Potential and Limitations of Applying HELP Model

for Surface Covers

Klaus Berger1

Abstract: Simulation models can be efficient tools, provided they are sufficiently validated. In the United States, the HELP model was
developed to simulate the water balance of landfills, especially of liner systems. HELP version 3 was examined under the humid climate
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Texas Tech University on 05/14/15. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

of Germany in an extensive validation study. The aim of this paper is to put the validation results into practice by showing the potential
and limitations of applying the HELP model for surface cover systems using examples of practical planning. The examples cover the
components of surface covers: topsoil and vegetation, a compacted layer at the bottom of the topsoil, drainage layers and drainage nets,
geomembranes, and several liners. Potential errors are shown and classified, and recommendations for critical application cases are given.
In summary, the HELP model is a suitable tool for instructed users, but good knowledge of the model and its behavior and critical review
of the simulation results are essential. A German enhancement of the HELP model, HELP 3.50 D, was developed. It fixes errors shown
in this article and enhances some processes.
DOI: 10.1061/共ASCE兲1090-025X共2002兲6:3共192兲
CE Database keywords: Drainage; Hydrologic models; Landfills; Sensitivity analysis; Liners; Percolation; Simulation models; Water
balance.

Introduction designs, processes, or sites.

The main task of surface cover systems is to minimize the infil-
tration of precipitation water into the landfill body in order to
reduce the mobility of contaminants. State of the art in a humid
climate are multilayered systems consisting of a topsoil with a
vegetation 共usually grasses兲, a lateral drainage layer, and a liner.
Standard designs are given in regulations as the German TA Ab-
fall 共1991兲 for hazardous waste and TA Siedlungsabfall 共1993兲 for
municipal waste or in recommendations and guidance documents
such as the U.S. EPA 共1989兲 or the German GDA-Empfehlungen
共DGGT 1997兲. An important aspect of the effectiveness of a sur-
face cover system is its water balance under the climatic condi-
tions of a particular site. In this context, simulation models can be
efficient tools for several tasks in planning and aftercare, such as
comparison of the effectiveness of alternative designs, optimiza-
tion of particular layers with regard to cost-benefit considerations,
or estimation of particular risks of old liner systems.
Several error sources may affect the simulation results of a
model 共Table 1兲; therefore, an essential precondition for the re-
sponsible practical use of any simulation model is its validation.
In the validation the model can be confirmed, and thus the confi-
dence can be enhanced that the simulation results, provided the
model is properly applied, are more or less realistic for particular
1
Univ. of Hamburg, Institute of Soil Science, Allende-Platz 2,
20146 Hamburg, Germany. E-mail: k.berger@ifb.uni-hamburg.de
Note. Discussion open until December 1, 2002. Separate discussions
must be submitted for individual papers. To extend the closing date by
one month, a written request must be filed with the ASCE Managing
Editor. The manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and pos-
sible publication on March 1, 2002; approved on March 1, 2002. This
paper is part of the Practice Periodical of Hazardous, Toxic, and Radio-
active Waste Management, Vol. 6, No. 3, July 1, 2002. ©ASCE, ISSN
1090-025X/2002/3-192–203/$8.00⫹$.50 per page.
To simulate the water balance of liner systems in the United
States, the Hydrologic Evaluation of Landfill Performance
共HELP兲 model 共Schroeder et al. 1994a, b兲 was developed. The
HELP model is discussed in engineering textbooks and also in the
German literature. However, only a few validation studies for the
current version, HELP 3, were conducted 关in the United States:
Fleenor and King 共1995兲, Khire et al. 共1997兲, and Lange et al.
共1999兲兴. To set up a scientific basis for the application of the
HELP model in Germany, a validation study under the humid
climate of Germany was performed, and a German adaptation
was developed 共Berger 1998; Schroeder et al. 1998兲. The valida-
tion study consists of three parts, a methodological part 共meaning,
aims, and procedure of validation兲, a theoretical part 共comparison
of the modeling approach with the state of science; comparison of
model documentation, literature, and source code兲, and a practical
part 共sensitivity analyses for topsoil and vegetation and for drain-
age layers; operational validation using data of the water balance
test fields on the landfill Hamburg-Georgswerder兲. A summary in
English of the main results is given in Berger 共2000a兲. A recom-
mendation of the German Geotechnical Society concerns the
modeling of the water balance of landfill cover systems and the
application of the HELP model in Germany 共GDA-Empfehlung E
2-30 1998; Ramke et al. 2000兲. Based on the validation results,
the German enhancement HELP 3.50 D was developed 共Berger
2000b; Schroeder and Berger 2001兲.
This paper is written for practitioners in consulting firms or
authorities who want to conduct water balance calculations with
the HELP model or who have to judge HELP simulation results.
Mainly based on the validation results of Berger 共1998兲, the paper
shows the potential, limitations, and pitfalls of application of the
HELP model using examples of practical planning under German
共humid兲 climatic conditions. Though the German climate is quite
uniform and different from the climate in other regions of the
world, many results hold in other climates also.

192 / PRACTICE PERIODICAL OF HAZARDOUS, TOXIC, AND RADIOACTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT / JULY 2002

Pract. Period. Hazard. Toxic Radioact. Waste Manage. 2002.6:192-203.

 Table 1. Categories of Possible Errors Affecting Simulation Results
Number Error category
1 Model errors
1.1 Model structure errors
1.2 Systematic/procedure errors
1.3 Program/implementation errors
1.4 Run-time errors 共reproducible, nonreproducible兲
2 Errors in empirical investigations used for model development
共leading to error category 1.1兲 or model validation
2.1 Errors in measurement concept
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Texas Tech University on 05/14/15. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
2.2 Systematic and accidential measurement errors
3 Application errors
3.1 Conceptual application errors 共model is applicable, but not
suitably applied兲
3.2 Underdetermination 共nonuniqueness兲 of system
4 Incompatibility of generic model and application case 共model is
not applicable in this particular case兲
HELP Model
The HELP model was developed to estimate the water balance of
open or closed landfills and especially of liner systems for the
surface and bottom of a landfill. The primary purpose is to assist
engineers and permit writers in comparison of design alternatives.
Version 1 of HELP was released in 1984, version 2 in 1988, and
the greatly enhanced version 3 in 1994. A detailed description of
the modeling approach, its technical solution, and the limitations
of the model is given in Schroeder et al. 共1994a, b兲. Just a few
aspects are pointed out here.
HELP is a ‘‘quasi-two-dimensional’’ layer model. Several one-
dimensional processes in the vertical and the lateral are combined
共vertical: precipitation, infiltration, evapotranspiration, percola-
tion; lateral: surface runoff, lateral drainage兲, but two-dimensional
flow actually is not modeled. A profile of a landfill or a liner
system has to be declared as a sequence of layers. Each layer
performs a specific task and must be of one out of four layer types
共vertical percolation layer, lateral drainage layer, barrier soil layer,
or geomembrane兲. The layer type sequence must follow a set of
rules due to the concept of the ‘‘subprofile.’’ Evapotranspiration is
limited to the evaporative zone, whose depth must be input by the
user. For a more detailed computation of the vertical soil water
distribution and the vertical flow, the evaporative zone and the
layers are divided into segments.
The evapotranspiration submodel is coupled to a model of
plant growth and decay for perennial and annual crops. This is an
advanced approach that is seldom realized in water balance mod-
els. The only vegetation considered are grasses. Soil evaporation
Table 2. Climatic Characteristics of Simulated Locations 共Mean Values 1986 –1995兲
Characteristic value
Precipitation 共mm/year兲
Potential evapotranspiration according to Haude 共mm/year兲
Climatic water balance 共mm/year兲
Month per year with negative climatic water balance
Humidity
PRACTICE PERIODICAL OF HAZARDOUS, TOXIC, AND RADIOACTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT / JULY 2002 / 193
Pract. Period. Hazard. Toxic Radioact. Waste Manage. 2002.6:192-203.
Examples
—
Neglect of relevant processes, false process descriptions
Numerical errors 共numerical dispersion, mass balance errors兲
May also exist in libraries linked to program
Computer arithmetic errors 共loss of significant digits, numerical
overflow兲
—
Computation of value as residual value whose size is smaller
than sum of measurement errors of independent variables
Systematic errors of precipitation measurement
—
Unsuitable discretization in space and time
Incomplete description of system properties, boundary, or initial
conditions
Scale not suitable
and plant transpiration are modeled as a depth-dependent extrac-
tion out of the seven segments of the evaporative zone.
Vertical flow is modeled in only one direction 共downward
from segment to segment兲 using several assumptions. The capil-
lary potential is neglected as a driving force; just the gravitational
and the hydrostatic potential are considered. Thus, the hydraulic
gradient is greater than or equal to 1 共with one exception for
barrier soil layers兲. The minimum water content of the segments
is limited to distinct values—wilting point, field capacity, or total
porosity—depending on the layer type and location within or out-
side the evaporative zone. These assumptions lead to a physically
incorrect computation of magnitude and sometimes also direction
of vertical flow. However, implicitly, capillary rise and thus the
capillary potential is considered within the evaporative zone, and
that in the submodel of soil evaporation. Soil evaporation is com-
puted with an empirical approach as a depth-weighted sink term
for the segments of the soil evaporative zone, but not as an evapo-
ration at the soil surface, as it is physically. Therefore, the total
effect of the assumptions on the water flow depends on the spe-
cific application and is difficult to estimate.
Unsaturated vertical percolation is modeled for a one-domain
pore space with an unimodal pore size distribution. Preferential
flow through macropores, which may dominate the flow process,
is not considered.
Besides the capillary break, capillary diversion is also not
modeled in HELP. Therefore, capillary barriers with neither a
horizontal nor a sloped interface can be simulated with HELP
共error category 4, Table 1兲.
Geisenheim Hamburg Lüdenscheid
535 835 1,258
755 570 492
⫺220 265 766
6.5 4.1 2.7
Subhumid Moderately humid Humid
 Examples of Application
Preliminaries
The examples of this section cover the components of surface
covers from top to bottom and are focused on critical cases and
possible errors. All simulation results were obtained with a HELP
version 3.06 that was modified by the writer. The modifications
cover 共1兲 the correction of some errors found in the theoretical
part of the validation study 共Berger 1998兲—these corrections are
included in HELP 3.07; 共2兲 the output of program variables that
do not belong to the standard output of HELP; and 共3兲 several
options for a further control of the simulation runs. Nevertheless,
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Texas Tech University on 05/14/15. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
all statements are also valid for the current U.S. version, HELP
3.07. The enhancements of HELP 3.50 D are described in the
appropriate sections.
Three locations were chosen that cover the climatic conditions
of Germany except for extremely wet conditions. The latter are
limited mainly to the Alps and are not important for landfills or
contaminated sites. The locations are Geisenheim 共dry兲, Hamburg
共medium兲, and Lüdenscheid 共wet兲 共Table 2兲. The weather data are
from the German Weather Service and cover the time period
1986 –1995.
In every water balance calculation, the precipitation data are of
major importance because they include systematic errors of mea-
surement that usually are not corrected by the national weather
services. The size of the systematic errors depends on instrumen-
tal, meteorological, and environmental factors 共Sevruk 1982;
Sevruk and Klemm 1989兲. The size of systematic errors differs
between the measurement devices and procedures used in differ-
ent countries, and also for a particular device and procedure in the
same country depending on environmental and meteorological
conditions. For example, the size of the measurement errors of
yearly sums of precipitation from the German Weather Service
usually is 10–15% 共Richter 1995兲. Consequences concerning
simulation with HELP are discussed in the next section.
Design of Topsoil and Vegetation
The tasks of topsoil and vegetation regarding the water balance
are to minimize and equalize percolation into the underlying layer
by maximization of the evapotranspiration and the moisture stor-
age, and to minimize the surface runoff to prevent erosion. The
most important water balance component in a humid climate is
evapotranspiration. German regulations for topsoil and vegetation
are short and general; therefore, a simulation model can be very
helpful in the design process. In this section, the validity of the
evapotranspiration estimated by HELP is discussed.
In Berger 共1998兲, an output comparison of HELP simulation
results and measured data of the test fields on the landfill
Hamburg-Georgswerder from 1988 to 1995 was performed. The
test fields were 50-m long and 10-m wide and had a 75-cm thick
topsoil made of loamy sand, a good to excellent grass cover
共mowed; therefore, the maximum leaf area index 共LAI兲 was set to
3.5兲, and a drainage layer below the topsoil. If precipitation data
with systematic measurement errors between 10 and 16% were
used for simulation, HELP reproduced the totals of actual evapo-
transpiration 共ETa兲 from 1988 to 1995 in most cases within ⫾5%
and also approximated the seasonal distribution quite well. How-
ever, HELP tended to level the yearly sums of actual evapotrans-
piration and underestimated the influence of the relevant input
parameters. But if precipitation data corrected for systematic er-
rors were used for simulation, HELP underestimated the totals of
194 / PRACTICE PERIODICAL OF HAZARDOUS, TOXIC, AND RADIOACTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT / JULY 2002
Pract. Period. Hazard. Toxic Radioact. Waste Manage. 2002.6:192-203.
ETa by 15% and overestimated the totals of percolation out of the
topsoil by 24%.
To enlarge the validation basis for evapotranspiration, the in-
fluence of soil texture and vegetation on the ETa was evaluated in
HELP simulation runs and opposed to regression lines obtained
from lysimeter data. For each of the three locations mentioned
above, a dry, medium, and wet year of the time period 1986 –
1995 was simulated. Five soil textures of less consolidated soils
from the HELP database were chosen that covered the whole
textural range 共sand, sandy loam, loam, silt loam, and clay兲. For
the vegetation, five levels of maximum LAI were used, 0 for bare
soil, 2.5 for a medium grass cover, 5.0 共the designated maximum
in HELP兲 for an excellent grass cover, and 10—and for some soil
texture, even 20—for woodland. Woodland was included in the
analysis because under certain conditions it is the most favourable
vegetation for surface covers 共for example at locations in a forest
or to maximize ETa兲. However, HELP was not developed to
model woodland; therefore, the computed evapotranspiration
might not be valid. To be comparable with the regression lines,
the topsoil thickness and evaporative zone depth of the simulation
results presented below are 100 cm for a maximum LAI from 0 to
5 and 200 cm for maximum LAIs of 10 and 20. 共An evaporative
zone depth of 100 cm may be used for bare soil because no
transpiration occurs and HELP computes an internal value for the
soil evaporative depth.兲
The yearly sums of actual evapotranspiration computed by
HELP were opposed to regression lines based on Proksch 共1990兲.
Proksch 共1990兲 evaluated 1,132 years of lysimeter data from 88
German lysimeters to get a basis for the estimation of groundwa-
ter recharge on a local and regional scale. On the basis of yearly
data of precipitation and percolation, regression lines
‘‘percolation⫽ f (precipitation)’’ for several soil textures and
kinds of vegetation were computed. These regression lines were
converted by the writer to regression lines ‘‘ETa
⫽ f (precipitation)’’ 共Figs. 1 and 2兲. However, the regression lines
in Figs. 1 and 2 have to be interpreted very carefully for the
following reasons:
1. In the conversion it was assumed that surface runoff and
change in water content between the beginning 共April 1兲 and
end 共March 31兲 of a year can be neglected;
2. The precipitation data include systematic errors of measure-
ment. Actually, ETa as well as precipitation is, for these er-
rors, higher than shown in Figs. 1 and 2;
3. ETa does not increase unlimitedly with increasing precipita-
tion, but is theoretically bounded by the potential evapo-
transpiration 共ETp兲. ETp depends on the location and is
therefore not shown in Figs. 1 and 2. The convex shape of
the HELP curves in Figs. 1 and 2 is caused by the differences
of yearly ETp; and
4. The data underlying the regression lines scatter considerably
due to the fact that ETa depends on the seasonal distribution
of precipitation and on other climatic variables, such as air
temperature.
Therefore, the regression lines were not used as a mark for the
HELP results, but just as an indicator for potential errors in the
model.
For a bare soil, HELP computed for the three loams on one
hand and for sand and clay on the other hand nearly identical
yearly sums of ETa, and both sets are close together 共Fig. 1兲.
According to the regression lines, the soil textures should have
much more influence on the ETa. Particularly, HELP overesti-
mates the ETa of bare sand. Though in a moderate climate bare
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Texas Tech University on 05/14/15. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
Fig. 1. Actual evapotranspiration dependent on precipitation and soil
texture for bare topsoil, simulated with HELP 3 versus regression
lines according to Proksch 共1990兲
soil is unusual and not important for surface covers, Fig. 1 indi-
cates model structure errors of HELP 共see below兲.
Analogously, HELP underestimates the influence of vegetation
on the ETa and in particular underestimates the ETa of woodland
共Fig. 2兲. Reasons for this are limiting assumptions of HELP 共grass
as vegetation; ETp, interception evaporation, and plant transpira-
tion are higher for woodland兲 and model structure errors 共soil
evaporation is overestimated, plant transpiration is underesti-
mated; see below兲. However, Fig. 2 also shows a limitation of the
evaluation of Proksch 共1990兲. The regression line of grass should
be steeper and should lie between the lines of bare soil and de-
ciduous wood.
HELP 3.50 D fixes most of the problems mentioned above by
the following changes 关details in Berger 共2000b兲; in the follow-
ing, ED3 abbreviates the engineering documentation of HELP 3,
Schroeder et al. 共1994b兲兴:
1. The interception model was replaced by an enhancement of
the model of von Hoyningen-Huene 共1983兲, which is based
on empirical studies on agricultural plants with LAIs be-
tween 1.2 and 14 –17. The enhancement includes an inter-
ception storage.
2. HELP up to 3.07 overestimates soil evaporation of bare sand
and grown soil and underestimates plant transpiration due to
the following reasons:
• The soil evaporative depth internally computed by HELP
is limited to a minimum of 18 in. 关46 cm; ED3, Eqs. 共84兲
and 共85兲兴. Compared with the height of capillary rise, this
minimum is much too high for sand and coarser material
and was reduced to 6 in. 共15 cm兲.
• The upper limit of the constant rate stage of the empirical
two stage soil evaporation model in the HELP source code
was reduced to the original value from the literature 关ED3,
Eq. 共81兲兴.
PRACTICE PERIODICAL OF HAZARDOUS, TOXIC, AND RADIOACTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT / JULY 2002 / 195
Pract. Period. Hazard. Toxic Radioact. Waste Manage. 2002.6:192-203.
Fig. 2. Actual evapotranspiration dependent on precipitation and
vegetation on topsoil of sand, simulated with HELP 3 versus regres-
sion lines according to Proksch 共1990兲
• The reduction of potential soil evaporation with increasing
above ground biomass 关ED3, Eq. 共78兲兴 is too small. There-
fore, soil evaporation of a grown topsoil is too high and
plant transpiration too small. The reduction equation was
revised in HELP 3.50 D.
3. The implementation of the vegetative growth and decay
model, which was taken from the SWRRB model 共Arnold
et al. 1990兲, was completed according to the description in
ED3, section 4.12. Moreover, aeration stress due to short air
was added from the EPIC model 共Sharpley and Williams
1990兲.
However, according to first validation results, the effects of the
enhancements on the ETa are smaller than expected.
Effectiveness of Qualified Cover
To safeguard landfills and contaminated sites with the standard
cover systems given in the German regulations is very expensive.
Moreover, the lifetime and long-term effectiveness of the standard
design with a barrier soil liner is in discussion and at least ques-
tionable. Therefore it is of interest if less complex systems are
sufficient for safeguarding. One of the most simple systems is the
‘‘qualified cover,’’ which is a topsoil with a vegetation that is
designed with regard to safety objectives considering the local
conditions. In the following, the water balance of such a cover is
estimated with the HELP model under favorable, that is, rela-
tively dry German climatic conditions.
Silt loam 共HELP No. 9兲 was chosen as the soil texture because
its soil physical properties are very good. Two variants of layer
thickness were considered, namely, 1 and 2 m. Vegetation was
excellent grass 共a maximum LAI of 5.0兲 that may take up water
from the whole topsoil. HELP estimates the ETa of such covers
with sufficient accuracy 共see the previous section兲. Simulations
 Table 3. Simulated Yearly Water Balance of Two Qualified Covers 共Geisenheim兲
Precipitation
Cover thickness Year Summer Winter ETp Surface runoff ETa Percolation
Year 共cm兲 共mm兲 共mm兲 共mm兲 共mm兲 共mm兲 共mm兲 共mm兲
Dry 共1991兲 100 372 180 192 743 0 359 14
200 372 180 192 743 0 371 0
Wet 共1995兲 100 682 340 342 717 0 508 173
200 682 340 342 717 0 593 92
Average, 1986 –1995 100 535 276 259 709 2 452 79
200 535 276 259 709 2 511 25
Note: summer⫽April to September; winter⫽January to March and October to December.
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Texas Tech University on 05/14/15. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

were run for Geisenheim for the time period 1986 –1995 and also
two separate years, a dry and a wet year, to evaluate extreme
climatic conditions.
The permission authorities have to decide in each particular
case which average and maximum levels of percolation into the
landfill or contaminated site are still acceptable. For an orienta-
tion, maximum acceptable levels may be derived from the regu-
lations. If a percolation for about 8 months a year at a hydraulic
gradient of 1 is assumed, for the German standard design for
municipal waste 关TA Siedlungsabfall 共1993兲, landfill category I兴 a
percolation of about 100 mm/year is still acceptable (K s ⫽5
⫻10⫺9 m/s⫽0.43 mm/day⫽158 mm/year). In the long-term av-
erage, the yearly sum of percolation of both cover alternatives is
below this level 共Table 3兲. However, for the shallow cover there
are particular years with sums of percolation significantly above
that level. The percolation out of this cover occurs in just one or
a few months per year in winter or in spring, and that with daily
percolation rates that often exceed the daily acceptance level con-
siderably 共Fig. 3兲.
As a qualification of these statements, it must be observed that
HELP models only percolation through the primary pore system.
If there are coherent macropores such as interaggregate pores due
to a strong soil structure or root channels, animal borrows, or
desiccation cracks, water can move very fast through the cover.
Thus, the HELP simulation results are on the unconservative side.
Fig. 3. Simulated water balance of 100-cm thick qualified cover in
dry and wet year, Geisenheim
For both cover alternatives, in none of the simulated years can
the potential evapotranspiration ETp be completely utilized 共ETa
is always less than ETp兲, especially not in those years with per-
colation. This is caused by the seasonal distribution of precipita-
tion and potential evapotranspiration. In general, the level of the
ETa rises with the level of precipitation during summer and the
level of percolation rises with the level of precipitation in winter.
Typically, as compared with the ETp, the ETa breaks down during
summer in two situations: in April and May, when there is still
water available in the deeper parts of the evaporative zone, but it
can not be evapotranspired because the vegetation is not yet suf-
ficiently grown; and in mid- and late summer when the evapora-
tive zone is deeply dried out and the precipitation amounts are too
small 共Fig. 3兲.
Effect of Low Permeability Layer at Bottom of Topsoil
In the German literature on design of the topsoil, sometimes an
additional third layer at the bottom is suggested, leading to the
following design:
• An upper, humous layer, which can be penetrated easily by
roots and has a high infiltration capacity to prevent erosion;
• A middle, nonhumous layer as a root zone for plants and for
moisture storage; and
• A compacted bottom layer to reduce percolation by backing up
water for evapotranspiration and to prevent plants from root-
ing into the deeper layers.
A considerable effect of a compacted bottom layer on the
water balance may not be expected until the percolation out of the
topsoil under the climatic conditions of the site is higher than the
saturated hydraulic conductivity of the bottom layer. This requires
wet German climatic conditions. How large the effect of a com-
pacted bottom layer is can be estimated with HELP. However, the
simulation results depend on the layer sequence and the HELP
layer type of compacted bottom layer and are physically impos-
sible for some configurations. This is demonstrated for the ex-
tremely wet year 1993 in Hamburg 共precipitation 1,001 mm兲 and
the following five designs 共see Fig. 4; for convenience the upper
and middle layers are handled as a whole and denoted as topsoil兲:
1. Topsoil, 100-cm thick, made of silt loam 共HELP No. 9兲,
maximum LAI 5.0, evaporative zone depth 100 cm, HELP
layer type ‘‘vertical percolation layer,’’ no compacted bottom
layer.
2. Topsoil as in design 1; below is a 20-cm thick compacted
bottom layer made of medium compacted clay 共HELP No.
29, saturated hydraulic conductivity 6.8⫻10⫺9 m/s兲; the
bottom layer is declared as HELP layer type ‘‘vertical per-
colation layer,’’ because the water flow may be unsaturated

196 / PRACTICE PERIODICAL OF HAZARDOUS, TOXIC, AND RADIOACTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT / JULY 2002

Pract. Period. Hazard. Toxic Radioact. Waste Manage. 2002.6:192-203.

Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Texas Tech University on 05/14/15. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
Fig. 4. Topsoil designs with compacted bottom layer
and the layer may be considered as belonging to the topsoil;
the evaporative zone is as in design 1, which means it ends at
the top of the bottom layer.
3. Same as design 2, but the HELP layer type of the compacted
bottom layer is a ‘‘barrier soil layer.’’
4. Same as design 2; below there follows a drainage layer on a
geomembrane liner.
5. Same as design 4, but as in design 3 the HELP layer type of
the compacted bottom layer of the topsoil is a ‘‘barrier soil
layer.’’
The simulated daily percolation rates out of the compacted
bottom layer are shown in Fig. 5 共for design 4, the lateral drain-
age rates are shown兲. Two implementation errors occur: one in
design 2, the other in design 4. A maximum daily percolation
through the compacted bottom layer can be calculated with Dar-
cy’s law and the assumption that no water is ponding on the soil
surface but is removed immediately by runoff. Then in the given
designs the maximum hydraulic gradient is 6 and the maximum
daily percolation is 3.5 mm/day.
The first error—which may be overlooked easily—occurs in
design 2 under sufficiently wet climatic conditions. The time se-
ries of the daily percolation rates of design 2 is almost identical to
that of design 1. In particular, on several days of the year for
design 2, percolation rates above the maximum value of 3.5 mm/
day occur. According to Darcy’s law these percolation rates re-
quire hydraulic gradients that correspond to water ponding on the
soil surface up to several meters 共Fig. 5兲. Nevertheless, the soil
above the compacted bottom layer is unsaturated and the surface
runoff does not differ significantly from that of design 1. Thus,
the simulation results of HELP are physically false. But if the
bottom layer is declared as a barrier soil layer type 共design 3兲, the
simulation results are plausible 共Fig. 5兲.
The second error—which may hardly be overlooked if the
daily simulation results are checked—occurs in design 4, which
differs from design 2 just in having a drainage layer 共which must
lie on a liner兲 below the compacted bottom layer. For design 4,
HELP computes constant daily percolation rates out of the bottom
layer of the topsoil with a hydraulic gradient of 1, even if there is
a head on the compacted bottom layer. In this particular case, this
PRACTICE PERIODICAL OF HAZARDOUS, TOXIC, AND RADIOACTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT / JULY 2002 / 197
Pract. Period. Hazard. Toxic Radioact. Waste Manage. 2002.6:192-203.
Fig. 5. Simulated daily percolation of topsoil designs shown in Fig.
4 共Hamburg, wet year 1993兲
is also conspicuous by a drastic increase in surface runoff. In
contrast to design 4, design 5 yields the same, plausible, results as
design 3.
Both errors are fixed in HELP 3.50 D, the first error by check-
ing the computed percolation rate against the maximum percola-
tion rate as described above and reducing it if necessary, the sec-
ond error by removing the corresponding check from the source
code. For HELP version 3 up to 3.07 the following recommenda-
tion is given:
• If a low permeability bottom layer of the topsoil is simulated
with HELP up to version 3.07 under wet climatic conditions,
at least the lower part of the low permeability layer should be
declared as a barrier soil layer type, not as a vertical percola-
tion layer. The thickness of the lower part depends on the
evaporative zone depth because this must not extend into a
barrier soil layer.
According to the simulation results for design 3, the intended
effect of the compacted bottom layer on the water balance in the
main was not achieved. Evapotranspiration did not increase and
percolation did not decrease considerably. Only if the climatic
conditions were wetter than given here did, in some cases, an
increase of ETa of up to about 40 mm/year 共from 475 to 515
mm/year兲 occur. Moreover, two qualifications of the simulation
results must be noticed. First, a compacted bottom layer may
reduce plant growth and thus plant transpiration and evaporation
of interception due to wetting of the topsoil and shortage of soil
air. This aeration stress is not considered in HELP up to 3.07.
Second, a compacted bottom layer may lose its effectiveness in
the medium or long term due to several processes such as root
penetration, animal borrowing, or capillary drying. This deterio-
ration is likewise not considered in HELP.
Use of Geosynthetic Drainage Net Instead of Mineral
Drainage Layer
Drainage layers are usually built of mineral materials such as
sand, gravel, or broken rocks, or of residual material such as
 Table 4. Effect of Kind of Drainage Layer on Simulated Yearly Water Balance of Three Locations 共Systematic Error in HELP 3兲
Geisenheim Hamburg Lüdenscheid
Average yearly sum, Mineral Geosynthetic Mineral Geosynthetic Mineral Geosynthetic
1986 –1995 共mm兲 drainage layer drainage net drainage layer drainage net drainage layer drainage net
Precipitation 535 535 835 835 1,258 1,258
Surface runoff 2 2 9 5 69 54
ETa 427 117 486 166 503 357
Lateral drainage 102 421 335 670 680 849
Note: Mineral drainage layer: 30-cm thick, K s ⫽1⫻10⫺3 m/s. Geosynthetic drainage net: HELP No. 34 共0.6-cm thick, K s ⫽3.3⫻10⫺1 m/s兲. Maximum
drainage length 50 m, drain slope 10%.

granulated slag, and have a minimum thickness according to the 2, with the drainage net, the mean daily heads decreases drasti-
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Texas Tech University on 05/14/15. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

German regulations of 30 cm. However, industrially manufac- cally from NSTEP⫽4, and this happens more drastically the
tured geosynthetic drainage nets with thicknesses of about 1 cm higher the mean yearly precipitation is.
and very high hydraulic transmissivities are also available. Be- The proper error source has not been located yet by the writer.
cause of the easy construction and less costly drainage nets, as Obviously for large values of NSTEP the computed unsaturated
compared to mineral drainage layers, these are of special interest vertical percolation in the topsoil is too high. In HELP 3.50 D, the
for temporary surface covers. In Germany, these may be used main problem of underestimation of the ETa was addressed by
until the main consolidation settlements of the waste are finished reducing NSTEP with an empirical formula developed from the
and the final cover will be constructed. results shown in Fig. 6. The price for this are daily heads a little
If a geosynthetic drainage net lying directly upon the upper- too high. However, because the average heads in drainage nets are
most liner is simulated with HELP, a systematic error occurs. This very small 共Fig. 6兲, the resulting increase of percolation through
is demonstrated simulating the following designs: the liner below the drainage net can be neglected.
1. 100-cm thick topsoil made of sandy loam 共HELP No. 6兲, Because from a simulation technical point of view the main
good grass cover 共maximum LAI 3.5兲, an evaporative zone problem is the thickness of the drainage nets, for HELP 3 up to
depth equal to the topsoil thickness; below follows a mineral 3.07 the following recommendation is given:
drainage layer in accordance with the minimum require-
ments of the German regulations 共30-cm thick; K s ⫽1
⫻10⫺3 m/s兲, drain slope 10%, maximum drainage length 50
m; below is an impermeable geomembrane liner.
2. Same as design 1, but instead of the mineral drainage layer,
a geosynthetic drainage net is used 共HELP No. 34, 0.6-cm
thick; K s ⫽3.3⫻10⫺1 m/s兲.
For the three locations mentioned above, the average yearly
simulation results show a drastic decrease of the actual evapo-
transpiration if a drainage net is used 共Table 4兲. The percentage
decrease of ETa is higher the lower the yearly precipitation of the
location is. Moreover, the yearly sums of ETa of design 2 are
unrealistically small. This is caused by a systematic error in
HELP that occurs if the internal variable ‘‘number of timesteps
per day’’ 共NSTEP兲 is very large. This is the case if a drainage
layer with a thickness of about 1 cm and a K s ⭓1⫻10⫺2 m/s lies
directly upon the uppermost liner. NSTEP can not directly be
influenced by the user. It increases with increasing saturated hy-
draulic conductivity, decreasing drainable pore volume, decreas-
ing layer thickness, decreasing maximum drainage length, and
increasing drain slope. For details see the HELP source code,
subroutine SETUPS; the main equations are given in ED3, page
69.
NSTEP is constant in a simulation run and has an even value
between 4 共default兲 and 288 for the uppermost subprofile, and
between 4 and 48 for the lower subprofiles. The effect of NSTEP
on the water balance was investigated in a sensitivity analysis for
the two designs and three locations mentioned above. The modi-
fied HELP version used allows one to set NSTEP manually. This
was done from 4 to 288 in steps of 4. The simulation results are
shown in Fig. 6. For each particular NSTEP the mean yearly sums
of ETa are equal for both designs, and the mean yearly sums of
lateral drainage are almost equal. In contrast, the curves of mean
daily heads of the designs show significant differences. For design
Fig. 6. Effect of number of time steps per day and type of drainage
1, with a mineral drainage layer, the yearly sum of lateral drain-
layer on simulated water balance 共yearly averages 1986 –1995兲
age follows the mean daily head 共as expected兲, whereas for design

198 / PRACTICE PERIODICAL OF HAZARDOUS, TOXIC, AND RADIOACTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT / JULY 2002

Pract. Period. Hazard. Toxic Radioact. Waste Manage. 2002.6:192-203.

 Table 5. Maxima of Simulated Daily Spatial Average and Maximum Heads on Liner for Eight Drainage Layer Designs at Three Locations
共1986 –1995兲
Maxima of average and maximum heads 共mm兲 given K s 共m/s兲
1⫻10⫺4 1⫻10⫺3 1⫻10⫺2 1⫻10⫺1
Maximum drainage length, drain slope AVERAGE MAXIMUM AVERAGE MAXIMUM AVERAGE MAXIMUM AVERAGE MAXIMUM
共a兲 Geisenheim
50 m 5% 134.3 222.4 53.1 95.7 7.5 14.6 2.7
– 0.9 1.8
50 m 20% 73.7 140.3 34.1 66.4 – 2.4
2.7 4.7 2.7
– 0.2 2.4
– 0.5

共b兲 Hamburg
50 m 5% 227.5 351.9 115.5 194.5 19.9 37.7 11.4
– 3.5 6.8
50 m 20% 137.4 254.5 61.5 117.7 – 9.0
11.6 17.8 11.4
– 0.9 2.3
– 1.8
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Texas Tech University on 05/14/15. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

共c兲 Lüdenscheid
50 m 5% 558.5 738.9
50 m 20% 214.6 386.9
Note: Days with maximum heads above 300 mm immediately after simulated thawing of soil were not considered 共see text兲. Numbers with strike out
marks do not correspond to theoretical values 关written in italics, computed from daily lateral drainage rates with McEnroe and Schroeder 共1988兲, Eqs. 共23兲,
共25兲, and 共26兲, and McEnroe 共1993兲兴.
• If cover designs with a drainage net directly above the upper-
most liner shall be simulated, first the design should be simu-
lated with a usual mineral drainage layer to obtain reference
values of the ETa. Afterwards the design should be simulated
with the drainage net with increased thickness 共e.g., 10 cm兲,
and the simulation results should be checked against that of
the mineral drainage layer.
Hydraulic Effectiveness of Drainage Layer
The German regulations prescribe certain minimum requirements
for drainage layers, such as a saturated hydraulic conductivity of
at least 1⫻10⫺3 m/s over the long term. Drainage layers must
prevent an impoundment of water into the layer above the drain-
age layer. Over the long term, drainage layers can lose their hy-
draulic effectiveness due to physical or chemical processes such
as incrustations and precipitation of ocher, lime, or gypsum. If
this occurs uniformly over the area the effects can be estimated
with the HELP model by reducing the saturated hydraulic con-
ductivity. 共However, if this occurs locally—for example, at the
drain pipes—further engineering approaches are necessary.兲 Fur-
thermore, due to the availability of materials it may be desirable
to violate certain requirements of the regulations such as the K s
value and, for compensation, to overfulfill other requirements
such as the layer thickness.
To estimate the effect of the saturated hydraulic conductivity
on the effectiveness of a drainage layer in a surface cover system,
simulations were run for the three locations mentioned before, the
time period 1986 –1995, and eight designs. All designs had the
same topsoil and vegetation 共100-cm thick, made of sandy loam,
maximum LAI 3.5, 100 cm evaporative zone depth兲. Below was a
lateral drainage layer lying on an impermeable geomembrane
liner. The designs differed in the K s values of the drainage layer
共1⫻10⫺1 , 1⫻10⫺2 , 1⫻10⫺3 , and 1⫻10⫺4 m/s兲, and the drain
slope 共5 and 20%兲. Drainage layer thickness was 30 cm—100 cm
if this was necessary to prevent impoundment of water into the
topsoil; the maximum drainage length was 50 m.
In Table 5, the simulated maximum daily values of the 共spa-
tial兲 average and maximum heads are summarized. Extreme val-
ues that occur as a consequence of the frozen soil submodel and
are too high 共see below兲 are not considered in Table 5. The main
results are the following:
182.6 291.2 33.5 62.1 19.2
– 5.3 10.5
113.1 211.5 19.2
– 13.9 27.4 19.2
– 1.4 2.5
– 2.8
• At a maximum drainage length of 50 m, the maximum heads
for a drainage layer meeting the minimum requirements of the
German regulations are less than 30 cm. Thus, the drainage
layer is sufficiently dimensioned except for extremely wet
German climatic conditions. But in a wet German climate, it
has no safety reserves.
• Drainage layers with K s values of 1⫻10⫺2 m/s or more have
small heads on the liner and thus a very high effectiveness.
However, in some cases the average and maximum heads are
too large as compared with the theoretical values computed
from the drainage rates with the approach underlying the
drainage model 关McEnroe and Schroeder 共1988兲, Eqs. 共23兲,
共25兲, and 共26兲; McEnroe 共1993兲; struck out numbers in Table
5兴. In a few cases average and maximum heads are even con-
tradictory 共maximum heads less than average heads兲. Presum-
ably in these cases the assumption of steady lateral drainage in
a time step is not fulfilled. However, the error can be neglected
in most practical tasks because the heads are very small.
• The hydraulic effectiveness of a drainage layer deteriotes dras-
tically if K s descends from 1⫻10⫺3 to 1⫻10⫺4 m/s. Fig. 7
demonstrates this for a stress case of the wet location Lüden-
scheid and the extremely wet winter 1993–1994 共precipitation
in December 301 mm; in January 200 mm; drain slope 5%兲.
The flow dynamic presented by the daily drainage rates is
considerably slower at a K s value of 1⫻10⫺4 m/s, and a head
is building that is much higher than the minimum thickness of
the drainage layer according to the German regulations. There-
fore, in this particular case, it is necessary to thicken the drain-
age layer to prevent the head from backing up into the topsoil.
If daily heads and daily drainage rates estimated by HELP are
evaluated, extreme values immediately after the simulated thaw-
ing of the soil should be ignored. These values result from the
simple frozen soil submodel and are unrealistic 关Berger 共1998兲;
see also January 1995 in Fig. 3兴. In the frozen soil submodel, the
soil water of the whole evaporative zone is modeled to freeze or
thaw from one day to the next. In periods with frozen soil, the
water content of the evaporative zone may increase due to infil-
tration of rain or snow melt. In consequence, on the day of the
simulated thawing of the soil, the drainable water of the whole
evaporative zone becomes movable and may lead to extreme
peaks of daily heads and drainage rates. Moreover, for Germany

PRACTICE PERIODICAL OF HAZARDOUS, TOXIC, AND RADIOACTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT / JULY 2002 / 199

Pract. Period. Hazard. Toxic Radioact. Waste Manage. 2002.6:192-203.

Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Texas Tech University on 05/14/15. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
Fig. 7. Simulated daily lateral drainage and daily heads dependent
on K s of drainage layer, stress case extremely wet winter 1993/94 at
wet location, Lüdenscheid 共drain slope 5%兲
the simulated periods of frozen soil are too long 共Berger 1998;
2000a兲, thus even increasing the peaks. In HELP 3.50 D, the
frozen soil submodel was pragmatically enhanced using the fol-
lowing concepts: Freezing and thawing of the soil is modeled for
just one segment a day 共the evaporative zone consists of seven
segments兲, the thaw period 关ED3, Eq. 共35兲兴 was shortened by 15
days, and a snow cover of more than 6 mm 共0.25 in.兲 water
equivalent conserves the frozen soil state. For Germany this ap-
proach leads to a more realistic time distribution of daily heads
and drainage rates and also of surface runoff.
Use of Geomembranes
If properly installed, geomembranes are very effective liner ele-
ments that can be used separately or in combination with other
liner elements such as barrier soil layers, geosynthetic clay liners,
or capillary barriers. In HELP version 3, geomembranes for the
first time are considered an individual layer type, having a sepa-
rate and extensive process model 共ED3, section 4.16兲. Three flow
components are modeled: percolation/gas diffusion through intact
sections of the geomembrane, and percolation through two types
of defects, fabrication defects resulting from manufacturing flaws
and installation defects resulting from flaws during installation,
e.g., seaming flaws. Specific assumptions were made concerning
the shape and size of the defects. Fabrication defects have a di-
ameter of 1 mm; installation defects an area of 1 cm2. The flow
through defects depends on the hydraulic conductivities of the
two layers directly below and above the geomembrane. The layer
200 / PRACTICE PERIODICAL OF HAZARDOUS, TOXIC, AND RADIOACTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT / JULY 2002
Pract. Period. Hazard. Toxic Radioact. Waste Manage. 2002.6:192-203.
Fig. 8. Cover designs for comparison of liner performance
with the lower saturated hydraulic conductivity controls the flow.
This concept can influence the simulation results if it is not ob-
served by the user, as shown in the following example of a con-
ceptual application error.
A surface cover system was simulated that is similar to one of
the German standard designs, but had a geomembrane as liner
only. Two designs were considered which had just one difference.
The first design included the gas drainage and leveling layer 共Fig.
8, design 3兲; the second design neglected this layer. Both designs
are valid profiles fulfilling the arrangement rules of HELP. The K s
of the drainage layer was 1⫻10⫺3 m/s, and the K s of the leveling
layer was 1.46⫻10⫺5 m/s 共compacted sand兲. Geomembrane
properties were in either case good placement quality, two fabri-
cation defects, and 10 installation defects per hectare. Table 6
shows the average yearly water balance for Hamburg, 1986 –
1995. The design without the leveling layer has a drastically
higher percolation through the geomembrane than the design with
the leveling layer 共factor of about 50兲. In the first case the lateral
drainage layer is the flow controlling layer; in the second case it is
the leveling layer. Therefore, the following recommendation is
given:
• If designs with a geomembrane at the bottom of the profile are
simulated, that of the two layers adjacent to the geomembrane
has to be included which has the lower saturated hydraulic
conductivity.
For a given layer configuration, the user can control the per-
colation through a geomembrane mainly with two parameters,
placement quality and installation defect density. Guidance for
 Table 6. Effect of Adjacent Layers on Simulated Percolation through
Geomembrane Liner 共Hamburg, 1986 –1995兲
Surface cover system with geomembrane liner
Average yearly
sum 共mm兲 Without Leveling Layer With Leveling Layer
Precipitation 835 835
Surface runoff 9 9
ETa 486 486
Lateral drainage 119 331
Liner percolation 216 4 may be used separately or in combination with each other. The
realistic values is given in the HELP user’s guide. If metric units
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Texas Tech University on 05/14/15. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
are used for input, the installation defect density may be between
0 and 107 ⫺1 defects per hectare. Thus, at the maximum, 10% of
a geomembrane are holes. Realistic numbers of installation de-
fects according to Schroeder et al. 共1994a兲 are usually less than
10/ha. To conduct simulation runs, it may be useful to have a
rough overview of how these parameters affect the simulated per-
colation through the liner. This was investigated in a sensitivity
analysis for a surface cover with a composite liner similar to the
German regulations and the wet year 1994 in Hamburg. The de-
sign of one of the test fields on the landfill Hamburg-
Georgswerder was used 共layer sequence: 75-cm thick topsoil,
25-cm thick lateral drainage layer, geomembrane, 60-cm thick
barrier soil layer兲. Constant geomembrane properties were a
thickness of 1.5 mm and, according to Schroeder et al. 共1994a兲, a
K s of 2⫻10⫺13 cm/s and two fabrication defects per hectare. The
yearly sums of the percolation through the composite liner are
shown in Fig. 9. The maximum value of 17.6 mm corresponds to
the percolation through the barrier soil layer without the geomem-
brane. If the placement quality is ‘‘worst case’’ and there is just
one installation defect per hectare, the composite liner behaves
almost as if there is no geomembrane. This placement quality
corresponds to free flow through the geomembrane and is gener-
ally used in HELP whenever the layers above and below the
geomembrane have high permeability 共ED3, page 79兲 like coarse
gravel or a geonet. Though the worst case placement quality is not
realistic for the composite liner given here, it was included for
comparison. The analogue holds for the opposite extreme ‘‘per-
Fig. 9. Sensitivity of composite liner percolation to placement qual-
ity and installation defect density of geomembrane 共Hamburg-
Georgswerder, yearly totals 1994; note: logarithmic x-axes, but left
x-value is 0兲
PRACTICE PERIODICAL OF HAZARDOUS, TOXIC, AND RADIOACTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT / JULY 2002 / 201
Pract. Period. Hazard. Toxic Radioact. Waste Manage. 2002.6:192-203.
fect’’ placement quality. For the remaining placement qualities,
the installation defect density over a broad range of values does
not considerably influence the percolation through the composite
liner, and especially not for realistic values. The yearly sums of
percolation are less than one millimeter.
Comparison of Liners
There are several elements available for the design of a liner that
main problem in question is the long-term durability of the liners.
HELP does not model the aging of a landfill profile, but assumes
design properties that are constant for the simulated period.
Therefore, the user has to consider the aging of liners. This can be
done by simulating worst case scenarios based on available data
of liner performance, as shown in the following example.
For the three locations mentioned above, four surface cover
systems were simulated that differed only in the liner and, where
applicable, had properties in accordance with the German regula-
tions. The designs are shown in Fig. 8. In common for all designs
were the topsoil 共100-cm thick, made of sandy loam, HELP No.
6兲, the vegetation 共maximum LAI 3.5, evaporative zone
⫽topsoil兲, and the drainage layer 共K s ⫽1⫻10⫺3 m/s, drain slope
5%, maximum drainage length 50 m兲. The following liners were
simulated:
1. TA Siedlungsabfall, landfill category I: barrier soil layer,
50-cm thick; design 1a with a K s of 5⫻10⫺9 m/s, design 1b
with deteriorated barrier soil layer, see below.
2. Geosynthetic clay liner: HELP No. 17; design 2a with a K s
of 3⫻10⫺11 m/s, design 2b with deteriorated geosynthetic
clay liner, see below.
3. Geomembrane: HELP No. 35, 2.5-mm thick, two fabrication
defects and 10 installation defects per hectare, good place-
ment quality; below was a compacted levelling layer 共50-cm
thick, sand, K s ⫽1.46⫻10⫺5 m/s兲.
4. TA Siedlungsabfall, landfill category II: composite liner con-
sisting of a geomembrane as in design 3 and barrier soil
layer as in design 1a.
For each of the three locations, the average simulated yearly
sums of the designs differ in the lateral drainage and the liner
leakage only; the yearly sums of surface runoff and actual evapo-
transpiration are equal 共Table 7兲. For the designs with intact liners
the ranking of liner performance is 1aⰆ3⬍2a⬍4. The effective-
ness of the geosynthetic clay liner is just slightly less than that of
the composite liner, and it is better than that of the geomembrane
liner. However, if worst case scenarios based on available mea-
surement data are considered, the ranking changes drastically.
For compacted clay liners a wealth of hydraulic conductivity
data was measured 共Benson et al. 1999兲. Nevertheless, the field
performance of such liners, especially the development over
many years, is largely undocumented. Extensive data are avail-
able from the test fields of the landfill Hamburg-Georgswerder
mentioned previously. Measurements were conducted for barrier
soil liners in three test fields for about 10 years, and for geosyn-
thetic clay liners 共GCL兲 in two test fields 共area of 100 m2 each兲
for more than 4 years 共Melchior 1993, 1998; Melchior et al. 1994;
Berger 2000a兲. The GCL test fields had just a shallow topsoil 共30
cm兲 and drainage layer 共15 cm兲 to enforce a possible desiccation
of the GCL. All liners were carefully constructed according to
industry practices for full-scale liners, including quality assur-
ance, and functioned properly for some time after construction.
The measured percolation rates of the compacted clay liners as
well as of the geosynthetic clay liners, however, increased for
 Table 7. Simulated Water Balance of Surface Cover Systems with Different Liners at Three Locations 共Average Yearly Sums, 1986 –1995;
Designs Given by Fig. 8兲
Precipitation Surface runoff ETa
Location 共mm兲 共mm兲 共mm兲
Geisenheim 535.1 2.0 426.7
Hamburg 834.5 9.0 486.2
Lüdenscheid 1,258.3 68.6 503.0
Discharge TASi landfill category I Geosynthetic clay liner Geomembrane TASi landfill catetory II
共mm兲 共1a兲 共1b兲 共2a兲 共2b兲 共3兲 共4兲
Geisenheim
Lateral drainage 53.5 6.4 101.2 19.4 100.1 101.9
Liner percolation 48.4 95.5 0.7 82.5 1.8 0.01
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Texas Tech University on 05/14/15. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

Hamburg
Lateral drainage 248.9 46.2 334.4 107.0 330.8 334.9
Liner percolation 86.1 288.7 1.5 228.0 4.1 0.02
Lüdenscheid
Lateral drainage 573.1 206.3 677.2 273.9 671.0 679.6
Liner percolation 106.7 473.8 2.4 406.1 8.7 0.03
Note: TASi⫽TA Siedlungsabfall 共1993兲; 共1a兲 K s of barrier soil layer⫽5⫻10⫺9 m/s; 共1b兲 K s of barrier soil layer⫽5⫻10⫺8 m/s 共see text兲; 共2a兲 K s of
GCL⫽3⫻10⫺11 m/s; 共2b兲 K s of GCL⫽1⫻10⫺8 m/s 共see text兲.

several orders of magnitude within a few years after construction
up to values that were much higher than required by TA Sied-
lungsabfall. Based on the daily sums of measured percolation, the
maximum percolation rates of the barrier soil liners were about
6⫻10⫺8 m/s, and those of the GCL were about 1⫻10⫺7 m/s.
The increase was caused by a desiccation of the liners due to
capillary water loss and water uptake by plant roots. As a conse-
quence, coherent cracks were formed that transport water very
fast 共preferential flow兲. The so-called self-healing of the liners
was not observed in the test fields.
For the worst case scenarios, values of hydraulic conductivity
were estimated from the above-mentioned maximum field mea-
sured percolation rates 共design 1b:K s of the barrier soil layer
⫽5⫻10⫺8 m/s; design 2b:K s of the GCL⫽1⫻10⫺8 m/s兲. For
the designs with liners deteriorated in such a manner, the ranking
of simulated liner performance is 1b⬍2bⰆ3⬍4, and the effec-
tiveness of the geosynthetic clay liner is drastically worse 共Table
7兲. However, these results are approximations because the K s val-
ues are estimations, and HELP actually does not model the non-
Darcian preferential flow through macropores.
The main flow-reducing component of the composite liner is
the geomembrane. However, there is little known on its long-term
durability in surface cover systems. In the literature, liner life-
times of several hundred years are estimated 共Koerner and Daniel
1997兲. The yearly sums of percolation through a composite liner
computed with HELP are in the order of fractions of a millimeter.
In the test fields of the landfill Hamburg-Georgswerder, dis-
charges below the composite liners of a few millimeters per year
were measured. These discharges, however, are mainly not caused
by the percolation of the liner but by other processes, especially
by a temperature induced downward water loss of the barrier soil
layer 共Vielhaber et al. 1994; Vielhaber 1995兲. These processes are
not modeled by HELP. However, the level of their discharges is
not important for the water balance.
Summary and Conclusions
Validation results for the HELP model, version 3.06/3.07, were
used to show the potential and limitations of applying the model
for practical tasks in planning and aftercare of surface cover sys-
tems. Examples were presented that covered the layers of surface
covers: topsoil and vegetation, lateral drainage layers and drain-
age nets, and several liners. Sources of possible error affecting the
validity of simulation results were classified and demonstrated in
some of the examples. The examples showed that not all se-
quences of layer types that fulfill the sequence rules of HELP lead
to physically correct or even plausible simulation results. If pos-
sible, recommendations were given how to avoid the errors or at
least how to diminish their consequences. Some errors were fixed
in the German enhancement HELP 3.50 D.
Despite the mentioned weak points, the HELP model is a suit-
able tool if it is responsibly applied. The user must have a thor-
ough knowledge of the model, its peculiarities and its limitations,
as well as of the modeled subject. Moreover, the user has to
observe the sources of error when planning simulation runs and
must review the simulation results critically, especially with re-
gard to the key values for safeguarding a landfill.
Besides a software technical revision, the German enhance-
ment HELP 3.50 D fixes errors shown in this article and enhances
some process models. In the submodel of unsaturated/saturated
vertical flow, two implementation errors were fixed. A systematic
error was avoided that occurs in certain designs with a drainage
net lying directly on the uppermost liner and leads to an underes-
timation of actual evapotranspiration. The frozen soil submodel
was pragmatically enhanced, leading to more realistic values of
surface runoff on frozen soil and a more realistic time distribution
of lateral drainage in the drainage layer below the topsoil. The
submodel of actual evapotranspiration was enhanced by replacing
the interception model by a model with interception storage and
by corrections that lead to a smaller soil evaporation and a larger
plant transpiration. The implementation of the vegetation growth
and decay model was completed, and aeration stress was added.
However, further enhancements of the HELP model are necessary
to extend the application potential including other types of veg-
etation 共woodland, multistoryed vegetation兲, capillary barriers,
preferential flow through macropores, and the development of
desiccation cracks in clayey soils.

202 / PRACTICE PERIODICAL OF HAZARDOUS, TOXIC, AND RADIOACTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT / JULY 2002

Pract. Period. Hazard. Toxic Radioact. Waste Manage. 2002.6:192-203.

 Acknowledgments
The project upon which this publication is partially based was
supported by funds from the German Ministry of Education, Sci-
ence, Research, and Technology 共BMBF兲 under Reference No.
1471038. The writer is responsible for the content of the paper.
The writer thanks Klaus Stief, Scientific Director 共retired兲, Ger-
man Federal Environmental Agency; Günter Miehlich, Institute of
Soil Science, University of Hamburg; Stefan Melchior, Consult-
ant, IGB engineering firm, Hamburg; Wilfried Schneider, Con-
struction Engineering Faculty, Technical University Hamburg-
Harburg; Volker Sokollek, Environmental Agency of Hamburg;
and Paul Schroeder, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Waterways
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Texas Tech University on 05/14/15. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Miss., for their support.
References
Arnold, J. G., Williams, J. R., Nicks, A. D., and Sammons, N. B. 共1990兲.
SWRRB: a basin scale simulation model for soil and water resources
management, Texas A&M Univ., College Station, Tex.
Benson, C. H., Daniel, D. E., and Boutwell, G. P. 共1999兲. ‘‘Field perfor-
mance of compacted clay liners.’’ J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng.,
125共5兲, 390– 403.
Berger, K. 共1998兲. ‘‘Validierung und Anpassung des Simulationsmodells
HELP zur Berechnung des Wasserhaushalts von Deponien für deut-
sche Verhältnisse.’’ Final Rep., Umweltbundesamt, Fachgebiet III 3.6,
Berlin 共in German兲.
Berger, K. 共2000a兲. ‘‘Validation of the Hydrologic Evaluation of Landfill
Performance 共HELP兲 model for simulating the water balance of cover
systems.’’ Environ. Geol., 39共11兲, 1261–1274.
Berger, K. 共2000b兲. ‘‘Neues zur Entwicklung des HELP-Modells und zu
Möglichkeiten und Grenzen seiner Anwendung.’’ Wasserhaushalt der
Oberflächenabdichtungssysteme von Deponien und Altlasten, Hamb.
Bodenkundl. Arb. 47, Hamburg, Germany, 19–50 共in German兲.
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Geotechnik e. v. 共DGGT兲. 共1997兲. GDA-
Empfehlungen Geotechnik der Deponien und Altlasten, Berlin.
Fleenor, W. E., and King, I. P. 共1995兲. ‘‘Identifying limitations on use of
the HELP model.’’ Proc., Landfill closures, environmental protection
and land recovery, R. J. Dunn and U. P. Singh, eds., ASCE, New
York, 121–138.
GDA-Empfehlung E 2-30. 共1998兲. ‘‘Modellierung des Wasserhaushalts
der Oberflächenabdichtungssysteme von Deponien 共Entwurf兲.’’ Bau-
technik, 75共9兲, 616 – 626 共in German兲.
Hoyningen-Huene, J. v. 共1983兲. ‘‘Die Interzeption des Niederschlags in
landwirtschaftlichen Pflanzenbeständen.’’ DVWK Schriften 57. Einfluß
der Landnutzung auf den Gebietswasserhaushalt, Paul Parey,
Hamburg, Germany, 1–53 共in German兲.
Khire, M. V., Benson, C. H., and Bosscher, P. J. 共1997兲. ‘‘Water balance
modeling of earthen final covers.’’ J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng.,
123共8兲, 744 –754.
Koerner, R. M., and Daniel, D. E. 共1997兲. Final covers for solid waste
landfills and abandoned dumps, ASCE, Reston, Va.
Lange, D. A., Cellier, B. F., Rizzo, P. C., and Dunchak, T. 共1999兲. ‘‘A case
study of the HELP model: actual versus predicted leachate production
rates at an MSW landfill in northeastern Ohio—1992 to 1998.’’ Proc.,
4th Annual Landfill Symp., SWANA, Silver Spring, Md., 293–314.
McEnroe, B. M. 共1993兲. ‘‘Maximum saturated depth over landfill liner.’’
J. Environ. Eng., 119共2兲, 262–270.
McEnroe, B. M., and Schroeder, P. R. 共1988兲. ‘‘Leachate collection in
landfills: steady case.’’ J. Environ. Eng., 114共5兲, 1052–1062.
Melchior, S. 共1993兲. ‘‘Wasserhaushalt und Wirksamkeit mehrschichtiger
Abdecksysteme für Deponien und Altlasten.’’ PhD thesis, Univ. of
Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany 共in German兲.
Melchior, S. 共1998兲. ‘‘In-situ-Untersuchungen zur Wirksamkeit von
Oberflächen-abdichtungen 共Mineralische Dichtung, Kunststoffdich-
tungsbahn, Bentonitmatte, Kapillarsperre兲.’’ Entwicklungstendenzen
PRACTICE PERIODICAL OF HAZARDOUS, TOXIC, AND RADIOACTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT / JULY 2002 / 203
Pract. Period. Hazard. Toxic Radioact. Waste Manage. 2002.6:192-203.
in der Deponietechnik, R. Stegmann and G. Rettenberger, eds.,
Economica-Verlag, Bonn, Germany, 179–196 共in German兲.
Melchior, S., Berger, K., Vielhaber, B., and Miehlich, G. 共1994兲. ‘‘Mul-
tilayered landfill covers: field data on the water balance and liner
performance.’’ In-Situ Remediation: Scientific Basis for Current and
Future Technologies: Proc., 33rd Hanford Symposium on Health and
the Environment, G. W. Gee and N. R. Wing, eds., Batelle Press,
Columbus, Ohio, 411– 425.
Proksch, W. 共1990兲. ‘‘Lysimeterauswertungen zur flächendifferenzierten
Ermittlung mittlerer Grundwasserneubildungsraten.’’ Bes. Mitteilun-
gen zum Deutschen Gewässerkundl. Jahrbuch Nr. 55, Koblenz 共in
German兲.
Ramke, H.-G., Berger, K., and Stief, K., eds. 共2000兲. Wasserhaushalt der
Oberflächenabdichtungssysteme von Deponien und Altlasten: Conf.
Proc., Hamb. Bodenkundl. Arb. 47, Hamburg, Germany 共in German兲.
Richter, D. 共1995兲. ‘‘Ergebnisse methodischer Untersuchungen zur Kor-
rektur des systematischen Meßfehlers des Hellmann-
Niederschlagsmessers.’’ Berichte d. Deutschen Wetterdienstes 194,
Selbstverlag Deutscher Wetterdienst, Offenbach am Main.
Schroeder, P. R., Aziz, N. M., Lloyd, C. M., and Zappi, P. A. 共1994a兲.
‘‘The Hydrologic Evaluation of Landfill Performance 共HELP兲 Model:
user’s guide for Version 3.’’ EPA/600/R-94/168a, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Cincinnati.
Schroeder, P. R., Aziz, N. M., Lloyd, C. M., Zappi, P. A., and Berger, K.
共1998兲. Das Hydrologic Evaluation of Landfill Performance (HELP)
Modell. Benutzerhandbuch für die deutsche Version 3, Institut für
Bodenkunde, Univ. Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany.
Schroeder, P. R., and Berger, K. 共2001兲. Das Hydrologic Evaluation of
Landfill Performance (HELP) Modell. Benutzerhandbuch für die
deutsche Version 3. Second updated edition for HELP version 3.50 D,
Institut für Bodenkunde, Univ. Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany.
Schroeder, P. R., Dozier, T. S., Zappi, P. A., McEnroe, B. M., Sjostrom, J.
W., and Peyton, R. L. 共1994b兲. ‘‘The Hydrologic Evaluation of Land-
fill Performance 共HELP兲 Model: engineering documentation for Ver-
sion 3.’’ EPA/600/R-94/168b, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Cincinnati.
Sevruk, B. 共1982兲. ‘‘Methods of correction for systematic error in point
precipitation measurement for operational use.’’ Operational Hydrol-
ogy Rep. No. 21, World Meteorological Organization, Geneva.
Sevruk, B., and Klemm, S. 共1989兲. ‘‘Catalogue of national standard pre-
cipitation gauges.’’ Instruments and Observing Methods Rep. No. 39,
World Meteorological Organization, Geneva.
Sharpley, A. N., and Williams, J. R. 共1990兲. ‘‘EPIC—Erosion/
Productivity Impact Calculator. I: Model documentation.’’ USDA
ARS. PB91-136119, 具http://www.brc.tamus.edu/epic/documentation典
共May 20, 1997兲.
TA Abfall. 共1991兲. ‘‘Zweite allgemeine Verwaltungsvorschrift zum Ab-
fallgesetz. Teil 1: Technische Anleitung zur Lagerung, chemisch/
physikalischen, biologischen Behandlung, Verbrennung und
Ablagerung von besonders überwachungs-bedürftigen Abfällen.’’
Bundesanzeiger, Köln 共in German兲.
TA Siedlungsabfall. 共1993兲. ‘‘Dritte allgemeine Verwaltungsvorschrift
zum Abfallgesetz. Technische Anleitung zur Verwertung, Behandlung
und sonstigen Entsorgung von Siedlungsabfällen.’’ Bundesanzeiger
共Beilage兲 45, Nr. 99a, Köln 共in German兲.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 共U.S. EPA兲. 共1989兲. ‘‘Technical
guidance document: final covers on hazardous waste landfills and sur-
face impoundments.’’ EPA/530-SW-89-047, Washington, D.C.
Vielhaber, B. 共1995兲. ‘‘Temperaturabhängiger Wassertransport in
Deponieober-flächenabdichtungen: Feldversuche in bindigen miner-
alischen Dichtungen unter Kunststoffdichtungsbahn.’’ PhD thesis,
Univ. of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany 共in German兲.
Vielhaber, B., Melchior, S., Berger, K., and Miehlich, G. 共1994兲. ‘‘Field
studies on the thermally induced desiccation risk of cohesive soil
liners below geomembranes in landfill covers.’’ In-Situ Remediation:
Scientific Basis for Current and Future Technologies: Proc., 33rd
Hanford Symposium on Health and the Environment, G. W. Gee and
N. R. Wing, eds., Batelle Press, Columbus, Ohio, 663– 674.