633 nm) of Pnc2COOH in toluene with several time delays
between 0 and 5250 ps at rt, with the inset showing kinetics at the
respective wavelengths. (b) Evolution associated spectra of the transient
absorption data of Pnc2COOH shown in (a), with the initially formed
singlet excited state 1(S1S0)Pnc2COOH (red), intermediate state
CT
(S1S0)Pnc2COOH (blue), and singlet correlated triplet pair state
1
(T1T1)Pnc2COOH (green). The inset shows the relative populations of the
respective states.
To fit the fsTA data, a four-species kinetic model was devel-
oped and applied. The first species is the singlet excited state
1
(S1)Pz, as found in experiments with Pz1 and Pz2. Most
notable are maxima at 508 and 670 nm and GSB at 555 to
645 nm. In conjugates 1 and 2, however, 1(S1)Pz is short-lived
and replaced by 1(S1S0)Pnc2 within less than 5 ps. As a matter of
fact, maxima at 450, 508, and 1375 nm, as well as GSB
between 550 and 750 nm, resemble the findings made with
the Pnc2COOH/Pnc2OH reference compounds. Following its
population, 1(S1S0)Pnc2 deactivates sequentially via the inter-
mediate CT(S1S0)Pnc2 and singlet correlated triplet pair
1
(T1T1)Pnc2 states, as third and fourth species, respectively.
Repopulation of the electronic ground state is governed by
intramolecular triplet–triplet annihilation. In short, the
initially formed ZnPz centered singlet excited state 1(S1)Pz in 1
and 2 is subject to i-FRET from ZnPz to Pnc2, which then leads
to i-SF. In Table 2, all the lifetimes and all the triplet quantum
yields (TQYs) are summarized for measurements performed in
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Fig. 5 (a) Differential absorption spectra obtained from fsTA experi-
ments (570 nm) of 1 in toluene with several time delays between 0 and
5250 ps at rt, with the inset showing kinetics at the respective wave-
lengths. (b) Evolution associated spectra of the transient absorption data
of 1 shown in (a), with the initially formed ZnPz singlet excited state
1
(S1)Pz1 (black), the Pnc2 singlet excited state 1(S1S0)Pnc2,1 (red), intermedi-
ate state CT(S1S0)Pnc2,1 (blue), and singlet correlated triplet pair state
1
(T1T1)Pnc2,1 (green). The inset shows the relative populations of the
respective states.
toluene. A comparison of the solvent polarity and analyses of
its influence on the overall kinetics and TQYs confirm that
more polar solvents favor higher TQYs and shorter-lived
1
(S1)Pz/1(S1S0)Pnc2 states (Table S2†). This is well in line with the
previous work on SubPc–Pnc2 conjugates, as well as phenyl-
ene- and bicyclo[2.2.2]octane-spaced pentacene dimers.26 As
such, it is considered as independent evidence for the CT char-
acter of the intermediate CT(S1S0)Pnc2 state; specifically, more
polar solvents stabilize the CT(S1S0)Pnc2 state and, in turn, facili-
tate 1(T1T1)Pnc2 population. All corresponding fsTA and nsTA
spectra in benzonitrile are shown in Fig. S24–S29.† Finally, we
took a closer look at the FRET rate constants (kFRET) for 1 and
2 and compared them with those previously observed for the
SubPc-based conjugates. Similar to the kinetics and TQYs, the
rate constants are higher in benzonitrile than in toluene; the
highest value of 12.99 × 1011 s−1 was obtained for 2. FRET is
ca. 1.7 times faster in 2 than in 1 and ∼3.2 times faster than in
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Table 2 Summary of kinetic data and triplet quantum yields (TQYs) of Pz1/Pz2 reference compounds, Pnc2COOH/Pnc2OH reference compounds,
as well as conjugates 1 and 2 in toluene

fsTA nsTA
1 1 CT 1
Compounds (S1)ZnPz (S1S0)Pnc2 (S1S0)Pnc2 (T1T1)Pnc2 TQYa,b 1
(S1)ZnPz 1
(T1)ZnPz

Pz1 2.23 ns — — — — 2.53 ns 128.01 μs

Pz2 — — — — 112.94 μs
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2.78 ns 2.83 ns
Pnc2COOH — 7.86 ps 75.57 ps 3.25 ns 124% ± 20% — —
Pnc2OH — 16.03 ps 88.75 ps 2.51 ns 150% ± 20% — —
1 1.51 ps 21.22 ps 89.95 ps 3.04 ns 167% ± 20% n.r.c —
2 1.14 ps 32.88 ps 167.87 ps 3.27 ns 136% ± 20% n.r. —
a
Determined by following the intensification of the transient bleaching of the Pnc2 moiety and comparing the relative intensification of the evolu-
tion-associated spectra for the 1(S1S0)Pnc2 and 1(T1T1)Pnc2 states, respectively. b An error margin in the range of ±20% may be considered when
determining the TQYs. c n.r. = not resolvable. Lifetimes are either too long to be resolved with fsTA or too short to be resolved with nsTA.

Table 3 Summary of the parameters used for the FRET rate constant calculation as well as an overview of the resulting values for the FRET rate
constants

τDA/ps (TA) τD/ns (TCSPC) εA/M−1 cm−1 a ϕF D J/M−1 cm−1 nm4 R0/Å R/Å KFRET/1011 s−1

Tol
1 1.51 2.52 51 495 0.21 4.30 × 1015 46.83 13.60 6.61
2 1.14 2.89 68 625 0.26 4.62 × 1015 49.11 13.30 8.77
BN
1 1.34 2.51 50 335 0.20 4.14 × 1015 45.52 12.97 7.45
2 0.77 2.88 51 535 0.25 3.78 × 1015 46.53 11.81 12.99
a
For εA, the extinction coefficients at the long-wavelength maxima of the pentacene dimers (Pnc2COOH and Pnc2OH) are taken, respectively.

cating a closer proximity of the respective energy donors and

acceptors. A summary of the parameters used for the FRET
rate constant calculation, as well as the resulting FRET rate
constants, is given in Table 3. The major advantage of ZnPz in
terms of FRET efficiency is the superior spectral overlap
between ZnPz and Pnc2 compared to SubPc and Pnc2 due to
red-shifted absorption and fluorescence. A better spectral
overlap and a faster FRET are, however, compensated for by a
limited absorption throughout the visible range of the solar
spectrum. Overall, it shows the delicate balance that is
required when designing light-harvesting systems.

Fig. 6 Quantitative energy diagram showing the deactivation cascade
of the ZnPz–Pnc2 conjugates 1 and 2 (λex = 570 nm). The initial popu-
lation of the ZnPz singlet excited state (1(S1)) is followed by FRET to the
singlet excited state of Pnc2 (1(S1S0)). Population of the intermediate
state (CT(S1S0)), subsequent SF to yield the multiexcitonic state (1(T1T1)),
and TTA back to the Pnc2 ground state conclude the deactivation
process. The energy levels of CT(S1S0) and 1(T1T1) are obtained from the
literature.27
the SubPc-based analogs. This is mirrored in the calculated
relative distance R, which is shorter in the ZnPz conjugates 1
and 2 than in the previously described SubPc conjugates, indi-
Conclusions
In conclusion, a set of novel ZnPz–Pnc2 conjugates have been
successfully synthesized and characterized by means of steady-
state and time-resolved transient absorption spectroscopy. An
efficient sequence of i-FRET from ZnPz to Pnc2 and sub-
sequent i-SF is observed. The qualitative deactivation cascade
is shown in Fig. 6: Ultrafast i-FRET funnels excited-state energy
from the singlet excited state of ZnPz to the ground state of
Pnc2, populating the Pnc2 singlet excited state. The latter is
subsequently converted into an intermediate state by means of
mixing of singlet excited state and CT character, which finally
transitions into a pair of correlated triplet excited states. The
process depends on the solvent polarity, reaching, in benzo-
nitrile, triplet quantum yields and FRET rate constants as high

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as 200% ± 20% and 12.99 × 1011 s−1, respectively. With this
design in hand, we have been able to increase FRET rate con-
stants by a factor of ∼3.2, when compared to previously
reported SubPc–Pnc2 conjugates.
Conflicts of interest
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There are no conflicts to declare.
Acknowledgements
Financial support from the Spanish MICINN (CTQ2017-85393-
P) is acknowledged. IMDEA Nanociencia acknowledges
support from the “Severo Ochoa” Programme for Centres of
Excellence in R&D (MINECO, Grant SEV2016-
0686). R. R. T. acknowledges funding from the Natural
Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada
(NSERC, grant no. RGPIN-2017-05052) and the Canadian
Foundation for Innovation (CFI). D. P. M. thanks
“Convocatoria 617 – Doctorados en el exterior”, COLCIENCIAS,
Government of Colombia, for a doctoral fellowship. H. G.
thanks the Danish Ministry of Higher Education and Science
for an EliteForsk travel scholarship.
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