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pn (z) = (z − z1 )(z − z2 ) · · · (z − zn ).
p0n (z) 1 1 1
= + + ··· + .
pn (z) z − z1 z − z2 z − zn
Solution
To start the induction consider the case when n = 1 which gives p01 (z) = 1. Thus
p01 (z) 1
=
p1 (z) z − z1
pm+1 (z) = (z − zm+1 )pm (z) and p0m+1 (z) = (z − zm+1 )p0m (z) + pm (z)
so that
p0m+1 (z) p0m (z) 1
= + .
pm+1 (z) pm (z) z − zm+1
Now by the hypothesis we can replace the term p0m (z)/pm (z) by the sum of m terms
and hence
p0m+1 (z) 1 1
= + ··· + .
pm+1 (z) z − z1 z − zm+1
This shows that the result is also true for m + 1 terms and by induction it is true
for all m = 1, 2, . . ..
2. This was in the class test in December 2019 and was worth 25 of the 100 marks on
the paper.
Let f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) where z = x + iy with x, y, u, v ∈ R.
State the Cauchy Riemann equations.
2020:10:17:18:21:01
c M. K. Warby MA3614 Complex variable methods and applications 2
Let
u(x, y) = 2x + y + x2 − y 2 − 2xy.
Show that this function is harmonic and determine the harmonic conjugate v which
satisfies v(0, 0) = 1.
Express the function f = u + iv in terms of z alone. You need to give reasoning for
your answer.
Solution
The Cauchy Riemann equations are
∂u ∂v ∂v ∂u
= , =− .
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
v = −x + 2xy + x2 + g(y)
for any function g(y). Partially differentiating this expression and using the other
Cauchy Riemann equation gives
∂v ∂u
= 2x + g 0 (y) = = 2 + 2x − 2y, which implies that g 0 (y) = 2 − 2y.
∂y ∂x
Hence
g(y) = 2y − y 2 + C,
where C is a constant. To satisfy v(0, 0) = 1 we need C = 1 and this gives
Now f (0) = i, f 0 (0) = 2 − i and f 00 (0) = 2 + 2i. The finite Maclaurin series
representation gives
0 f 00 (0) 2
f (z) = f (0) + f (0)z + z = i + (2 − i)z + (1 + i)z 2 .
2
3. This was in the class test in December 2018 and was worth 26 of the 100 marks on
the paper.
Let f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) where z = x + iy with x, y, u, v ∈ R.
State the Cauchy Riemann equations.
By using the Cauchy Riemann equations, or otherwise, determine if the following
functions are analytic in C. If a function is analytic then express it in terms of z
alone.
(a)
f (x + iy) = (x3 − 3xy 2 ) + i(−3x2 y + y 3 ).
(b)
Solution
The Cauchy Riemann equations are
∂u ∂v ∂v ∂u
= , =− .
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v
= −6xy + 2y + 4x =
∂x ∂y
and
∂u ∂v
= 3y 2 − 3x2 + 2x − 4y, = 3x2 − 3y 2 + 4y − 2x.
∂y ∂x
Hence
∂u ∂v
=− .
∂y ∂x
2020:10:17:18:21:01
c M. K. Warby MA3614 Complex variable methods and applications 4
∂g
g 0 (z) = = −6xy + 2y + 4x + i(3x2 − 3y 2 + 4y − 2x),
∂x
∂ 2g
g 00 (z) = = −6y + 4 + i(6x − 2),
∂x2
g 000 (z) = 6i.
g(z) = (2 − i)z 2 + iz 3 .
4. This was in the class test in December 2017 and was worth 25 of the 100 marks on
the paper.
State the Cauchy Riemann equations.
Let
u(x, y) = 2 + 3x − y + x2 − y 2 − 4xy.
Show that u is harmonic and determine the harmonic conjugate v(x, y) satisfying
v(0, 0) = 0.
For this function u and for the harmonic conjugate v just determined express the
function f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) in terms of z only.
Solution
The Cauchy Riemann equations are
∂u ∂v ∂v ∂u
= , =− .
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u
= 3 + 2x − 4y, = −1 − 2y − 4x
∂x ∂y
and
∂ 2u ∂ 2u
= 2, = −2, ∇2 u = 0.
∂x2 ∂y 2
We can obtain a harmonic conjugate by using the Cauchy Riemann equations.
∂v ∂u
=− = 1 + 2y + 4x.
∂x ∂y
2020:10:17:18:21:01
c M. K. Warby MA3614 Complex variable methods and applications 5
Now f (0) = 2.
∂u ∂v
f 0 (z) = +i = (3 + 2x − 4y) + i(1 + 2y + 4x), f 0 (0) = 3 + i.
∂x ∂x
∂ 2u
00 ∂ 2v 00
f (z) = 2 +i 2 = 2 + 4i. f (0) = 2 + 4i.
∂x ∂x
Thus f (z) is the degree 2 polynomial
f 00 (0) 2
f (z) = f (0) + f 0 (0)z + z = 2 + (3 + i)z + (1 + 2i)z 2 .
2
5. This was in the class test in December 2016 and was worth 26 marks.
Let f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) where z = x + iy with x, y, u, v ∈ R.
State the Cauchy Riemann equations.
Let
u(x, y) = x3 − 3xy 2 − 4xy.
Show that u is harmonic and determine the harmonic conjugate v(x, y) satisfying
v(0, 0) = 0.
For this function u and for the harmonic conjugate v just determined express the
function f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) in terms of z only.
Solution
The Cauchy Riemann equations are
∂u ∂v ∂v ∂u
= , =− .
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u
= 3x2 − 3y 2 − 4y, = −6xy − 4x,
∂x ∂y
2020:10:17:18:21:01
c M. K. Warby MA3614 Complex variable methods and applications 6
and
∂ 2u ∂ 2u
= 6x, = −6x, ∇2 u = 0.
∂x2 ∂y 2
This implies that u is harmonic.
To get a harmonic conjugate we use the Cauchy Riemann equations.
∂v ∂u
=− = 6xy + 4x.
∂x ∂y
Partially integrating with respect to x gives
f = u + iv is analytic and a polynomial and we can use the finite Maclaurin series
to express in terms of z only. First we note that f (0) = 0.
∂f
f 0 (z) = = (3x2 − 3y 2 − 4y) + i(6xy + 4x), f 0 (0) = 0,
∂x
∂ 2f
f 00 (z) = = 6x + i(6y + 4), f 00 (0) = 4i,
∂x2
f 000 (z) = 6.
Thus
0 f 00 (0) 2 f 000 (0) 3
f (z) = f (0) + f (0)z + z + z = 2iz 2 + z 3 .
2 6
6. Verify that the following functions, denoted by u, of real variables x and y are
harmonic and find their harmonic conjugate. If f is given by f (z) = u(x, y)+iv(x, y)
is entire then find f (z) in each case.
Solution
(a)
∂u ∂ 2u ∂u ∂ 2u
= −6xy, = −6y, = 3y 2 − 3x2 , = 6y.
∂x ∂x2 ∂y ∂y 2
Hence
∂ 2u ∂ 2u
∇2 u = + = 0.
∂x2 ∂y 2
To get the harmonic conjugate v we have by one of the Cauchy Riemann
equations that
∂v ∂u
=− = −(3y 2 − 3x2 ) = 3x2 − 3y 2
∂x ∂y
and thus integrating with respect to x gives
v = x3 − 3y 2 x + g(y),
where g(y) is any function of y. Using the other Cauchy Riemann equation
gives
∂v ∂u
= −6yx + g 0 (y) = = −6xy.
∂y ∂x
Hence g 0 (y) = 0 and g(y) = A where A is a constant. The function f is
(b)
∂u ∂ 2u
= cosh x sin y, = sinh x sin y = u
∂x ∂x2
and
∂u ∂ 2u
= sinh x cos y, = − sinh x sin y = −u.
∂y ∂y 2
Hence
2 ∂ 2u ∂ 2u
∇ u= + = 0.
∂x2 ∂y 2
To get the harmonic conjugate v we have by one of the Cauchy Riemann
equations that
∂v ∂u
=− = − sinh x cos y
∂x ∂y
and thus integrating with respect to x gives
where g(y) is any function of y. Using the other Cauchy Riemann equation
gives
∂v ∂u
= cosh x sin y + g 0 (y) = = cosh x sin y
∂y ∂x
2020:10:17:18:21:01
c M. K. Warby MA3614 Complex variable methods and applications 8
(a) Let z = x + iy, with x, y ∈ R. Let f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) denote a function
defined in the complex plane C, with u and v being real-valued functions which
have continuous partial derivatives of all orders.
State the Cauchy Riemann equations for an analytic function in terms of partial
derivatives of u and v with respect to x and y.
The Cauchy Riemann equations in polar coordinates r and θ for an analytic
function f (reiθ ) = ũ(r, θ) + iṽ(r, θ), with ũ(r, θ) and ṽ(r, θ) being real, are
∂ ũ 1 ∂ṽ 1 ∂ ũ ∂ṽ
= and =− .
∂r r ∂θ r ∂θ ∂r
In the case of f (z) = 1/z, z 6= 0, give ũ, ṽ and the first order partial derivatives
∂ ũ ∂ṽ ∂ ũ ∂ṽ
, , and .
∂r ∂θ ∂θ ∂r
Solution
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
= , =− .
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
1 1 1
f (z) = = e−iθ = (cos(θ) − i sin(θ)).
z r r
Thus
cos(θ) sin(θ)
ũ = , ṽ = −
r r
and
∂ ũ cos(θ) ∂ṽ sin(θ) ∂ ũ sin(θ) ∂ṽ cos(θ)
=− 2 , = , =− and =− .
∂r r ∂r r2 ∂θ r ∂θ r
∂u ∂v
− = cosh(x) cos(y) + cosh(x) cos(y) = 2 cosh(x) cos(y),
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v
+ = − sinh(x) sin(y) − sinh(x) sin(y) = −2 sinh(x) sin(y).
∂y ∂x
The first equation is only satisfied when cos(y) = 0. When this is the case
| sin(y)| = 1 and the second equation is only satisfied as well when x = 0.
Both equations are only satisfied at isolated points and as they are not
satisfied in the neighbourhood of any point the function f3 is not analytic.
2020:10:17:18:21:01
c M. K. Warby MA3614 Complex variable methods and applications 10
∂u ∂v ∂ 3φ ∂ 3φ
− = +
∂x ∂y ∂x2 ∂y ∂y 3
∂ ∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ
= + =0
∂y ∂x2 ∂y 2
∂u ∂v ∂ 3φ ∂ 3φ
+ = − =0
∂y ∂x ∂x∂y 2 ∂x∂y 2
as mixed partial derivatives can be done in any order. Both Cauchy Rie-
mann equations are satisfied and thus f4 is analytic.
(c) Using the Cauchy Riemann equations the harmonic conjugate v satisfies
∂v ∂u
=− = 2 cosh(2x) sin(2y).
∂x ∂y
Partially integrating with respect to x gives
for some function g(y). Partially differentiating with respect to y and using
the other Cauchy Riemann equation gives
∂v ∂u
= 2 sinh(2x) cos(2y) + g 0 (y) = = 2 sinh(2x) cos(2y)
∂y ∂x
8. This was most of question 1 of the May 2019 MA3614 paper and was worth 16 of the
20 marks.
2020:10:17:18:21:01
c M. K. Warby MA3614 Complex variable methods and applications 11
(a) Let z = x+iy, with x, y ∈ R, and let f (z) = u(x, y)+iv(x, y) denote a function
defined in the complex plane C, with u and v being real-valued functions which
have continuous partial derivatives of all orders.
State the Cauchy Riemann equations for an analytic function in terms of partial
derivatives of u and v with respect to x and y.
(b) Let z = x + iy with x, y ∈ R. For each of the following functions, determine
whether or not it is analytic in the complex plane, giving reasons for your
answers in each case.
i.
f1 (z) = y.
ii.
f2 (z) = (−x − 4xy) + i(2x2 − 2y 2 − y).
iii.
f3 (z) = ex (x cos(y) − y sin(y)) + iex (x sin(y) + y cos(y)).
iv.
∂φ ∂φ
f4 (z) = +i
∂x ∂y
where φ(x, y) is a harmonic function and the first partial derivatives are
not constant.
(c) Let u(x, y) = cosh(x) cos(y). Show that u is harmonic and determine the har-
monic conjugate v(x, y) satisfying v(0, 0) = 0.
2020:10:17:18:21:01
c M. K. Warby MA3614 Complex variable methods and applications 12
Solution
∂u
= ex cos(y) + ex (x cos(y) − y sin(y)),
∂x
∂v
= ex (x cos(y) + cos(y) − y sin(y)),
∂y
∂u
= ex (−x sin(y) − sin(y) − y cos(y)),
∂y
∂v
= ex sin(y) + ex (x sin(y) + y cos(y)).
∂x
Both Cauchy Riemann equations are satisfied and hence f3 is analytic.
iv. Let
∂φ ∂φ
u= and v = .
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v ∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ
− = − = 2 = −2
∂x ∂y ∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂x2 ∂y 2
as φ is harmonic.
∂u ∂v ∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ
+ = + =2
∂y ∂x ∂y∂x ∂x∂y ∂x∂y
as mixed partial derivatives can be done in any order. If both right hand
sides are 0 then the first partial derivatives of φ are constant. As we
are told that this is not the case the Cauchy Riemann equations are not
satisfied and hence f4 is not analytic.
2020:10:17:18:21:01
c M. K. Warby MA3614 Complex variable methods and applications 13
∂u ∂u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u
= sinh(x) cos(y), = − cosh(x) sin(y), = u, = −u.
∂x ∂y ∂x2 ∂y 2
Hence u is harmonic.
The harmonic conjugate v is related to u by the Cauchy Riemann equations.
∂v ∂u
=− = cosh(x) sin(y).
∂x ∂y
Partially integrating with respect to x gives
∂v ∂u
= sinh(x) cos(y) + g 0 (y) =
∂y ∂x
(a) Let z = x+iy, with x, y ∈ R, and let f (z) = u(x, y)+iv(x, y) denote a function
defined in the complex plane C with u and v being real-valued functions which
have continuous partial derivatives of all orders.
State the Cauchy Riemann equations for an analytic function in terms of partial
derivatives of u and v with respect to x and y.
If f (z) is analytic then express f 0 (z) in terms of only partial derivatives of u
and v with respect to x and also express f 0 (z) in terms of partial derivatives
of only the function u.
Solution
as φ is harmonic.
∂u ∂v ∂ 3φ ∂ 3φ
+ = − =0
∂y ∂x ∂y∂x2 ∂x2 ∂y
as mixed partial derivatives do not depend on the order. The Cauchy
Riemann equations hold at all points and thus the function f4 is analytic
everywhere.
(c) The partial derivatives of u are
∂u ∂ 2u
= 20x3 y − 20xy 3 , = 60x2 y − 20y 3 ,
∂x ∂x2
and
∂u ∂ 2u
= 5x4 − 30x2 y 2 + 5y 4 , = −60x2 y + 20y 3 .
∂y ∂y 2
∇2 u = 0 and thus u is harmonic.
We use the Cauchy Riemann equations to attempt to get v.
∂v ∂u
=− = −5x4 + 30x2 y 2 − 5y 4 .
∂x ∂y
Partially integrating with respect to x gives
v = −x5 + 10x3 y 2 − 5y 4 x + 2.
Hence
f (5) (0) 5
f (z) = 2i + z = 2i − iz 5 .
5!
2020:10:17:18:21:01
c M. K. Warby MA3614 Complex variable methods and applications 17
10. This was most of question 1 of the May 2017 MA3614 paper. The part of the exam
question not included here relates to Maclaurin series which is not covered until
term 2.
(a) Let z = x+iy, with x, y ∈ R, and let f (z) = u(x, y)+iv(x, y) denote a function
defined in the complex plane C with u and v being real-valued functions which
have continuous partial derivatives of all orders.
State the Cauchy Riemann equations for an analytic function in terms of partial
derivatives of u and v with respect to x and y.
ii.
g2 (z0 + h) − g2 (z0 ) g1 (z0 + h) − g1 (z0 )
= .
h h
This is the complex conjugate of the expression in the previous part and
thus
g2 (z0 + h) − g2 (z0 )
lim = f 0 (z0 ).
h→0 h
As the limit exists at all points in D the function g2 (z) is analytic in D.
2020:10:17:18:21:01
c M. K. Warby MA3614 Complex variable methods and applications 20
(a) Let z = x+iy, with x, y ∈ R, and let f (z) = u(x, y)+iv(x, y) denote a function
defined in the complex plane C with u and v being real-valued functions which
have continuous partial derivatives of all orders.
State the Cauchy Riemann equations for the function f to be analytic. Give
expressions for f 0 (z) in terms of only partial derivatives of u and also in terms
of only partial derivatives of v.
(b) For each of the following functions determine if they are analytic in the complex
plane, giving reasons for your answer in each case.
i.
f1 (z) = (2x2 − 2y 2 + 6xy + 4x + 6y) + i(−3x2 + 3y 2 + 4xy + 4y − 6x).
ii.
∂φ ∂φ
f2 (z) = i
+ ,
∂x ∂y
where φ(x, y) denotes any function which is harmonic at all points (x, y).
iii.
f3 (z) = ex ((x cos(y) − y sin(y) + cos(y)) + i(x sin(y) + y cos(y) + sin(y))) .
iv.
f4 (z) = ex (cos(y) − i sin(y)) .
(c) Show that the function
u(x, y) = x3 y − xy 3
is harmonic and determine the harmonic conjugate v(x, y) satisfying v(0, 0) = 2.
Express u + iv in terms of z only.
Solution
(b) i.
∂u ∂v ∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ
= = = .
∂x ∂y ∂x∂y ∂y∂x
For the other Cauchy Riemann equation
∂u ∂v ∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ
+ = 2 + 2 =0
∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x
as φ is harmonic. Both Cauchy Riemann equations are satisfied and thus
f2 (z) is analytic everywhere.
iii.
∂u
= ex (x cos(y) − y sin(y) + cos(y) + cos(y))
∂x
= ex (x cos(y) − y sin(y) + 2 cos(y)).
∂v ∂u
= ex (x cos(y) − y sin(y) + cos(y) + cos(y)) = .
∂y ∂x
∂u
= ex (−x sin(y) − y cos(y) − sin(y) − sin(y))
∂y
= ex (−x sin(y) − y cos(y) − 2 sin(y)).
∂v ∂v
= ex (x sin(y) + y cos(y) + sin(y) + sin(y)) = − .
∂x ∂x
Both Cauchy Riemann equations are satisfied and thus f2 (z) is analytic
everywhere.
2020:10:17:18:21:01
c M. K. Warby MA3614 Complex variable methods and applications 22
iv.
u = ex cos(y), v = −ex sin(y).
∂u ∂v
= ex cos(y), = −ex cos(y).
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v
= −ex sin(y), = −ex sin(y).
∂y ∂x
There is no value of y for which cos(y) = 0 and sin(y) = 0 and thus the
Cauchy Riemann equations are not satisfied at any point and hence f4 is
not analytic at any point.
(c)
∂u ∂ 2u
= 3x2 y − y 3 , = 6xy
∂x ∂x2
and
∂u ∂ 2u
= x3 − 3xy 2 , = −6xy.
∂y ∂y 2
Hence ∇2 u = 0. The harmonic conjugate v is such that
∂v ∂u
=− = 3xy 2 − x3 .
∂x ∂y
Integrating partially with respect to x gives
2
x x4
v=3 y2 − + g(y)
2 4
for any function g(y). Using the other Cauchy Riemann equation gives
∂v ∂u
= 3x2 y + g 0 (y) = = 3x2 y − y 3 .
∂y ∂x
Thus g 0 (y) = −y 3 and
y4
g(y) = −
+C
4
where C is a constant. As we require v(0, 0) = 2 this gives C = 2.
6x2 y 2 − x4 − y 4
3 3
f = u + iv = (x y − xy ) + i +2 .
4
As by construction this is analytic it is a polynomial in z of degree 4. We
use the Maclaurin series to get the representation and get the derivatives by
differentiating in the x-direction.
Thus
f 00 (0) 2 f 000 (0) 3 f 0000 (0) 4
0 −i
f (z) = f (0) + f (0)z + z + z + z = z 4 + 2i.
2 6 24 4