Part 1: The Moral Agent

(Lesson 2:The Moral Agent)

Developing Virtue as Habit

Moral character refers to the existence or lack of virtues

such as integrity, courage, fortitude, honesty, and loyalty.
To say that a certain person has a good moral character
means that he/she is a good person and a good citizen
with a sound moral compass.
Moral Character and Virtues

 The term “character” is derived from the greek word “charakter”,

which was initially used as a mark impressed upon a coin.
 The word “character” later came to mean a distinct mark by which
one thing was distinguished from others, and then chiefly to mean
the assemblage of qualities that distinguish one person from
another.
Moral Character and Virtues

 The use in ethics of the word “character:, however, has a different

linguistic history.
 At the beginning of Book II of the Nicomachean Ethics, the Greek
philosopher Aristotle tells us that there are two distinct human excellences:
1. Excellences of thought
2. Excellences of character
 His phrase for excellences of (mortal) character, “ethikai aretai”, is often
translated as “moral virtue(s)” and “moral excellence(s)”. The Greek
“ethikos” (ethical) is the adjective cognate with “ethos: (character).
Moral Character and Virtues

“Moral Character”, therefore, in philosophical sense,

refers to having or lacking moral virtue. If one has virtue,
he/she may have any of the moral vices, or he/she may
be marked by a condition somewhere in between virtue
and vice, such as continence or incontinence.
The Circular Relation of Acts and
Character

 In the process of moral development, there is the circular relation between acts
that build character itself.
 Not all acts help to build moral character, but those acts which emanate from
moral characters certainly matter in moral development. Hence there appears
the apparent circular relationship between individual acts moral character.
 This goes to show that moral development should also be understood in the
sense of human flourishing. This flourishing is attained by the habitual practice of
moral and intellectual excellences, or “virtues”.
 In the context of developing a developing morally which also brings about self-
realization and happiness, acting in line with virtues is acting in accordance with
reason.
The Circular Relation of Acts and
Character

 Virtuous traits of character ought to be stable and enduring and are not mere products of
fortune, but of learning, constant practice, and cultivation. But we have to add that
virtuous traits of character are called excellences of the human being because they are
the best exercise of reason, which is the activity characteristic of human beings. In this
sense, the Greek moralists believe, virtuous acts complete or perfect human life.
 Nonetheless, the Greek philosophers think that it takes someone of good moral character
to determine with regularity and reliability what individual acts are appropriate and
reasonable in certain situations and that it takes someone of good moral character to
decide with regularity and reliability how and when to secure goods and resources for
himself/herself and others.
 Aristotle thus states that, it is not easy to define in rules which acts deserve moral praise
and blame, and that, these matters require the judgement of the virtuous person, that is,
someone with good character.
Moral Character as Dispositions

 Dispositions are particular kinds of properties or characteristics that objects can possess.
 In the physical world, examples of dispositions include the elasticity of a rubber band, the
solubility of a sugar-cube in water, the fragility of porcelain, and the magnetism of a
Iodestone.
 Among human beings, moral character traits- either virtues and vices-are considered as
dispositions. Moral character traits are those dispositions of character for which it is suitable
to hold agents morally responsible. A moral character trait for which a person is deserving
of a positive reactive attitude such as praise or gratitude, is a virtue.
 On the other hand, a vice is a moral character trait for which the agent is deserving of a
negative reactive attitude, such as resentment or blame.
Six Stages of Moral Development

 Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987) is best known for his theory of stages of moral
development. In principle, he agreed with the Swiss clinical psychologist Jean Piaget’s
(1896-1980) theory of moral development but wanted to develop his ideas further.
 Kohlberg employed Piaget’s storytelling technique to tell stories involving moral dilemmas.
In each case, Kohlberg offered an option to be considered, for example, between the
rights of some authority and the needs of some deserving person who is unfairly treated.
One of his best known stories concerns a man called Heinz.
Six Stages of Moral Development

 “In Europe, a woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was
one drug that the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a
druggist in the same town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to
make, but the druggist was charging ten times what the drug cost him to make.
He paid $200 for the radium and charged $2000 for a small dose of the drug. The
sick woman’s husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money,
but he could only get together about $1000 which is half of what is cost. He told
the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him
pay later. But the druggist said: “No, I discovered the drug and I’m going to make
money from it.” So Heinz got desperate and broke into the man’s store to steal
the drug for his wife.”
Six Stages of Moral Development

Kohlberg asked a series of questions such as: “Should

Heinz have stolen the drug? Would it change anything if
Heinz did not love his wife? What if the person dying was
a stranger, would it make any difference? Should the
police arrest the chemist for murder if the woman died?”
Six Stages of Moral Development

Level 1 - Pre-conventional morality

 Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation
 Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange
Level 2 – Conventional morality
 Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships
 Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order
Level 3 – Post-conventional morality
 Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights
 Stage 6. Universal Principles
 Level Age Range
Level I: Seen in preschool children, most
Preconventional elementary school students, some
Morality junior high school students and a few
high school students
Level II: Seen in a few older elementary
Conventional school students, some junior high
Morality school students and many high
school students. (Stage 4 does not
appear until the high school years)
Stage Nature of Moral Reasoning
Stage 1: People make decisions based on what is best
Punishment- for themselves, without regard for others’
avoidance and needs or feelings. They obey rules only if
obedience established by more powerful individuals;
they may disobey if they aren’t likely to get
caught. “Wrong” behaviors are those that
will be punished.
Stage 2: Exchange People recognize that others also have
of favors needs. They may try to satisfy others’ need if
their own needs are also met (you scratch
my back, I’ll scratch yours”). They continue to
define right and wrong primarily in terms of
consequences to themselves.
Stage 3: Good People make decisions based on what
boy/girl actions will please others, especially authority
figures and other individuals with high status
(e.g., teachers, popular peers). They are
concerned about maintaining relationships
through sharing, trust, and loyalty, and they
take other people’s [perspectives and
intentions into account when making
decisions.
 Level Age Range Stage Nature of Moral Reasoning
Level II: Seen in a few older elementary Stage 3: People make decisions based on what
Conventional school students, some junior high Good actions will please others, especially
Morality school studentsm and many high boy/girl authority figures and other individuals
school students. (Stage 4 does not with high status (e.g., teachers,
appear until the high school popular peers). They are concerned
years) about maintaining relationships
through sharing, trust, and loyalty, and
they take other people’s [perspectives
and intentions into account when
making decisions.
Stage 4: People look to society as a whole for
Law and guidelines about right or wrong. They
order know rules are necessary for keeping
society running smoothly and believe it
is either their “duty” to obey them.
However, they perceive rules to be
inflexible, they don’t necessarily
recognize that as society’s needs
change, rules should change as well.
 Level Age Range Stage Nature of Moral Reasoning
Level III: Postconventional Rarely seen before college Stage 5: Social People recognize that rules represent
Morality (Stage 6 is extremely rare contract agreements among many individuals
even in adults) about appropriate behavior. Rules are
seen as potentially useful mechanisms
that can maintain the general social
order and protect individual rights, rather
than as absolute dictates that must be
obeyed simply because they are “the
law”. People also recognize the flexibility
of rules; rules that no longer serve
society’s best interests can and should
be changed.
Stage 6: Stage 6 is a hypothetical, “idea;” stage
Universal that few people ever reach. People in
ethical this stage adhere to a few abstract,
principle universal principles (e.g. equality of all
people, respect for human dignity,
commitment to justice) that transcend
specific norms and rules. They answer to
a strong inner conscience and willingly
disobey laws that violate their own
ethical principles
Getting to the Highest Level, Conscience-
Based Moral Decisions

Stage 1: Respect for power and punishment

- A young child (age 1-5) chooses what to do – what is right –
according to what he/she wants to do and can do without
getting into trouble. In this level, to be right, one ought to be
obedient to the people in power and, thus, avoid punishment .
The motto in this stage seems to be: “Might makes right”.
Getting to the Highest Level, Conscience-
Based Moral Decisions

Stage 2: Looking out for #1

- Children (age 5-10) are disposed to be egotistic or self-serving,
They lack respect for others’ rights but may give to others on the
assumption that they will get as much or even more in return.
Instead of loyalty, gratitude, or justice, the case is more a matter
of “you scratch my back an I’ll scratch yours”. The motto here
seems to be “What’s in it for me?”
Getting to the Highest Level, Conscience-
Based Moral Decisions

Stage 3: Being a “Good Boy” or “Nice Girl”

- In this stage, people (age 8-16) have shifted from pleasing
themselves to pleasing important others usually parents teachers,
or friends. They seek approval and thus conform to someone else’s
expectation. When charged of doing something wrong, their
behavior is likely to be justified by stating “everyone else is doing it”
or “I didn’t intend to hurt anyone.” The motto here: “I want to be
nice.”
Getting to the Highest Level, Conscience-
Based Moral Decisions

 Stage 4: Law and Order Thinking

- Here, the majority of people (16 years old and older) have internalized
society’s rules about how to behave. They feel indebted to conform, no longer
to just family and friends, but also to society’s laws and customs. They realize that
it is important to do one’s duty to maintain social order. Social leaders are
assumed to be right and social rules are adopted without considering the core
moral principles involved. Thus, social control in this case is an automatic
emotional response, not a rational reaction of conscience based on moral
principles. In this stage, individuals believe that anyone breaking the rules
deserves to be punished and “pay his/her debt to society.” The motto here is:
“I’ll do my duty.”
Getting to the Highest Level, Conscience-
Based Moral Decisions

 Stage 5: Justice through democracy

- In this stage, people understand the underlying moral purposes that are
supposed to be served by laws and social customs. When a law in democracy
ceases to serve a good purpose, they thus feel the people ought to get active
and change the law. Understood in this manner, democracy is seen as a social
contract whereby everybody tries constantly to construct a set of laws that best
serves most people, while protecting the basic rights of everybody. Respect for
the law and a sense of obligation to live by the rules are present, as long as rules
were established in a fair manner and fulfill a moral purpose. It is said that only
about 20-25% of today’s adults ever reach this stage and most of those that do
supposedly only get there after their mid-twenties. The motto here: “I’ll live by
the rules or try to change them.”
Getting to the Highest Level, Conscience-
Based Moral Decisions

 Stage 6: Deciding on basic moral principles by which you will live

your life and relate to everyone fairly
- In this stage, rare people have evaluated many values and have rationally
chosen a philosophy of life that truly guides their life. Morally developed, they do
not automatically conform to tradition or others’ beliefs, and even to their own
emotions, intuition, or impulsive notions about right and wrong. In stage 6,
individuals judiciously elect fundamental principles to follow, such as caring for
and respecting every living thing, feeling that people are all equal and thus
deserve equal opportunities, or, subscribing to the Golden Rule. They are tough
enough to act on their values even if others may think they are odd or if their
beliefs are against man’s law, such as refusing to fight in a war.
Problems with Kohlberg’s Theory

It is argued that Kohlberg’s dilemmas are artificial.

The theory is based on an all male sample.