(Service Loads) : Department of Civil Engineering

Department of Civil Engineering NPIC
matika
CMBUk I..............................................................................6
eRKagsMNg;emkanik .................................................................6
Structural Mechanic .............................................................6
1> karkMNt;bnÞúk .....................................................................6
1>1 RbePTénbnÞúk .................................................................6
1>2 bnÞúk (Service Loads) ..........................................................8
1>3 emKuNbnÞúk ...................................................................9
2> Stress and Strain ................................................................11
2>1 Static Equilibrium .............................................................11
2>2 Unit Stress and Strain ..........................................................12
2>3 Hooke’s Law .................................................................12
2>4 Constant Unit Stress ...........................................................13
2>5 Poisson’s Ratio................................................................14
CMBUkII ³..........................................................................15
dI nig RKwH ........................................................................15
Soil and foundation ............................................................15
1> esckþIepþIm ......................................................................15
1>1 emkanicdI ...................................................................15
1>2 visVkmμRKWH (Foundation Engineering) ...........................................16
2> karsikSaRsavRCavelIkardæanpÞal; (field exploitation) ..................................16
2>1 karsikSaelIÉksar (document Review) .........................................17
2>2 karsikSaRsavRCavépÞeRkamdI (Subsurface Exploration ) ............................18
2>3 sMNakKMrUdI Soil Sampling ....................................................19
Construction General -1-
2>4 karBiesaFn_enAnwgkardæan Field testing ..........................................21

3> RKwH Foundation ................................................................23
3>1 RKwHrak; Shallow Foundation ..................................................24
3>2 RKwHeRCA ....................................................................27
4> karCIkdIsMrab;eFVIRKwH Foundation excavation ..........................................28
4>1 karCIkdIsMrab;eCIgtag Footing Excavation .......................................28
4>2 karxYgsMrab; Excavation of Piers ...............................................28
4>3 karCIkdIcMhr open excavation .................................................30
4>4 karCIkdIedaymanCnÞl; braced excavtion .........................................30
5> viFIbegáInsßanPaBRTRTg;dI Improvement methods ......................................30
5/1 karBRgabdI Grading ..........................................................30
5>2 eKalkarN_énkarbgðab; Compaction Foundation ..................................33
CMBUkIII³ ..........................................................................35
eRKagsMNg;ebtugmanq¥wgr)aeEdkBRgwgnig sMPar³ebtug..............................35
Reinforcing bar concrete sturcture and concrete meterial .................35
1> sMParsuIm:g;t_ Cementitious material ................................................35
1>1 RbePTénsMPar³suIm:g;t_ Type of cementitious meterials ............................35
1>2 suIm:g;t_Br½tøg; (Portland Cement) ...............................................36
1>3 suIm:g;t_GaluymIj:Úm Aluminous Cement ........................................37
1>4 suIm:g;t_FmμCati Natural Cements ...............................................38
1>5 kMe)ar Limes ................................................................38
1>6 suIm:g;t_erob\dæ Masonry ament ................................................41
1>7 Fly ashes ..................................................................41
2>fμbMEbk Aggregate ...............................................................42
2>1 fμbMEbkTMgn;Fmμta Normal –weigth aggregates....................................42

2>2 fμbMEbkEdlmanTMgn;F¶n;nig Rsal Heavy weigth and light weigth aggregate ..........43
3> TwkfñaMKImIsMrab;ebtug Admixture for concrete ........................................44
3/1 TwkfñaMKImIBIKImI nig BIEr: Chimical and mineral admixture ............................44
4> kMe)ar)ayGr nig ebtug Mortar and concrete .........................................47
4>1 kMe)ar)ayGr Motar ..........................................................47
4>2 ebtugsuIm:g;t_B½rtøg; Portland cement concrete.....................................48
4>3 ebtugb:UlIEmr Polymer concrete................................................48
5> karcak;ebtug Concrete Placement..................................................49
5>1 karGnuvtþn_d¾l¥ Good Pratice .................................................49
5>2 viFIénkarcak; Methods of Placing ...............................................50
5>3 PaBelIsTwk Excess water ....................................................50
5>4 kareFVIeGayhab; Consolidation ................................................51
5>5 karcak;ebtugeRKOgbgÁúMbBaÄr Concreting vertical element ...........................52
5>6 karcak;ebtugeRKOgbgÁúMedk concreting horizontal element...........................53
5>7 karcak;ebtugkñúgrdUvRtCak; Concreting in cold weather .............................54
5>8 karcak;ebtugGakasFatuekþA Concreting in hot weather...........................55
5>9 karEfrrkSasMeNImebtug Curing concrete .......................................55
5>10 muxtMNrsMrab;ebtug Joint in concrete .........................................56
5>11 karRtYtBinitüBIkarcak;ebtug Inspection of Concrete placement ...................58
6> eRKOgbgÁúMénsMNg;ebtug Members of concrete construction .............................58
6>1 kMral Slab .................................................................58
6>2 Fñwm Beam ..................................................................60
6>3 CBa¢aMg Wall ................................................................60
6>4 RKwH Foundation .............................................................61

CMBUk IV ..........................................................................64
sMNg;eRKagbgÁúMGMBIEdk.............................................................64
STRUCTURAL STEEL CONSTRUCTION ...............................64
1> karKitbøg;éneRKOgbgÁúM Design of Members ...........................................64
1>1 eKalkarN_sMrab; ASD nig LRFD BASED FOR ASD AND LRFD .....65
1>2 CMnYyénkarKItbøg; nigeyag Design Aids and References........................66

1>3 eRKOgbgÁúMrgnUvkMlaMgTay Tension member ...................................66
1>4 ssr Column ..............................................................67
1>5 Fñwm Beam ................................................................69
1>6 Plaster girders ..............................................................70
2> karksagsMNg;Edk Steel erection .................................................71
2>1 ]bkrN_énkarsagsg; Erection Equipment....................................73
2>2 RbeLaHkñúgkarsagsg;Fñwm Clearance for erecting beams ...........................74
2>3 lMdab;énkarsagsg; Erection sequence .........................................77
2>4 dMeNIrkarpSar Field –Welding .................................................77
CMBUk V ...........................................................................80
eRKOgbgÁMGMBIeQI nigsMPar³.........................................................80
WOOD STRUCTURE AND MATERIAL .................................80
1> sMPar³ Material .................................................................81
1>1 lkçN³mUldæanrbs;eQI Basic Characteristic of Wood .............................81
1>2 lkçN³emkanicéneQI Mechanical Properties of Wood ..........................83
1>3 lkçN³\T§iBlRsUbcMhayTwkkñúgxül; Effect of hygroscopic properties ...............84
1>4> lMdab;fñak;éneQI Grade of Wood ..............................................87
1>5 sarFatubMpøaj nig sarFaturkSakarBar Destroyer and preservative....................90

1>6 kavnig sarFatusMrab;eQI Glues and adhesives for wood ...........................92
1>7 karplitkþakug)øaek nigkþabnÞHepSgeTot Plywood and fabricated wood board..........93
2> karpliteQI timber nigkarksag timber fabrication and erection .......................95
2>1 karpliteRKagbgÁúMeQI Fabrication of structural timber .............................95
2>2 karsagsg;eQI timber erection ................................................97
CMBUkVI³ ........................................................................101
eRKagCBa¢aMgerob¬\dæ/ bøúk/ fμ¦ nigsMPar³ ........................................101
Masonry Structure and Material............................................101
1> esckþIepþIm Introduction ........................................................101
1>1 CBa¢aMgerob\dæ Masonry Wall ................................................101
1>2 niymn½yénCBa¢aMgerob\dæ Masonry Definition .................................101
2> KuNPaBénsMPar³sMrab;CBa¢aMgrab\dæ Quality of Material for Masonry ..................105
2>1 tMrUvkarTUeTAsMrab;karKitCalkçN³bTdæan General Requirement of Design Standard ..106
2>2 sMPar³sMrab;sMNg;rab\dæ Materials for Masonry Construction ....................107
3> sMNg;rab\dæ Construction of masonry............................................107
3>1 sMNg;CBa¢aMgrab\dækñúgGakasFatuRtCak; Cold weather construction of masonry walls 110
3>2 cgP¢ab;rvag Wythes sMrab;CBa¢aMg\dæ Bond between wythes in Masonry wall .......110
3>3 rab\dæeday grout grout masonry .....................................112
3>4 lkç½xN½ÐTMrsMrab;CBa¢aMg Support Conditions for Wall ............................115

3>5 Corbeling ................................................................115
3>6 RbelaHRbehag/ Chases nig rescesses sMrab;CBa¢aMgerob\dæ .......................116
3>7 Flashing enAkñúgCBa¢aMgrab\dæ ................................................117
4> TMrxagsMrab;CBa¢aMgrab\dænig FaturYmpSMepSg² ........................................118
Lateral support for masonry wall and other elements .................................118

4>1 TMrxagsMrab;CBa¢aMgrab\dæ lateral support for masonry wall ........................118
4>2 bMBg;EpSg nigeCIgRkandMedApÞH Chimneys and fireplaces .........................122
4>3 karpþl;nUvTMhMEdlpøas;bþÚr Provision for dimensional changes .....................123
4>4 CYsCulmuxtMNlicTwk Repair of leaky joint ....................................126
4>5 tMrUvkarkMras;CBa¢aMg\dæ Masonry Thickness Requirement ..........................127
CMBUk I
eRKagsMNg;emkanik
Structural Mechanic
3
1> karkMNt;bnÞúk
bnÞúk (Load) KWCakMlaMgeRkAEdlmanGMeBIelIeRKOgbgÁúMNamYy. Stress KWCakMlaMgkñúgEdl
Tb;Tl;nwgbnÞúk (Loads) . Ep¥kelIlkçN³énbnÞúkEdlRtUveKykmkGnuvtþ vaGaceFVIeGayeRKOgbgÁúMnig
smasPaBrbs;vaxUcRTg;RTay.
]TahrN_ ³ kMlaMgTajGaceFVIeGayvtßúmYyyWt kMlMagsgát;GacRc)ac;vtßúbBa©ÚlKña kMlaMgrmYlGac
Rt)aj;vtßúmYynig kMlaMgkat;pþac; (Shearing Forces) GacrujEpñkNamYyéneRKOgbgÁúMecjBIKña.
1>1 RbePTénbnÞúk
bnÞúkeRkAéneRKOgbgÁúMRtUveKEbgEckeTAtamRbePTepSg²Kña.enAkñúgenaHkarEbgEckmYy RtUveKBinitü
eTAelIPaBnwgfál; (Static) nig kMlaMgkat;pþac; (Shearing Forces) GacrujEpñkNamYyén eRKOgbgÁMúecjBIKña.
- bnÞúkefr (Static Loads)KWCakMlaMgEdlRtUveKeRbIy:agyWt² ehIybnÞab;mkvaesÞIrEtefr.
]TahrN_ Tm¶n;/ bnÞúkefr rbs;RbB½n§GaKar b¤dMbUl.

- bnÞúkERbRbYl (Dynamic Loads) ³ ERbRbYleTAtameBlevla. varYmbBa©ÚlTaMg Repeat and Impact

Loads .
- Repeated Loads KWCakMlaMgEdlRtUveKykmkGnuvtþeRcIndgehIyvaGacbNþaleGayTMhM énkMlaMg

xagkñúgERbRbYl.
]TahrN_ Off-balance motor
- Impact Loads: kMlaMgEdlsgát;eTAelIeRKOgbgÁúMnig smasPaBrbs;vakñúgGMLúg
eBlxøImYy. ]TahrN_ karTmøak;vtßúF¶n;mYyeTAelIkMralx½NÐ (Floor) . kMlaMgxageRkARtUveKEbg
EckCakMlaMgBRgayesμIr (Distributed Loads) nig kMlaMgcMcMnuc (Concentration Loads) .
- Uniformly Distributed Loads: KWCakMlaMgEdlenAkñúgkarGnuvtþCak;EsþgvaRtUv)aneKcat; Tukfa
CakMlaMgEdlenAkñúgkarGnuvtþCak;Esþg.
]TahrN_ TMgn; efrénfñwm Edkrag I (Dead Weight of a rolled- Steel I beam is a good example)
- Concentrated Loads KWCakMlaMgEdlsgát;eTAelIépÞRTtUcesÞIEtminRtUveKrab;bBa©Úl ebI eRbobeFob
eTAnwgépÞTMrTaMgGs;.
]TahrN_ fñwm (Beam) EdlRTedayrt (Girder) RtUv)aneKcat;TukCabnÞúkcMcMnuc (Concentrated Loads)
eTAelI Girder .
viFIkMNt;énlkçN³bnÞúkd¾smBaØmYyepSgeTotenaHKW karkMNt;kMlaMgxageRkAEdlRtUv)an eKdak;
eQμaH Axial ecentric nig Torsional ³
- An axial load ³ KWCakMlaMgrYmmYyEdlsgát;cMG½kS ehIyEkgeTAnwgépÞmuxkat;TTwg.
- An ecentric load ³ KWCakMlaMgsgát;EdlEkgeTAnwgépÞénmuxkat; TTwg ehIyvamincMG½kS dUcenH
ehIyvaGackac;eCIgTMr.
- Torsional load ³ KWCakMlaMgrmYlEdlzitenAmincMG½kSrbs;muxkat;TTwg ehIyvaminman TisedAeTr
b¤ kñúgbøg;rbs;muxkat;enaHdUcenHvakac;eCIgTMr.
]TahrN_
- Dead Loads ³ rYmmansMPar³sMNg; sMPar³ eRbIR)as; rWk¾TMgn;epSg²eTotrbs;sMPar³enAkñúgGaKar
rYmTaMgTMgn;rbs;GaKarpÞal;EdlzitenAefrCaGcié®nþy_.

- Live Loads ³ rYmbBa©ÚlGñksñak;;enA sMPar³sMNg; sMPar³eRbIR)as; rWTMgn;epSgeTotenAkñúg GaKar

ehIyvaTMng nigRtUveKpøas;bþÚrTIkEnøgenAkñúgGMLúgGayukalkMNt;rbs;GaKar.
- Impact Loads ³KWCacMENkén Live loads EdlRtUv)aneKeRbIedIm,IrYmbEnßmnUv Stress nig Deflection
EdlCalT§plénkareFVIclnarbs; Live loads .
- Wind KWCabnÞúkF¶n;Gtibrmarbs;xül;Edlbk;mkelIGaKarkñúgGMLúgeBlNamYyrW vaCakMlaMgmYy
EdlbegáIteGayman Stress kñúgGMLúgeBlNamYy rWCakMlaMgmYyEdlbegáIteGayman Stress Rbhak;RbEhl
nwgkMlaMgxül;bk;enaH.
- Snow Loads KWCakMlaMgGtibrmaEdlmanGMeBIelIGaKaredaykarRbmUlpþúMKñarbs;RBilEdlekIteLIg
kñúgGMLúgeBlNamYy.
- Seismic Loads KWCakMlaMgTaMgLayNaEdlbegáIteGayman Stresses Gtibrma b¤k¾eFVIeGayGaKar
mYyxUcRTg;RTayenAkñúgeBlrBa¢ÜydI.
1>2 bnÞúk (Service Loads)
enAkñúgkarKNnaeRKOgbgÁúMrbs;GaKar GñkKNnaKYrEteRbIbnÞúkNak¾edayeGayFMCagbnÞúkxageRkam³
1> bnÞúkEdlRtUv)anKNnaenAkñúg nigtYrbs;GaKar.
2> kar):an;sμanbnÞúkGtibrma minRtwmEtBwgEp¥kelITItaMglkçx½NÐbc©úb,nñ nig KMnitedIménkareRbIR)as;
GaKarb:ueNÑaHeT bu:EnþvaRtUvEtrab;bBa©ÚlnUvehtukarN_EdlGacekIteLIgenAeBlGnaKtpgEdr. bnÞúkEdleK
min)andwgGMBITMhM rbs;vac,as;las;ehIyvaRtUveKcat;TukfaCa Statistical Vairables EdlKYrEtRtUveKeRCIserIs
eTAtamtMélRbEhlCak;lak;mYyEdlnwgminGacelIs)anenAkñúgGMLúgeBlénGayukalrbs;GaKar b¤ k¾Bwg
Ep¥kelIehtukarN_ekIteLIgkñúgry³eBl 50qñaMmþg RtUv)aneKykmkKNna. eTaHCay:agNak¾eday Interval
GacRtUveKyk 25qñaMsMrab;GaKarEdlKμanmnusSrs;enA b¤esÞIrEtKμankarb:HBal;dl;GayuCIvit b¤RtUveK
yk100qñaM sMrab;GaKarGcié®nþy_EdlpÞúkbnÞúkF¶n;ehIyGacKMramkMEhgdl;GayuCIvitmnusS nigRTBüsm,tþikñúg
karNImankardYlrlM.
kñúgkrNIEdlKμan Local or State Building Code GñkKNnaGaceRbIbnÞúkEdleKkMNt;c,as;las;enA
kñúgKMrUGaKarfñak;Cati (National Building Code) b¤tamBt’manxageRkam³
bnÞúkEdlRtUv)anykmkeRbIkñúgeRKOgbgÁúM rYmmandUcteTA bnÞúkeTal A lone b¤bnÞúkrYmKña
(Combination Load) . ]TahrN_ bnÞúkefr (Dead), Live, Impact, Earth Pressure, Hydrostatic Pressure, RBil

(Snow) Twkkk (Ice) ePøóg (Rain) xül; (wind) rW rBa¢ÜydI Constraining Forces EdlmandUcCakMlaMg én
Restriction of Thermal karrYmmaD (Shrinkage) b¤ Moisture-Change Movements b¤kMlaMgEdlbNþalmkBI
Creep, Plastic Flow, Differential settlement, Or Sidways(drift)
1>3 emKuNbnÞúk
eRKOgbgÁúMGaKarRtUvEtKNnaeGaymanlT§PaBRKb;RKan;edIm,I RTRTg;GaKaredayKμankarxUcxat
RTg;RTayhYsBIkarkMNt; b¤karxUcxaténkarrYmbBa©ÚlKña rbs;bnÞúkEdlniwgbegáIteGayman\T§iBlminl¥. kar
b:HBal;kñúgkrNIEbbenHrYmman Twkdk;elIdMbUl dIEq¥t smuRTdI nig karpøas;bþÚrTMhM. kñúgkarkMNt;lT§PaB
RTRTg;rbs;eRKOgbgÁúMmYy emKuNsuvtßiPaBsMPar³sMNg; nigkarKNnaminc,as;las;nuvlT§PaBRTRTg;RtUvEt
ykmkKitBicarNaEdr.
esovePAGaKarKMrU (Building Codes) GnuBaØatieGayeyIgeRbInUvrebobKNnaBIr Allowable- Stress
Design b¤ Load and Resistance factor Design enAkñúgkarsagsg;GaKar. kñúgviFIKNnaedayKuNbnÞúk (Service
Loads) nig emKuNsuvtßiPaB. emKuNsuvtßiPaBepSg² RtUv)aneKykeRbICamYynwgbnÞúkedayeyagelIPaBmin
BitR)akdkñúgkarKNnabnÞúk.
kñúgkarKNna Stress GnuBaØati (Allowable-Stress Design) lT§PaBEdlGacRTRTg;rbs;vaCaFmμta
RtUvkMNt;edaybnÞúkEdlnaMeGaymankareRbH b¤kMhUcRTg;RTayrbs;vaCaFmμtaRtUvkMNt;edaybnÞúkefr Live
Wind, Seismic, Snow nigbnÞúkepSg²eTot EdlGacekItmaneLIgkñg ú eBlEtmYyRtUveKbnÞúkrYmEdlRtUveK yk
mkeRbIkñúgkarKNna Stress GnuBaØati (Allowable- Stress Design) KW
1. D + L + (Lr or S or R)
2. D + L + (W or E/1.4)
3. D + L + W + S/2
4. D + L + S+ W/2
5. D + L + S + E/1.4
6. 0.9 – E/1.4
D ³CabnÞúkefr (Dead Load)
L ³ Liveloads ekItmkBIeKalbMNgénkareRbIR)as;rbs;GaKarrYmbBa©ÚlTaMgkarEbgEckCabnþbnÞab; nig
karsñak;enA.
Lr ³ Roof Liveloads
S ³ Snow Loads
R ³ Rain Loads

³
W Wind Load
E ³ Seismic Load
Building Codes CaFmμtaGnuBaØatieGayeRbIemKuNtUc eBlEdlkar):an;sμanénkarekIteLIg énbnÞúkFM
sMebImrYmKñaenHmankMrittUc tYy:agdUcCa³ karrYmbBa©ÚlKñarvag Dead Load Gtibrma Liveload nigGtibrmarbs;

kMlaMgxül;bk; rWrBa¢ÜydI. ]TahrN_ CaTUeTAemKuNEdlmantMél 0>75 RtUveKeRbIsMrab;KNnaplbUkbnÞúkrYm
kñúgrUbmnþBI ¬2¦ dl;¬6¦ . emKuNRbePTenHGnuBaØatieGayÉkta én Stress GnuBaØati (Allowable Unit Stress)
sMrab;eRbIkñúglkçx½NÐbnÞúkenH FMCagkarKNnabnÞúkrYmtamrUbmnþ ¬1¦. Stress GnuBaØatiRtUveKKNnaRTg;RTay
hYsBIkarkMNt;EckCamYyemKuNsuvtßiPaBEdlmantMélFMCag 1.
enAkñúgkarKNna emKuNbnÞúk nig PaBFn;RbePTbnÞúkepSgKñanimYy² RtUvKuNnwgemKuNbnÞúkrbs;va
ehIytMélRtUv)aneKkMNt;eTAtamkat):an;sμanénPaBEdlGacekIteLIgénRbePTbnÞúknimYy²enaH. emKuN
bnÞúkRtUveKKitbBa©ÚledIm,IeGayRbB½n§nig eRKOgbgÁúTM aMgmUlGacRTRTg; nwgbnÞúkTaMgGs;)an. eRKOgbgÁúM
RtUv)aneKKNnaeGaylT§PaBRTRTg;bnÞúkrbs;vaFMCaglT§PaBRTRTg;bnÞúksrub. TMhMénlT§PaBRTRTg;enH KW
RtUvKNnaedayKuN The Ultimate- Load Capacity nigemKuNPaBCab; (Resistance factor) EdltMélrbs;va
pþl;eGaynUvkareCOCak;énkar):an;sμanrbs;lT§PaBRTRTg;mYy.
lkçN³vinicä½yRtUv)aneKeRbICaTUeTAdUcxageRkam³
1. 1.4D
2. 1.2D+1.6L+0.5( Lr or S or R)
3. 1.2D+1.6(Lr or S or R)+(0.5L or 0.8W)
4. 1.2D+1.3W+0.5(Lr or S or R)
5. 1.2D+1.0E+(0.5L or 0.2S)
6. 0.9D6 (1.3W or 1.0E)
sMrab;yandæankEnøgRbCuMCn nigkEnøgEdl liveloads elIsBI 100 lb/ft emKuNbnÞúkCaFmμta RtUveKyk
tMélÉktasMrab; L enAkñúgrUbmnþ 3/4 nig 5. sMrab;dMbUlEdlRBilGackkenAelIemKuNbnÞúkKYrEtmantMél
0>7sMrab; Snowload kñúgrUbmnþ ¬5¦.
sMrab;karKNna Stress GnuBaØati (Allowable Stress Design) nig kMlaMg (Strength) eRKOgbgÁMúnig
smasPaBrbs;vaKYrEtRtUveKKNnaedIm,ITb;Tl;KYrEtmantMél 0>7 sMrab; Snow Load kñúgrUbmnþ¬5¦.
sMrab;karKNna Stress GnuBaØati (Allowable Stress Design) nig kMlaMg (Strength) eRKOgbgÁMúnig
smasPaBrbs;vaKYrEtRtUveKKNnaedIm,ITb;Tl;nig kMlaMgBiessEdlekItLIgBIkarrMBa¢ÜydI.
a. 1.2 D+0.5L+Em
b. 0.9D-Em
Construction General - 10 -
sMrab;kMralx½NÐenATIRbCuMsaFarN³sMrab; Liveload EdlelIsBI 100psf nigsMrab;bnÞúkéncMNtrfynþ

emKuNbnÞúkRtUvmantMél 1>0 sMrab; L Em KWCakMlaMgGtibrma tamTisedk nigQr.
2> Stress and Strain
KWCaTMhMmYyEdleRbIkñúgkarvas;lT§PaBRTRTg;ral;skþanuBl
Structural Capacity or Ultimate Strength
énbnÞúkedayKμaneFVIeGayeRbH rWxUcRTRTg;F¶n;F¶rdl;GaKar. edIm,Icg¥úlbgðajnUvcMnYnkMNt;énbnÞúkGtibrma

EdleRKOgbgÁúMGacRTaMRT)an tMrUvé`nkarKNna (Design Specifications) sMrab;eRKOgbgÁMúnana RtUv)aneKbegáIt
kñúgenaHmanÉktþa Stresses GnuBaØati (Allowable Unit Stress) rW Design Strengths EdlmanTMhM rbs;vaminGac
elIsBIbnÞúkGtibrmaeLIy. RTwsþIéneKOgbgÁúM (Structural Theory) pþl;nUvviFIsa®sþsMrab;KNna Unit Stress nig
sMrab;):an;sμanPaBxUcRTg;RTay. viFIsa®sþTaMgenHnwgRtUveKelIkykmkbgðajkñúgEpñkteTAenH.
2>1 Static Equilibrium
ebIeRKOgbgÁúMnig smasPaBrbs;vaGacRTRTg;nwgbnÞúk bnÞab;BImankarxUcRTRTg;bnþicbnþÜcekItmaneLIg
ehIyKμankarxUcbnþeTot BYkvaRtUvekcat;famantulüPaB (Equilibrium) .
eRkamRBwtþikarN_EbbenH kMlaMgkñúg rW Stresses Tb;Tl;y:agBitR)akdeTAnwgbnÞúk.
karsnñidænd¾mansar³sMxan;mYycMnYn RtUv)aneKTajecjBIlkçN³én Static equilibrium edayKμankar
ERbRbYl plbUkénkMlaMgxageRkATaMgGs;esμIsUnü ehIyedayKμankarvil plbUkénm:Um:g; (Moment) EdlekIt
elIgedaykMlaMgxageRkAenARtg;cMnucNamYyesμIsUnü.
sMrab;mUlehtudUcKña ebIeyIgykEpñkNamYyéneRKOgbgÁúMehIyeRbIbnÞúkelIva plbUkénkMlaMgeRkA nig
kñúgenAelIEpñkmYyenaH KWR)akdCasUnü. plbUkén Moment rbs;kMlaMgTaMgGs;k¾esμIsUnüEdr.
CaTUeTAvamanPaBgayRsYlkñúgkarEvkEjkkMlaMg EdlmanGMeBIelIeRKOgbgÁúMeTACasmasPaBkMlaMg
tUc² EdlRsbeTAtamG½kSEkKñamYy dUcenHehIyvaeFVIeGaymanPaBgayRsYlkñúgkarKNna.
]TahrN_ sMrab;kMlaMgEdlmanGMeBIelIbøg;mYykrNI EdleKCYbRbTHRsYlbMputenaHKW bMElgkMlaMg
TaMgGs;eGayRsbtamG½kSGab;sIus nig G½kSGredaen (Vertical) . sMrab;eRKOgbgÁúMEdlmantulüPaB
(Structure in Equilibrium) ebI H tMNageGaykMlaMgtamTwsedk V kMlaMgtamTisQr nig M Ca Moment
énkMlaMgEdl sßitenAcMNucNamYyénbøg;/ ΣH = 0 ΣV = 0 nig ΣM = 0 .
smIkarTaMgbIxagelIenHRtUv)aneKeRbIedIm,IKNnaGBaØti3 enAkñúg nonconcurrent coplanar force
system.
2>2 Unit Stress and Strain

edIm,IeFVIeGaydwgBitR)akdfaetI eRKOgbgÁúMmanlT§plGacRTRTg;bnÞúk)an GñkKNnaCaTUeTARtUvEt
KNna Maximum Unit Stress EdlekIteLIgedaykarkMNt;bnÞúkkñúgeRKOgbgÁúMsMrab;RbePTkMlaMgkññúg kMlaMg
Taj kMlaMgsgát; rWkMlaMgkkit ehIyeRbobeFobfaetInwg Allowable Unit Stress .
enAeBlEdlkarbnÞúkdecñH Unit stress KWefrenAelIEpñkNamYyéneRKOgbgÁúMEdleKykmkeRbIelI
Stress RtUvKNnaedayEckkMlaMgnwg épÞmuxkat. b:uEnþCaTUeTA Unit stress ERbRbYlBImYyeTAmYy. kñúgkrNIenH
Unit stress EdlzitenAcMnucNamYyénmuxkat; KWCatMélkMNt;énpleFobrvagkMlaMgkñúgelIépÞtUcNamYy nig
RklaépÞEdlvaRtUveKyktUceTA². CYnkalkñúgkarKNnaeRKOgbgÁúM Unit stress GacminEmnCacMnuccMbgEdleK

ykmkKiteT.
GñkKNnaGaccab;GarmμN_eTAelITMhMkMNt;mYyénkarxUcRTg;RTay rW Strain . kMhUcRTg;RTayeTAtam
TisedANamYy KWCakarpøas;bþÚrTaMgRsugénTMhMrbs;eRKOgbgÁúMtamTisenaH.
Unit strain eTAtamTisedANamYy KW karxUcRTg;RTaykñúgÉktþaRbEvgtamTisenaH.
enAeBlEdlbnÞúkdak;dUcenH Unit strain KWefr kñugEpñkmYyéneRKOgbgÁúMvaGacRtUveKKNnaedayEck

RbEvgénkMhUcRTg;RTayCamYyRbEvgedImrbs;va. b:uEnþCaTUeTA Unitstress ERbRbYlén Unitstress tMNagnUv
tMélkMNt;énpleFobmYy.
2>3 Hooke’s Law
sMrab;sMPar³sMNg;CaeRcIn Unit strain KWsmamaRteTAnwg Unit stress, Until a certain stress, The
proportional limit is exceeded. Hooke’s Law RtUveKsÁal;tamTMnak;TMngEdlGacsesrdUcxageRkam³
rW
Edl
f = Unit Stress
= Unit Strain
E= Modulus of elasticity
dUecñHenAeBlEdl Unit stress nig Modulus of elasticity RtUveKsÁal; Unit strain RtUv)aneKsÁal;tMél
Unit stress GacnwgRtUveKKNna)an.
enAeBlEdleRKOgbgÁúMmYyRtUvrgnUvbnÞúk ehIy Unit stress minelIsBI Proportional Limit eRKOgbgÁúMnig

RtLb;eTAPaBedImvijenAeBlEdlbnÞúkRtUv)aneKdkecj. The elastic limit KWCa Unit stress FMbMputEdlGac
ekItmaneLIgedayKμankMhUcRTg;RTayCaGcié®nþy_bnSl;TukbnÞab;BIdkbnÞúkecj. sMPar³sMNg;xøHman 1 rW2
Yield Pont . TMhMTaMgenaHKWCa Unit stress enAkñúgkEnøgEdlmankarelceLIgnUvkMenInén Strain edayKμankar
ekIneLIg b¤fycuHbnþicbnþÜcén Stress . dUcenHsMPar³sMNg;bgðajnUvPaByWtrbs;va. sMrab;sMPar³sMNg;

EdlKμankarkMNt; Yield Point c,as;las; The offset yield strength RtUveKeRbICargVas;énPaByWtdMbUg ( The
beginning of plastic deformation) .
2>4 Constant Unit Stress

krNIEdlsamBaØén Stess nig Strain KWCakrNIEdlkñúgenaH Unitstress nig Strain efr. ]TahrN_³
Stress EdlekIteLIgedaykMlaMgTaj rWsgát; rW Shearing Force rW bnÞúkEdleRbImþgmáal. lkçN³énkardak;
bnÞúkTaMgenHRtUveKbgðajenAkñúgrUb Figure 11 . sMrab;kMlaMgTaj nig sgát;cMG½kS eyIgyképÞmuxkat;EdlEkg

eTAnwgG½kSkNþal nig EkgeTAnwgkMlaMgsgát;. sMrab; Shearing Load épÞmuxkat;EdlzitenAkñúgbøg;kat;RtUveK
ykmkKNna. ehIysMrab; bearing load vaRtUveRCIserIsykbøg;b:HéneRKOgbgÁúMTaMgBIr.
rUb1-1 lkNrbs;bnÞk
2>5 Poisson’s Ratio

enAkñúg elastic limit enAeBlEdleRKOgbgÁúMmYyrgnUvkMlaMgsgát;cMG½kSvaminRtwmEteFVIeGayxUc
RTg;RTaytamépÞbeNþayEtb:ueNÑaHeT EtvaEfmTaMgeFVIeGayxUcRTg;RTaytamépÞTTwgpgEdr. enAeRkam
kMlaMgTaj (Tension) épÞénmuxkat;rbs;eRKOgKWfycuH ehIyenAeRkamkMlaMgsgát; (Compression) vaekIneLIg
pleFobén Unit Lateral strain nwg Unit longitudinal strain RtUEtehAfa Poisson’s ratio .
sMrab;sMPar³sMNg;CaeRcInpleFobenHRtUveKyktMélesμI 0>25. sMrab;eRKOgbgÁúMEdktMélrbs;va RtUveKsnμt
yk 0>3 .
]TahrN_ snμtfaEdkBüÜrmYyEdlmanépÞ 2in2 BüÜrTMgn; 40 Kip (40.000-1b) load . The Unit stress KW
40>000¼2 rW 20>000PSI Unit tensil strain KW 20>000¼30>000>000 rW 0>00067 in/ in . edayyk
Poisson’s Ration esμI 0>3 Unit lateral strain KW -0>3 x 0>00067 rW a shortening of 0>00020 in/ in .
CMBUkII ³
dI nig RKwH
Soil and foundation
3
1> esckþIepþIm
1>1 emkanicdI
emkanicdI KWRtUveKkMnt;edaykarGnuvtþn_ énc,ab; nigeKalkarN_rbs;emkanic nigTwkenAkñúgkaredaH
RsaybBaðaCamYydIEdleKcat;TukCasmÖar³visVkmμ. dImanlkçN³eRcInRbePTepSg²Kña edayEp¥keTAelIkar
sikSa. ]TahrN_kñúgekSRtviTüa (agronomy) ¬karGnuvtþn_viC¢adaMdMNaM¦dIKW RtUveKkMNt;faCakMNkénrUbFatuEr:
EdlmankMeNItmkBIsMNwkfμ nigrUbFatuxniCEdlRbmUlpþúMKña eRkayBIkarrlYyénrukçCati nigstV. sMrab;Gñk
ekSRtviTüa (agronomist) dIKWCasarFatuEdlpþl;GMbilxniCedIm,IciBa©wmkarrIklUtlas;énrukçCati. b:uEnþsMrab;
visVkrEpñkdI (geotechnical engineer) dImann½yTUlMTUlayehIyGacrab;bBa©ÚlminRtwmEt agronomic material
b:uEnþvarab;bBa©ÚlpgEdrnUv sMNwkfμ epHPñMePøIg dIl,ab; lannin sand glacial material nig sMNl;epSgénkarswk
rbs;fμ.
tamFmμCativamankarlM)akkñúgkarrkbnÞat;EbgEckmYyrvagfμ nigdI. ]TahrN_sMrab;PUKBðviTU
(geologist) sarFatumYyRtUv)aneKdak;cMNat;fñak;eTAtamkMNkMeNIténfμBIeRBaHvasßitenAeRkamsßanPaBPUKBð
d¾Cak;lak;mYy b:uEnþsMrab;visVkrdIvaKYrEtRtUveKcat;cUlcMNat;fñak;dI.
1>2 visVkmμRKwH (Foundation Engineering)

RKwHRtUveKkMNt;faCaEpñkmYyén eRKOgbgÁúMEdlRTRTg;Tm¶n;rbs;eRKOgbgÁúMehIy bBa¢ÚnbnÞúkeTARsTab;
dIrW fμenAxageRkam. kñúgvisVkmμRKwH (Foundation Engineering) .emkanicdI emkanicfμ PUmivTüa nigvisμkmμeRKOg
bgÁúM tUveKeRbIkñúgkarKNna nigsagsg;RKwHGaKar rWeRKOg bgÁúM. mUldæanRKwHrbs; Foundation Engineering
KWkareRCIserIsRbePTénRKwH EdlmandUcCaRbBn½§énRKwHrak; (Shallow Foundation) rWRKwHeRCA (Deep
Foundation).
mUldæanRKwHmYyeTotén Foundation Engineering KWTak;TgeTAnwgkarKNna Parameter dUcCaliT§PaB

RTRTg;rbs;RKwHEdlmandUcCa karkMnt;RbePT nigcenøaHEdksréskñúgeCIgtag.
2> karsikSaRsavRCavelIkardæanpÞal; (field exploitation)
eKalbMNgénkarsikSaRsavRCavelIkardæanpÞal; KWedIm,Icg;dwgnUvcMnucxageRkam³
1> karyl;dwgGMBIsßanPaBPUmisa®sþTUeTAénkardæan edaysarvaCH\T§iBleTAelIkarKNna nigsag
sg;RKwH. ]TahrN_ sßanPaBrbs;épÞdIPaBs¥itrbs;dI RbPBTwkRtBaMgrbg; rukçCati rock outcrops nigkarGac
ecjcUl)anénrfynþdwk smÖar³sMNg;.
2> TItaMgénkEnøgbgáb;]bkrN_eRbIR)as;dUcCa ExSkabGKiÁsnInigTUrs½BÞRbBn§½Twk nigRbBn½§lU.
3> lkçN³TUeTArbs;PUBsa®sþénRkLaépÞ CamYynwgkarkt;sMKal;nUvkarkekIténRsTab;dI nig sRmut
dIBIkarviPaKelIRbePTdI rWkrNIepSgeTot.
4> Rbvtþinig kareRbIR)as;kardæanrYmman Bt’manénkarxUcxat b¤)ak;Ebkrbs;sMNg;cas;² EdlbNþal
mkelIRKwH.
5> lkçN³BiessepSg²dUcCa PaBGacekIteLIgénkarrBa¢ÜydI rWkarpøas;bþÚrénktþaFmμCatimandUcCa
TwkCMnn; karrIkb¤rYmtamrdUvkMnt;nigdIsmñwk.
6> RbPBnigKuNPaBrbs;sMPar³ sMNg;enAkñúgRsukmandUcCaRKYssMrab;eFVIebtugfμsMrab;eFVIGaKar b¤pøÚv
nigTwksMrab;karsagsg;.
7> sMrab;sMNg;Tak;Tgnig smuRT b¤TenøBt’manelIkMriteCarnac nigkMBs;Twkel,ÓnéncrnþeCarnac nig
crnþTenønigTinñn½y EdlTak;TgeTAnwg Hydrographic nig meteorological.
8> karkt;RtaTuky:aglMGiténsßanPaBBIr b¤fμI niglkçN³TwkeRkamdIEdlenAkñúgtMbn;EdlGacman

\T§iBleTAelIlT§PaBRTRTg;rbs;RKwH nigRbtibtþikarN_énkarsagsg;rW karCIkeRCAénRsTab;dIEdlGacCH
\T§iBleTAelIkardæankñúgkrNINamYy.
9> lT§iplénkareFVIBiesaFn_elIsMNakdIb¤ fμEdlRtUvnwgkarnwgkarKNna b¤sagsg;.
2>1 karsikSaelIÉksar (document Review)
Bt’manEdlRtUvkarcaM)ac;xøH² mandUcCaRbvtþiénkareRbIR)as;kardæanRtUveK)anmkBIkarsikSaelI
Éksar.]TahrN_manr)aykarN_cas;² GMBI lanning Edlcg¥úlbgðajfa kardæanGacCakMNk dIRbBn½§bgðÚrTwk
s¥úyEdleKe)aHbg;ecalnig GageRcaH GagsþúkTwkkb;kñúgdIelI b¤eRkamEdlGacb:HBal;dl; KMeragGPivDÆn_ fμI².
vaGacmanpgEdrnUvBt’manEdlTak;TgeTAnwg kareRbIR)as;elInwgeRkamdIénbMBg;Twk Edl RtUvEtCIkdak; b¤bit
KMrbenAkñúgbrievnénkardæan.
kñúgkarsikSaelIÉksarenH vamansar³sMxan;Nas;edIm,IBinitüsMPar³KMrU (reference materials)
dUcCaEpnTI PUKBðsa®sþ nigEpnTIPUmisa®sþ. EpnTIPUKBðsa®sþvamansar³sMxan;Nas;BIeRBaHvaEtgEtcg¥úl
bgðajnUv eRKaHfñak;énPUKBðsa®sþ ¬]TahrN_karxUcdI)ak;¦ nigRbePTénRsTab;dI b¤fμenAelIkardæan.
TaMgEpnTIPUmisa®sþcas;nig fIμ Gacpþl;nUvBt’mand¾mantMélGMBIkardæansagsg;. EpnTIPUmisa®sþCa

FmμtaRtUveKeRbImaRtdæan ehIybgðajTItaMgénGaKar pøÚv pøÚvCati pøÚvEdk nig kargarepSgeTotEdlTak;TgeTA
nwgsMNg;suIvil nigTidæPaBFmμCatiEdlmandUcCa eRCaH Tenø bwg qksmuRTnig eqñrsmuRT.
EpnTIPUmisa®sþGacg¥úlbgðajpgEdr nUvkEnøgénGagcg¥ÚrTwks¥úy nigGagsþúkTwk ehIyedayeRbIBN’
nig Rsemalvacg¥úlbgðajnUvkarGPivDÆn_cas; nigfμI. b:uEnþeKalbMNgsMxan;énEpnTIPUmisaRsþKWedIm,I
cg¥úlbgðajnUvnIvUdI. Bt’manenHGacRtUveKeRbIsMrab;KNna TidæPaBcMbgénsßanPaBPUmisa®sþ rbs;kardæan
nigsMrab;karsikSaBIRsTab;eRkamdI EdlmandUcCaRsTab;dIEdlGaceFVIeGayvakarvaybBa©úHRKwH RbRBitþieTA )an.
RbPBd¾sMxan;mYyeToténBt’man KWrUbPaBftBIelIGakas (aerial photographs) EdlRtUveKftBIelI
ynþehaHEdlehaHenAkMBs; nigExSbnÞat;EdleKkMNt;mYy. emIlrUbftBIelIGakasBIrCamYynwg CMnYyén
Stereoscope vapþl;nUvrUbPaB 3D énsßanPaBépÞdI. rUbPaBenHGacbgðajnUvBt’man sMxan;énPUKBðsa®sþrbs;
kardæandUcCavtþmanéndI)ak; RcaMg)ak; RbePTénTMrg;dI ¬]TahrN_pñÚkxSac;¦ (alluvial fans) dIl,ab;kMNk én

Twkkk (moraines) nig (eskers) PaBsikricrilRbePTTUeTAnig lkçN³rbs;rukçCati nigKMrUénbNþajbeNþaHTwk
. edayeRbobeFobrUbPaBBIelIGakascas; nig fμIPUKBðviTUGacsegátpgEdrnUvkarpøas;bþÚr

(drainage patterns)
edayFmμCati b¤mnusSEdl)anekIteLIgenAelIkardæan.
2>2 karsikSaRsavRCavépÞeRkamdI (Subsurface Exploration )
edIm,IkMNt;nUvkarkt;RtalMGiténdI nigRsTab;fμ niglkçN³énTwkeRkamdInUvkardæan karsikSaRsavRCav
épÞeRkamdI KWCanic©CakalRtUveKelIkykmksikSa. manRbePTepSg² KñaénkarsikSaRsavRCavépÞeRkamdI
dUcCa karxYg (borings) reNþABiesaFn_ (test pits) nigkarCIkcg¥ÚrCaedIm.
karxYgeFVIeLIgedayeRbIbMBg;ragsuILaMg xYgcUlkñúgdI kñúgeKalbMNgsikSaBIlkçN³rbs;RsTab;dIxag
eRkamkarBiesaFn_enAelIkardæanpÞal; nigykdIfμI rWk¾TwkeRkamdIsMrab;eFVIBiesaFn_. reNþAxYgGacRtUveKCIkeday
éd¬]TahrN_³ CIkedaycbCIk¦ eTaHbIkñúgkarCIkFmμtaeKRtUveRbI mechanical equipment edIm,ICIkreNþA
k¾eday. eRKOgcRkeRcInRbePTRtUveKeRbIedIm,IxYgreNþA.
Auger Boring: Mechanical Auger KWCarebobCIkreNþAy:agelOn. reNþARtUveKCIkedayEdkxYgeday
eRbIsMBaFbukEdkxYgCYykñúgkarTemøaHdI rWfμ.
CaTUeTAmanEdkxYgBIrRbePT KW Flight auger nig bucket augers. CaFmμtaGgát;p©itrbs; flight KW 5cm-
12cm (2in eTA 4ft) ehIyrbs; bucket augers KW 0.3m eTA 2.4m (1ft eTA 8ft) . EdkxYgRtUveKdkecjBIreNþA
kñúgry³eBleTogTat;NamYy TnÞwmnigeBlenaHEdr dIEdlsßitenAelI Flight auger rWenAkñúg bucket auger RtUveK

ykecj.
Casing CaTUeTAKW eKmineRbIsMrab; auger boring eT ehIyreNþAxYgGacRsutkñúgeBldIRtesaH rWdITn;
rWxYgRsTab;dIenAeRkamTwk. auger KWCa]bkrN_sMrab;xYgEdlCaTUeTARtUveKeRbIsMrab;xYgdI rWfμ.

Hollow-stem flight auger; A hollow-stem flight auger manRbehagragmUlcMkNþalEdkxYgEdl
GnuBaØatieGayeyIgyksMNak;dIxageRkam)an. Hollow-stem flight auger KwdUcCaRbGb;sMrab;sMNak;dI

RtesaH b¤dITn; b¤enAeBlxYgdIeRkamRsTab;TwkeRkamdI.
Wash-type Borings eRbIdMeNIrkarrbs;GgÁFaturav EdlGacnaMykkMeTckMTIdIeGayecjBIreNþA)an.
kMeTcdIekItmkBIkarkab; mYl nigbukrbs;EdkxYg (drill bit) EdlkMTicdI b¤fμeTACabMENktUc². Casing RtUveK

eRbIedIm,IkuMeGaymankar)ak;RsutreNþAxYg.
edaysar drilling fluid ¬GgÁFaturav¦ EdleRbIkñúgeBlxYgvaGaceFVIeGaylM)ak;kñúgkarkMNat;dI nig
lM)akkñúgTTYl)an sMNak;EdlminxUcRTg;RTay.
Rotary Coring KWCa]bkrN_xYgmYyRbePTEdleKeRbIfamBlrgVilénEdkxYgeGaydUcCaclnarbs;

GgÁFaturavedIm,IRbmUlykkMeTcdIecjBIrn§.
Percussion Drilling KWCa]bkrN_xYgmYyRbePTEdleKeRbIsMrab;xYgmYyRbePTEdleKeRbIsMrab;xYgTmøúH
fμrwgedIm,IEsVgyl;BIRsTab;dIxageRkam b¤edIm,IkarxYgGNþÚg. EdkxYgeFVIkardUcCadgjjÜreLIg ehIycuHedIm,I

bMEbknigkMeTcfμ.
elIsBIkarxYgenHmanviFIepSgeTot sMrab;karEsVgyl;BIRsTab;dIrYmbBa©ÚlTaMg Test pits nig trenches .
Test Pits CaerOy² KWmanragCakaer:kñúgbøg;KMehIjCamYynwgTMhMRbePT 1.2 x 1.2 m (4ft KuNnwg 4ft) .
Trenches manragEvg nigceg¥ótCaFmμtakayeday backhoe b¤ bulldozer.
tarag 6>4 bgðajBIkareRbIR)as; smtßPaBnig TMhMkMNt;rbs; test pits nig trenches.

Test Pit nig trenches pþl;nUvkarRtYtBinitüedayEPñkTeT nUvlkçxNÐénRsTab;dIxageRkam. eKk¾Gac
eRbIedIm,ITTYlnUvsMNakKMrU undisturbed éndIpgEdr. dMeNIrenHmanCIkkaydIBIxag b¤)atén Test pit b¤ trench

sMNakKMrUdI k¾GacTTYl)anBI Test pit b¤ trenches edaykarduMsgát;bBa©ÚledayédnUvbMBg; shelby, drive suILaMg
b¤bMBg;sMNakKMrUepSgeTotcUleTAkñúgdI.
Backhoe trenchesKWCaviFId¾snSMsMécénkarGnuvtþn_nUvkarRsavRCavBIRsTab;dIxageRkam. backhoe Gac
CIky:agelOnnUv trench EdlGacbnÞab;mkRtUv)aneRbIedIm,IRtYtBinitü nigBiesaFn_dIenAnwgkEnøg. sMrab;kar

sikSaRsavRCavRsTab;dIxageRkamCaeRcIn backheo trench RtUv)aneRbIedIm,IvaytMéllkçxNÐ near- surface nig
PUmisa®sþ ¬]TahrN_rhUtCMerA 15ft¦ edayreNþAxYgEdl)aneRbIsMrab;GegátlkçxNÐRsTab;dIxageRkameRCA
CagenH.
2>3 sMNakKMrUdI Soil Sampling
RbePTepSgKñaCaeRcInén KMrUdIGacRtUv)aneRbIedIm,IeFVICasMNakKMrUdI b¤fμEdl)anBIkarxYg.
1> Altered Soil: kñúgGMLúgeBlRbtibtþikarxYg dIGacRtUv)aneFVIeGayxusBIsPaBedImedaysar
karlay b¤edaysarkareFVI[kxVk;. ]TahrN_ RbsinebIkarxYgmin)anlagsMGatecjedIm,IeFVIsMNakKMrU enaH
sMNakKMrUdI EdlykecjBI)atGNþÚgxYgBitR)akdGacmansarFatukMeTckMTI (cutting) EdlRCuHBIRCugmçagén
GNþÚgxYg. kMTickMTIénGNþÚgxYgenH EdlRCuHFøak;eTA)atGNþÚgxYg nigminman vtþmansMrab;lkçxNÐenAnwg
kEnøg énsMNakKMrUEdlmanCMerAeRCA. kñúgkrNIepSgeTot sMNakKMrUdIGackøayCakxVk;eday sarGgÁFaturav
énkarxYg EdleRbIsMrab; Wash-type boring. sMNakKMrUvdIRbePTenH EdlRtUv)anlay b¤eFVI[kxVk;edaysar
dMeNIrkarénkarxYgKYrminRtUv)aneRbIsMrab; karBiesaFn_eTeRBaHvanwgnaMmknUvkarsnñidæan xuscMeBaHlkçxNÐ

énRsTab;eRkamdI.
dIEdlpøas;bþÚrsMeNImkñúgedaysarGgÁFaturavénkarxYg b¤kMedAénm:asuInePøIgkñúgGMLúgéndMeNIrkar én
karxYgk¾KYrRtUv)ancat;cUlkñúglMdab; altered soil. dIEdlRtUv)ansgát;bEnñneday over pushing b¤ over driving
KWCasMNakKMrUdIEdl k¾Gacat;Ca altered soil EdredaysarEtdMeNIrkarén over-pushing b¤ over –driving Gac
sgát;Twk[ecjBIdI.
2> Disturbed samples: disturbed soil KWCadIEdlRtUvcak;Bum<eLIgvijkñúgGMLúgdMeNIrkareFVI
sMNakKMrUdI. ]TahrN_ dIEdlTTYl)anBIsMNakKMrUEdlduMbBa©Úl (driven sampler) dUcCasMNakKMrUEdlbgðÚr
edaysøabRBaBIkarBiesaFn_sgát;TMluHCabTdæan (standard penetration test spilt spoon sampler) b¤duMdITaMgmUl²
Edlykmkkan;épÞdIenAkñúgRtebotEdkxYg ¬]TahrN_duMsMNakKMrU¦ Gaccat;TukCa disturbed soil. Disturbed
soil GacRtUv)aneRbIsMrab;BiesaFn_)aneRcInRbePT.
3> Undisturbed sample: eKTTYlsÁal;faKμansMNakKMrUdINaEdlGacykecjBIdIedaysßan-

PaBminxUcRTg;RTay\tex©aHenaHeT. eTaHbICay:agNa Bakübec©keTsenHGaceRbIsMrab;sMNakKMrUdIEdlyk
edayviFId¾BitR)akd. sMNakKMrUdI Undisturbed sample CaerOy² KWCasMNakKMrUEdlTTYl)anedaykarruj
sgát;yWt² bMBg;EdlmanCBa¢aMgy:agesþIg ehIymancugkat;muxRsYc nigelonecjeRkAcUleTAkñúgdI. ):ar:aEm:Rt
2 CaerOy² RtUv)aneRbIedIm,IvaytMélBI disturbance potential énsMNakKMrUepSgKña KWCapleFobRbeLaHxag
kñúg nigpleFobépÞRkla.
CaTUeTAbMBg;sMNakKMrUsMrab;sMNak undisturbed soil KYrRtUvmanpleFobRbeLaHxagkñúgRbEhl1°
nig pleFobRklaépÞRbEhl 10° b¤ticCagenH. karykpleFobRbelaHxagkñúgRbEhl 1°
edIm,Ipþl;[ PaBlanecjeRkAxagkMBUlénsMNakKMrUdI nigkat;bnßyPaBkkitrvag dI nig
bMBg;sMNakKMrUkñúgGMLúgeBlén dMeNIrkareFVIsMNakKMrU.
RsTab;eRbgy:agesþIgGacRtUv)anlabenAelICaymuxkaMbitedIm,Ikat;bnßypgEdr nUvPaB kkiténépÞdI
nigbMBg;EdkkñúgGMLúgdMeNIrkareFVIsMNakKMrUBum<. eKalbMNgénkarmanpleFob énépÞ Rklad¾Tab nig
cugkaMbitRsYcKWedIm,IrMkilcUleTAkñúgdICamYynwgkarraMgsÞH nigPaBbMlas;TItictYcEdlGacekIt mantictYc
cMeBaHdI. bMBg; shelby KWRtUv)anplitedIm,I[RsbeTAtamrsovePAlMGitbec©keTs (specification) nwgRtUv)an
eRbIsMrab;sMNakKMrUdI undisturbed soil samplers .
ktþaepSgeTot CaeRcInk¾GacbNþaleGaydIRtUv)anraMgsÞ³dUcCa ³
• duMRKYsrwg b¤ cMENksMbkxügenAkñúgdI EdlGacbegáInrn§es<atenAtamxagénbMBg;sMNakKMrUkñúgGMLúg
dMeNIrkareFVIsMNakKMrU.
• karxUcxatrcnasm<½n§dIEdlbNþalmkBIkarduMjjÜr b¤rujsgát;bMBg;sMNakBum<eTAkñúgRsTab;dI.
• cMhayPayén]sμ½nkñúgGMLúgkardkykmkvijnUvbMBg;sMNakKMrU.
• kareFVIeGaykeRkIk b¤karb:HTgÁicénbMBg;sMNakKMrU kñúgGMLúgeBldwkCBa¢ÚneTAkan;bnÞb;BiesaFn_.
• kardkyksMNakdIedayrdwbrdubBIbMBg;sMNakKMrU.
• karkat;tMrwmy:ageFVsRbEhseTAtamTMhMCak;lak;sMrab;karBiesaFan_enAkñúgbnÞb;BiesaFn_.
ral;skmμPaBEdl)anerobrab;xagelIGackat;bnßyRbsiT§iPaB Stress karkat;bnßysMrab;PaBs¥itén

GnþrRKab; nigkartMerobeLIgvijénRKab;dI. sMNakKMrUdI “undisturbed” nwgGacRtUv)antMerobeLIgvijnUvRKab;dI
y:agtictYc nigGacKμankarxUcxatelIkElgEtbNþalmkBI stress relief Edlmankarpøas;bþÚrBIlkçxNÐ stress
enAnwgkEnøgeTAlkçxNÐ stress isotropic “sMNakKMrU\tex©aH” . sMNakKMrUdI disturbed Gacmanrcnasm<½n§dI
EdlxUcRTg;RTayCamYynwg kartMerobRKab;dIesÞIrEtTaMgGs;. enAeBlvas;rkPaBFn;énkMlaMgkat;pþac; (shear
strength ) b¤lkçN³xUcxatRTg;RTayéndI lT§plénkarBiesaFn_cMeBaHsMNakKMrUdI undisturbed Edl)anerob
rab;xagelI)anbgðajBIlkçN³énsßanPaBenAnwgkEnøg RbesIrCaglT§plBiesaFn_cMeBaHsMNakKMrUdI disturbed

ehIyKMrUEdl)anykecjBIrn§GNþÚgxYgKYrrkSaTukenAkñúgbMBg;sMNakKMrU b¤kgsMNakKMrU. bMBg;sMNakKMrUKYr
eRsaby:agCitcugrn§Rbehag b¤kgsMNakKMrUKYreRsaby:agsBV enAkñúgRbGb;edIm,IkarBar kar)at;bg;sMeNIm
kñúgGMLúgénkardwkCBa¢ÚneTAkan;bnÞb;BiesaFn_. sMNakKMrUvdIKYrRtUv)ankt;cMNaMCamYyÉksar b¤elxKMerag
kalbriecäTénkaryksMNakKMrU eQμaHénvisVkr b¤ GñkPUKBðsa®sþEdl)anGnuvtþcMeBaHkaryksMNakKMrU
nigcMnYnénkarxYg nigCMerA.
2>4 karBiesaFn_enAnwgkardæan Field testing
eKmankarBiesaFn_CaeRcInRbePT EdlGacGnuvtþn_enAeBlxYg. karBiesaFn_enAnwgkardæanbI RbePT
FmμtaCageK nwgRtUv)anykmkBiPakSakñúgEpñkenH.
karBiesaFn_edaysarkarsgát;TMluHCabTdæan Standard Penetration test (SPT)
KWCakarsgát;]bkrN_sMNakKMrUEdlmanCBa¢aMgRkaseTAkñúgRsTab;xSac;. ]bkrN_sMNak SPT
SPT
RtUvEtmanGgát;p©itxagkñúg (D1) = 3.81cm(1.5in) nigGgát;p©itxageRkA (D ) = 5.08 cm(2in). ]bkrN_sMNak

0
KMrU SPT RtUv)ansgát;cUleTAkñúgdIxSac;edaykarTMlak;duMjjYrTMgn; 63.5kg(1401b) BIkMBs;

0.76m(30in) . ]bkrN_sMNakKMrU SPT RtUv)ansgát;cUlsrubCMerA 45cm (18in)
CamYynwgkarTMlak;duMjjÜrCaeRcIndgeday )ankt;Rtaral;CMerAKMlat 15cm (6in) . karvas;]bkrN_ SPT
tMél N ¬cMnYnTMlak;ral;kMBs; ft¦ KWCaPaBFn; énkarsgát;TMluHéndIxSac;
EdlesμInwgplbUkéncMnYnénkarTMlak;EdltMrUvsgát;]bkrN_sMNakKMrU SPT elICMerA cenøaHBI 15 eTA 45 cm
¬6eTA 18in¦. mUlehtuEdlcMnYnénkarTMlak;duMjjÜrkñúgtMél N KWCaerOy² dMeNIr
karénkarxYgeRcIneFVIeGaydIxUcRTg;RTayenAnwg)aténrn§GNþÚgxYg nigRtUv)anGanenACMerA 15 eTA 45cm (6 eTA
18in) RtUv)aneCOCak;fa vatMNagl¥CageKénPaBFn;éndIxSac; enAnwgkEnøg. Tinñn½yBIxageRkamkarCab;Tak;Tg
KñaéneBlbc©úb,nñrvagénkarvas;Evg. karvas;Evg SPT tMél N GacRtUv)anCH\T§iBledayktþaénkarBiesaFn_

CaeRcInnig lkçxNÐdI. ]TahrN_ TMhMRKab;RKYsbegáInPaBFn;énkarsgát; ¬dUcenHbegáIntMél N¦ edayERb
køayPaBs¥itenAkñúg]bkrN_sMNakKMrU SPT. ktþaepSgeTotEdlCH\T§iBl dl;karBiesaFn_ SPT tMél N KWTwk
enAkñúgdI. vamansar³sMxan;kñúgkarrkSakMritkMBs;TwkenAkñúgrn§GNþÚgxYg [esμI b¤sßitBIelIkMritkMBs;TwkkñúgdI dUc
enAnwgkEnøg. eKRtUvkarBarTwkkñúgdIkuMeGayeLIgcUleTAkñúg)aténrn§GNþÚrxYgEdleFVIeGayxSac;RtsuHehIy
lT§plénkarrab;tMél N Tab. eRkABIlkçxNÐRKab;RKYs nigTwkkñúgdIEdl)anBiBN’naxagelI enAmanktþa
BiesaFn_epSgKñaeTotCaeRcIn EdlGacCH\T§iBldl;PaBCak;lak;énkarGan SPT. ]TahrN_ karBiesaFn_
SPT tMél N GacRtUv)anCH\T§iBledaysarRbsiT§iPaBénduMjjÜr GRtaénkarTMlak;duMjjÜr Ggát;p©iténrn§
GNþÚgxYg nigRbEvgéndgEdk.
Van Shear Test (VST)
SPT nig CPT RtUv)aneRbIsMrab;karCab;Tak;TgKñaénPaBFn;énkarsgát;]bkrN_¬tMél N¦ b¤rujsgát;
duMekaNCamYynwglkçN³énvisVkmμ ¬dUcCalkçxNÐdg;suIet¦éndI. pÞúymkvij karBiesaFn_ vane test KWmanPaB
EbøkKñaBIkarBiesaFn_enAnwgkEnøgenAkardæanBIeRBaHvaRtUv)anvas;edaypÞal;nUvlkçN³BitR)akdéndI PaBFn;én
kMlaMgkat;pþac;éndI\dæedayKμanbgðÚrTwk.
karBiesaFn_ Vane test KWCakars‘kbBa©Úl vane muxsMEb:t 4eTAkñúgrn§GNþÚgxYg rYcbnÞab;mkrujsgát;
vane cUleTAkñúgRsTab;dI\dæEdlsßitenA)aténrn§GNþÚgxYg. enAeBl vane RtUv)anrujcUleTAkñúgdI\dærYcehIy
karmYlGtibrmatMrUvsMrab;bgVil Vane nigkarkat;pþac;dI\dæRtUv)anrab;.
VaneGacRtUv)anpþl;PaBFn;énkarpþac;edayKμankarpþac;edayKμankarbgðÚrTwkx<s;xøaMg RbsinebI Vane

RtUv)anbgVily:agelOnxøaMgenaH. karBiesaFn_ vane test pþl;nUvlT§plEdlminGaceCOCak;)an sMrab;RsTab;
dI\dæ EdlmanRsTab;dIxSac; b¤RsTab; lenses/ varved clay RbsinebIdI\dæmanRKab;RKYs b¤bMENksMbkxügb:unduM
RKYs.
3> RKwH Foundation
EpñkenHniyayBIkareRCIserIsRbePTRKwH. kareRCIserIslkçN³BiessénRbePTRKwHCaerOy² QrelI
mUldæanktþaCaeRcIndUcCa³
XCMerARKb;RKan;. vaRtUvEtmanCMerARKb;RKan;edIm,IkarBareRKaHfñak;edaykarkkTwkkk. sMrab;
RKwHdUcCassrs<an CMerAénRKwHRtUvEtRKb;RKan;edIm,IkarBarnwgkarCIkBIeRkamedaykarduHlag.
YkarbraC½yénlT§PaBRTRTg;. RKwHRtUvEtmansuvtßiPaBRbQmnwg karbraC½yénlT§PaBRT
RTg;.
ZkarRsut. RKwHminRtUvRsutdac;xatEdlGacbNþal[eRKaHfñak;dl;eRKagbgÁúMTaMgmUl.
[KuNPaB. RKwHRtUvEtmanKuNPaBRKb;RKan;EdlvaminRbQmnwgPaBkan;Ety:ab;yWneLIg
dUcCakarvayRbhareday sulfate énebtugeCIgtag.
\PaBFn;énkMlaMgRKb;RKan;. RKwHRtUv)anKitCamYynwgPaBFn;énkMlaMgRKb;RKan;Edlvamin
Gac)ak; b¤EbkecjBIKñaeRkambnÞúkéneRKagsMNg;xagelIEdlmanGMeBIelIva. vak¾RtUvEtsagsg;edayRtwmRtUv
edayGnuelameTAtamkarKiténesovePAlMGitbec©keTs.
]karpøas;bþÚrdIminl¥.RKwHRtUvEtGacFn;eTAnwgkarpøas;bþÚrdIEdlminl¥yUrGEgVg. ]TahrN_
sMrab;dIEdlrIkmaD ¬dI silt b¤dI\dæ¦ EdlGacrIkb¤ rYmmaDnwgeFVIeGayRKwHmanclnaehIy eFVIeGayeRKagsMNg;

maneRKaHfñak;.
^kMlaMgrMBa¢ÜydI. RKwHRtUvEtGacRTeRKagsMNg;kñúgGMLúgeBlrBa¢ÜydIedayKμan clnaRsutcuH
xøaMg b¤eTAxag.
3>1 RKwHrak; Shallow Foundation

RKwHrak;CaerOy² RtUv)aneRCIserIsenAeBlbnÞúkeRKagsMNg; nwgminbeNþayeGayRsTab;dIBIxag
eRkammansMrutxøaMg. CaTUeTA RKwHrak;KWmanPaBsnSMsMécCagkarsagsg;CamYyRKwHeRCA. RbePTRKwHrak;Fmμta
RtUv)anBiBN’naxageRkam³
rUbTI 2-1 eCIgtag

eCIgtag/ RKwHrYm/ RKwHEvg spread footing/ combined footing and strip footing
RbePTRKwHrak;TaMgenH KWCaRbePTRKwHsMNg;FmμtaEdleRbIR)as;eRcInCageK.
rUbTI2-2 RKwHcak;eBj
RKwHcak;eBj Mat Foundation
edayQrelImUldæanénkarKitesdækic© RKwHcak;eBjRtUv)ansagsg;sMrab;ehtupldUcxageRkam³
- eCIgtagEdlmanTMhMFM. RKwHcak;eBjCaerOy² RtUv)ansagsg;enAeBlplbUkénRklaépÞeCIgtag
TaMgGs;FMCagRbEhlBak;kNþalénRklaépÞRKwHsrub.
- RsTab; lenses EdlGacbgðab; b¤xUg. RKwHcak;eBjGacRtUv)aneRbIenAeBlNaEdldMeNIrkarrukrk
RsTab;eRkamdI bgðajfanwgmansMrutvismPaBEdlbNþalmkBIRsTab;EdlGacbgðab;)an b¤RkLúkxUgtUc²enA
BIxageRkamRKwH. RKwHcak;eBjGacRtUv)ancak;CaElVgeBjBIelIrn§xUgtUc² b¤RsTab; lenses Tn;exSay nigbegáIt
lkçxNÐsMrutÉksNæanCag.
- sMrutrak;. RKwHcak;eBjGacRtUv)anENnaMenAeBlEdlkarRKbsgát;BIelImansMrutrak;ehIyRKwHcak;
eBjRtUv)ankat;bnßysMrut differential.
- bnÞúkrayminesμI. sMrab;eRKagsMNg;xøH vaGacmanPaBxusKñaFMsMrab;bnÞúksMNg;EdlmanskmμPaB
enAelIépÞepSgKñaénRKwH. karRbRBwtþeTAtamkarRBmeRBogénRKwHeCIgtagGacRtUv)anRbQmeTAnwgsMrut
differential EdlFMhYs b:uEnþRKwHcak;bMeBjnwgRtUvBRgaybnÞúkrayminesμI nigkat;bnßysMrut differential .
- karedaleLIgeday hydrostatic. enAeBlRKwHnwgRtUvRbQmnwgkarehIbeLIgeday hydrostatic Edl

bNþalmkBIépÞénTwkkñúgTwk RKwHcak;eBjGacRtUv)aneRbIedIm,IFn;nwgkMlaMgedaleLIg.
Post-tensioned slab-on-grade
vaKWCaRbePTRKwHEdlsnSMsMécenAeBlKμankarkkTwkkkkñúgTwk b¤CMerAénkarRCabTwkkkTab. bMerI
bMras;FmμtaCageKénkMral Post-tensioned slab-on-grade KWFn;eTAnwgkMlaMgrIkéndI b¤enAeBlRbQmeTAnwg
sMrut differential FMCagtMélGnueRKaHsMrab;karRbRBwtþeTAtamkarRBmeRBogénkMral on-grade ¬EdlmanEdk
y:agesþIg¦. ]TahrN_kMral post-tensioned slab-on-grade CaerOy²RtUv)anENnaMRbsinebIkarRbQménsMrut
differential KWrMBwgfaFMCag 2cm(0.75in) . kMral post-tensioned slab-on-grade KWCaebtugEdlmanbgáb;
sésrEdkBYrEdleRsabeday)øasÞiky:agRkas;. eRsam)øasÞikkarBarsésrBYurBIkarb:HBal;CamYynwgebtug nig

GnuBaØati[sésrBYGacrGilkñúgebtugEdlkkrwgkñúgeBldMeNIrkarénkarTaj. CaFmμtasésrBYrmancugmçag
gab;¬bnÞHTMBk;¦ kñúgbrimaRt¬Cay¦Fñwm nigcugmçageTotEdlTTYl stress
enAbrimaRtFñwmQmedIm,IGac[ sésrBYrTTYl stress BIxagcugmçag.

RKwHrak;déTeTot shallow foundation afternatives
RbsinebIsMrutEdlrMBwgsMrab;RKwHrak;EdlesñImantMélFMeBk enaHbMNgepSgeTotsMrab;TMrRKwH b¤kareFVI
[dImanesßrPaBRtUvEtGacvaytMél. lkçN³d¾éTeTotFmμtaxøHEdlGacRtUveRbIRtUv)anerobrab;dUcxageRkam³
-BRgaydI. RbtibtþikarBRgabdI GacRtUv)aneRbIsMrab;ykecjnUvRsTab;dIEdlGachab; nig CMnYs
vijedaykarbMeBjrcnasm<½n§. CaFmμtabMNgénkarBRgabdI KWmanlkçN³snSMsMécEtmYyKt;RbsinebI
RsTab;dIEdlhab;sßitenAEk,rRsTab;dIEpñkelI nigRsTab;TwkkñúgdIsßitenABIeRkamRsTab;dIEdlGachab; b¤
RsTab; TwkkñúgdIGacRtUv)andak;eGayenAeRkamedIm,IkarsnSMsMéc.
-kardak;bnÞúkelIs. RbsinebIkardæanmanRsTab;dIsi¥t EdlGachab;enABIeRkamkardæanGacRtUv)an
dak; bnÞúkelIsedayRsTab;cak;bMeBjdak;BIelIépÞdI. karbgðÚrbBaÄr¬dUcCakarbgðÚrdUcRbeqHEdkekH
b¤karbgðÚreday xSac;¦ GacRtUv)andak;enAkñúgRsTab;dIEdlGachab;edIm,Ikat;bnßyExSénkarbgðÚr nigbegáIn
el,ÓnéndMeNIrkarbgðab;. enAeBlEdlRsTab;dIs¥itGacbgðab;)anRtUv)anTTYlnUvkarbgðab;RKb;RKan;ehIy
RsTab;EdlbMeBjelIsbnÞúk RtUv)anykecj nigsMNg;RtUv)ansagsg;.
-karbegáIndg;suIet. viFIepSgKñaCaeRcInGacRtUv)aneRbIedIm,IbegáIndg;suIetdIRtsuH b¤Tn;. ]TahrN_

karbgðab; vibro-flotation nig dynamic CaerOy² manRbsiT§iPaBkñúgkarbegáIndg;suIetRsTab;dIxSac;RtsuH.
eKalbMNgepSgeTotKWkarbgðab; grouting EdlCakarsgát;BnøicduMm:as grout EdlmankMras;Rkas;Nas;enAkñúg
dI EdlTaMgCMnYs nigbgðab;dIRtsuH.
-RKwHGENþk. RKwHGENþtKWCaRbePTRKwHeRCABiess EdlTMgn;éneRKagsMNg;RtUv)anføwgedayykecj
nUvdI nigsagsg;nUvkMralCan;eRkamdI.
3>2 RKwHeRCA
rUbTI 2-3 RbePT pile

RbePTénRKwHeRCAFmμtaPaKeRcInKW RKwH pile. Pile GacCaeQI ¬edImeQI¦/ EdkEdlmanmuxkat; H,
ebtugcak;rYc/ ebtugcak;enAnwgkEnøg/ ebtugEdlcak;edaysMBaF/ karbMeBjebtugkñúgbMBg; pile RbePTpSMKña.
Pile KW)anBIkarsgát;cUlkñúgdIb¤RtUv)antMeLIgenAkñúgrn§EdlxYgmun. Pile Edl)anBIkarsgát;cUlkñúgdI
CaTUeTARtUv)ancat;Tukfa CakarykecjTab b¤x<s;GaRs½yeTAnwgbrimaNdIEdl RtUvEt)anrujecjtampøÚvEdl
Pile sgát;cUl. ]TahrN_karykecjTabén Pile KWEdkmuxkat;GkSr H nig bMBg; pile EdkEdlmancugcMhr

Edlmin)anbegáItFñúkenAxagcugEpñkxagdI. ]TahrN_sMrab; pile ykecjx<s; KW Pile
EdlmanlkçN³tan;dUcCa Pile duMeQImUl b¤Pile ebtugcak;eRscmuxkat;kaernig bMBg;Pile EdkEdlman
cugbiTCit.
Pile Edlcak;enAnwgkEnøgRtUv)anbegáItedayeFVIrn§enAkñúgdI nigbnÞab;mkbMeBjrn§edayebtug. sMrab;
Bum<d¾samBaØCageK Pile Edlcak;enAnwgkEnøgmanrn§Edl)ancak;EdlRtUvcak;bMeBjedayebtug. RbsinebIdI

GaccUlkñúgrn§enaH Pile RbePT shell GacRtUv)antMeLIg. viFIenHKWCakarsgát; shell Edk b¤RbGb;eTAkñúgdI.
RbGb;GacRtUvduMeday mandrel EdlbnÞab;mkRtUvykecjehIy RbGb;RtUv)anbMeBjedayebtug. sMrab;krNI
epSgeTotRbGb;GacRtUvduMbBa©ÚleTAkñúgdI nigbnÞab;ykbnþicmþg² RtUv)anykecjBIrn§nig bMeBjedayebtug.
4> karCIkdIsMrab;eFVIRKwH Foundation excavation
eKmanRbePTénkarCIkdIepSgKñaCaeRcInEdlGnuvtþkñúgGMLúgkarsagsg;énKMerag. ]TahrN_dIGacRtUv
CIkBIreNþA b¤kEnøgnigbnÞab;mkcak;bMeBjvij. ]TahrN_epSgeTotKWkarCIkCalkçN³KnøwHkat;pþac; b¤ buttress
EdlnwgRtUveRbIedIm,IeFVIeGayCMerl b¤dIEdlRtUvrGiltamxagmanesßrPaB. ]TahrN_epSgeTotsMrab;karCIk
KWdUcxageRkam³
4>1 karCIkdIsMrab;eCIgtag Footing Excavation
esvaRbePTenHCab;Tak;Tgnwg karvas;nUvTMhMénEpñkPUKBðsa®sþ¬dUcCaCMerA nigTMhMéneCIgtag¦ edIm,I
eFVIeGayc,as;fa vaGnuelameTAtamtMrUvkarénbøg;sMNg;. esvaenHCaerOy² RtUv)anGnuvtþn_kñúgeBldUcKña nig
karRtYtBinitüedIm,IbBa¢ak;BIlkçxNÐRTRTg;.
4>2 karxYgsMrab; Pier Excavation of Piers
dUcKñanwgkarCIkdIsMrab;eCIgtag visVkrPUKBðsa®sþRtUv)antMrUvsMrab;bBa¢ak;eGayc,as;BICMerA niglkçxNÐ
RTRTg;én Pier. rUbTI2>4 bgðajBICMh‘anFmμtakñúgkarsagsg;énkarxYg pier.
rUb 2-4 CMha‘nFmμtakñúgkarsagsg;énkarxYgpier

4>3 karCIkdIcMhr open excavation
karCIkdIcMhr KWCakarCIkdIEdlmanCMerlxagmanesßrPaB b¤minRtUv)anTb;Tl;.
4>4 karCIkdIedaymanCnÞl; braced excavtion
karCIkdIedaymanCnÞl;KWCakarCIkEdlEpñkxagRtUv)anTb;edayeRKagbgÁúMTb;dI. rUbTI 2-5 bgðajBI
RbePTFmμtaénRbBn½§Tb;nwgkarCIkdIedaymanCnÞl;
5> viFIbegáInsßanPaBRTRTg;dI Improvement methods
5/1 karBRgabdI Grading
enAeBlkardæansMNg;CaeRcIncab;epþImedaydITeT CMh‘anTI1sMrab;kardæansagsg;eFVIkarFmμtaCab;
Tak;Tgnig karBRgabdIénkardæan. karBRgabdIKW CadMeNIrkarEdlmankarCIkkarcak;bMeBj b¤bnSúMénkargar
enH. dMeNIrkarénkarBRgabFmμtaGacrYmbBa©ÚlnUvkarerobrab;xøH b¤TaMgGs;³
rUb2-5 RbePTFmμtaénRbBn½§Tb;dI nigkarCIkdIedaymanCnÞl;

Eeasement
CMha‘ndMbUgéndMeNIrkarBRgabKW kMNt;TItaMgéneRKOgeRbIR)as;enAkardæan nig easement . CaerOy²
eRKOgeRbIR)as;enAkardæan nig easement RtUvkarBarcaM)ac;EdlvaminGaceRKaHfñak;kñúgGMLúgeBlRbtibtþikar
BRgabdI.
sMGat/ e)as/ nig QUsrMelIg/ Clearing, brushing and grubbing
sMGat e)as nigQUsrMelIg KWCaskmμPaBykecjnUvedImrukçCati¬dUcCa/ esμA/ éRB kem<at/ edImeQI
nigRbePTdMNaMRsedogenH¦ tamn½yemkanic. vamansar³sMxan;EdlkaksMNl;TaMgenHRtUv)anykecjBIkar
dæan nigmindak;enAkñúgkarbMeBjCam:assMrab;eRKagsMNg;EdlbgánUveRKaHfñak;.
kare)assMGat
dMeNIrkarBRgabdIenHKW edaHRsayCamYynwgkarykecjnUvsarFatuEdlminsaksmnwgRTRTg;enAkar
dæan dUcCadIl,b;EdlRtsuH b¤manrn§es<at/ collunvium, rukçCatiBuk/ vtßúesμakeRKaK nigkarbMeBjEdlminGac
bgðab;)an.
karkat;CakaM² ¬tMbn;CMerlPñM¦ Benching (Hillside areas)
karkat;CakaM² KWCakarCIkCakaM² EdlmankMritkMBs;bnþbnÞab;eTAkñúgsarFatuEpndIEdlenABIelIfñak;kaM

RtUv)anbMeBjedaysarFatubMeBj.
canyon subdrain
KWCabMBg; b¤RbB½n§bgðÚrTwkEdldak;fμ RKYs b¤sarFatuRsedogKña dak;kñúgcg¥Úr
Subdrain canyon b¤
RbLaybgðÚrTwkcas;.
bnÞab;BIkardak; subdrainrYcehIy karbMeBjrcnasm<½n§RtUv)andak;BIelIkMBUl subdrain.
karP¢Ür nigkarbMhab;vij (scarifying and recompaction)
sMrab;tMbn;rabesμIEdlKμankarCIkkat;CakaM² karP¢Ür
nigkarbgðab;eLIgvijénépÞdIRtUv)anGnuvtþeday ]bkrN_bgðab;kñúgeKalbMNgedIm,ITTYlnUvPaBs¥itl¥rvagsar
FatuenAnigkEnøgnwg sarFatucak;bMeBjfμI.
dMeNIrkarBRgabdIrdwbrdubedaykat; nigbMeBj Cut and fill rough grading operation
RbtibtþikarBRgabdIrdwbrdubTak;Tgnwgkarkat;sarFatudIBIkEnøgx<s;nig bgðab;sarFatucak;bMeBjkñúg
tMbn;Tab kñúgeKalbMNgBRgabdIeGay)anrabesμI. skmμPaBepSgeTotGacRtUv)anGnuvtþkñúgGMLúgRbtibtþikar
BRgabdIrdwbrdubdUcCa³
- relIgb¤ )aj;bMEbkduMfμ. bMEbkduMfμFM²GacRtUvykecjBIkardæan b¤dak;enAeRkArgVg;kargar.
- PaBpøas;bþÚrKñaénkarkat;nig bMeBj. skmμPaBenHKWsßitenARTnab;sMNg;EdlmçagRtUvkat;cuHeRkam
rhUtdl;b:HRsTab;FmμCati b¤fμ enAeBlEdlEpñkmçageTotRtUv)ancak;bMeBj. viFImYysMrab;edaHRsayCamYy
nwgkarpøas;bþÚrKñaénkarkat;nig karbMeBjKWCIkEpñkEdlkat;[hYskMritEdlRtUvkat;rYceTIbcak;bMeBjeday
sarFatucak;bMeBj.
- kareFVIeGayCMerlmanesßrPaB. ]TahrN_sMrab;kareFVIeGayCMerlmanesßrPaBedayeRbIsarFatudI
rYmbBa©ÚlTaMgkareFVIeGaymanesßrPaBcak;bMeBj/ buttress fill/ drainage buttress nig KnøwHénkarkat;pþac; (shear
key) . ]bkrN_xagelIKYrRtUv)aneRbICamYynwg RbBn§½ backdrain.
- karbMeBjCMerl. enAeBlbegáItkarbMeBjCMerl vamankarkarBi)akkñúgkarbgðab;CayxageRkAén

m:asbMeBj. BIeRBaHvaKμansMBaFTb;xag dIGaceRClFøak;cuHEdlmin)anbegáIndg;suIet. edIm,IedaHRsay
sßanPaBEbbenH CMerlGacRtUv)ansagsg;hYsTMhM ehIybnÞab;mkkat;ykvijmkdl;Kl;Edl )anbgðab;.
viFId¾l¥bMputTI2d¾éTeTot KWeRbIdMeNIrkarsagsg;EdlmansarRbeyaCn_dUcCa bec©keTs back-rolling
b¤edayeRbI bulldozer edIm,I track walk tamCMerl.
- rMlwkeLIgvijBIdMeNIrkarBRgabdI. ral;kargarBRgabdITaMgGs;manPaBEbøkKña nigGacmankarpøas;
bþÚrRbtibtþikarBRgabdIedayQrelImUldæanlkçxNÐkardæan.
karBRgabdIm:t; Fine Grading
enAeBlEdlkarBRgabdIrdwbrdub)ancb;sBVRKb;ehIy karBRgabdIm:t;RtUv)anGnuvtþedIm,ITTYl)annUv
kMritkMBs;cugeRkay EdlGnuelameTAtambøg;BRgabdI EdlmanPaBsuRkit.
karkarBarCMerl nigRtYtBinitükarhUreRcaH slop protectin and erasion control
eTaHbICaFmμtavaminEmnCakarTTYlxusRtUvrbs;Gñkem:AkarBRgabdIk¾eday eRkayBIkarBRgabdIm:t;)an
bBa©b; karkarBarCMerl nig]bkrN_RtYtRtakarhUreRcaHCaRbcaMRtUv)antMeLIg.
karCIksñamePøaH Trench excavation
sñamePøaHéneRKOgeRbIR)as;RtUv)anCIkedIm,ICakartMrg;énesckþIesñIpøÚv nigRsTab;sMNg;sMrab;tMeLIg
eRKOgeRbIR)as;enAkardæan. karCIknig karbgðab;énsñamePøaHCaerOy² CaEpñkéndMeNIrkarBRgabdI.
enAeBlExSéneRKOgeRbIR)as;RtUv)antMelIg karP¢Ürnig karbgðab;RTnab;RKwHpøÚvRtUv)anGnuvtþnig sarFatu
RKwHRtUv)andak;ehIybgðab;.
karCIkdIsMrab;eCIgtagnig RKwH Footing and Foundation excavatin
eTaHbICaFmμtavaminEmnCaEpñkéndMeNIrkarBRgabdI EpñkRKwHnig eCIgtagRtUv)anCIkCabnþ.
5>2 eKalkarN_énkarbgðab; Compaction Foundation
Epñkd¾sMxan;énkarBRgabdIénkardæanCaerOy² rYmbBa©ÚlTaMgkarbgðab;sarFatubMeBj. karbgðab;KWCa
karbegáIndg;suIeténGgÁFatubMeBjtamviFIemkanicdMeNIrkarrUbénkareFVIeGaydImansßanPaBhab;enHGacbegáIn
PaBFn;énkMlaMgkat;pþac; kat;bnßykarEdlGachab; kat;bnßyPaBRCabTwkéndI. karmanktþaeKal4 Edl
b:HBal;dl;karbgðab;³
RbePTdI Soil Type
dIminmanlkçN³)øasÞikdUcCaxSac; nigRKYs GacRtUvbgðab;edayRbsiT§iPaBedayeRbIdMeNIrkar bgðab;

RbePTrMj½r. dIEdlmanlkçN³)øasÞik¬]TahrN_manPaBs¥it¦ dUcCa sift nigdI\dæKWmankarBi)akkñúgkarbgðab;
nigtMrUveGaymandMeNIrkarbgðab;RbePTluj b¤buinRbsBV.
RbsinebIdImanRKab;FMhYsxñat dUcCaduMRKYsfμFM nig fμ cabble GacnwgeRCotcUlCamYynwgdMeNIrkar
bgðab; nigkat;bnßyRbsiT§iPaBénkarbgðab;RKab;dIm:t;Cag.
sarFatuEdlmanlMdab;RKab; Meterial Gradation
dIEdlmanTMhMRKab;tamlMdab;l¥CaTUeTAGac nwgbgðab;bBa©ÚlkñúgsßanPaBENnCag dIEdlmanlMdab;
RKab;minl¥EdlmanTMhMRKab;esÞIrEtesμIKña.
Twkxagkñúg Water content
Water contentKWCa):ara:Em:RtsMxan;kñúgkarbgðab;dI. TwkGacCaeRKOgrMGilRKab;dIEdlCYyeGayvarGil
cUlkñúgkartMerobeGayENn. eTaHCay:agNa TwkeRcIneBk eFVIeGaydIkøayCaEq¥tTwk nigCaerOy² Bi)akkñúg
karbgðab;. eKmankMritkMBUlén Water content EdldIGacbgðab;cUlkñúgsßanPaBENnCageK Edlpþl;
edayfamBlénkarbgðab;.
RbePT Optiimum moisure content (Modified Proctor) sMrab;RbePTdIepSgKñaKW erobrab;xageRkam³
-dI\dæEdlmanlkçN³)øasÞikx<s; (CH): Optimum moisture content 18%
-dI\dæEdlmanlkçN³)øasÞikTab (CL): Optimum moisture content 12% eTA 18%
-xSac;manTMhMCalMdab;l¥ (SW): Optimum moisture content 10%
-RKYsEdlmanTMhMCalMdab;l¥ (GW): Optimum moisture content 7%
RbePTdIxøHGacnwgmanTMnak;TMngedaykMr CamYynwgkarbgðab;eday Water content.]TahrN_ Open-graded
gravel nig clean coarse sand KWmansPaBRCabTwkEdlTwkGacbgðÚrecjy:agRsYlBIdI b¤CMrujecjeRkAeday
dMeNIrkarénkarbgðab;. dIRbePTenHCaerOy²GacRtUvTukeGaysßitenAkñúgsßanPaBs¶ÜtrYcehIyrMj½reGaycUl
tMerobRKab;xSac;eGayENnaM.
CMBUkIII³
eRKagsMNg;ebtugmanq¥wgr)aeEdkBRgwgnig sMPar³ebtug
Reinforcing bar concrete sturcture and concrete meterial
3
1> sMPar³suIm:g;t_ Cementitious material

sMPar³suIm:t_rYmmanplitplCaeRcInEdlRtUv)anrlayCamYynwgTwk b¤sarFaturavd¾éTxøHeTot b¤
TaMgBIr edIm,IbegáIt)anCakMe)areRbg (cementing paste) EdlGacbegáItb¤ eFVIBum<enAeBlvaenACalkçN³)øasiÞk
b:uEnþva nwgkøayeTACaTMrg;rwgmaM. enAeBlxSac;RtUv)anbEnßmeTAkñúgkMe)areRbg vabegáIt)anCakMe)ar)ayGr.
karcUl pSMénRKYs nigxSac; eTAkñúgkMe)areRbgvakøayeTACaebtug.
1>1 RbePTénsMPar³suIm:g;t_ Type of cementitious meterials
eKmansuIm:g;t_CaeRcInRbePT ehIyviFIénkarcat;cMNat;fñak;k¾eRcInEdr. viFIénkarcat;fñak;cMNat;fñak;
mYyEdlsamBaØCageKbMput KWkarcat;cMNat;fñak;edaysarFatupSMKImI EdlCaGñkTTYlxusRtUvsMrab;kareFVIkar
nigeLIgrwgénsuIm:g;t_. enAelIeKalkrN_enH suIm:g;t_suIlIkat (silicate) nig GaluymINat (aluminate) Edl
kñúgenaHPñak;gareFVIkar (setting agent) KWkal;süÚmsuIlIkat (calsium silicate) nigkal;süÚmGaluymINat
(calcium aluminate) KWCaRkumEdlsMxan;CageKsMrab;suIm:g;t_TMenIb (modern cement) .rYmbBa©ÚlkñúgRkumenHKW
lanning/ aluminous nigsuIm:g;t_FmμCati (natural cement) .
fμkMe)ar (lime) EdlkñúgenHPaBeLIgrwg KWbNþalmkBIkarbmøas;énGuIRduksuItkmμeTACa carbonate Edl

RtUv)aneRbICadMbUgy:agTUlayCasMPar³suIm:g;t_EtmYyKt; b:uEnþkareFVIkarnig PaBeLIgrwgyWtrbs;vaminRtUvKña
nwgtMrUvkarénsuIm:g;t_TMenIb. dUcenHtYnaTICacMbgrbs;vasBVéf¶ KWlkçN³ Plastic én Harsh cement nigbEnßm
resilience eTAelI)ayGr b¤stucco. KuNRbeyaCn_énkareRbIR)as;fμkMe)arKWPaBeFVIkaryWtrbs;va)anCMrujnUvkar
Büa)al nigkarCYsCulsñameRbHdUcséssk;.
cMNat;fñak;énsuIm:g;t_epSgeTotKW )anBIkarpSMénmñagsila calcined nigplitplTak;Tgnwgva. suIm:g;t_

mñagsilaRtUv)aneRbIy:agTUlaysMrab;kMe)arbUkxagkñúg nigsMrab;plit board nig block b:uEnþPaBGacrlay)an
énmñagsila)ankarBarxøÜnva BIkareRbIR)as;sMrab;sN M g;EdlRbQmnwgGakasFatud¾éT b:uEnþl¥bMputsMrab;
GakasFatuekþA.
suIm:g;t_G‘uksuItkørIt KWCacMNat;fñak;énsuIm:g;t_BiessEdlmanlkçN³xusFmμta. tMélrbs;va)an
hamXat; kareRbIR)as;TUeTAebIeFobCamYynwgsuIm:g;t_EdlefakCag b:uEnþþsMrab;kareRbIR)as;CalkçN³Biess
dUcCaplitplkMralkarBarePøIg (sparkproof floor) eKminGacRbdUc)aneT.
suIm:g;t_sMrab;rab\dæ b¤suIm:g;t_)ayGrRtUv)aneRbIy:agTUlMTUlayedaysarEt PaBgayRsYlrbs;va.
CaTUeTAenAeBlvaRtUv)anlayedaysuIm:g;t_mYyRbePTkñúgcMeNamsuIm:g;t_Edl)anerobrab;xagelICamYynwgTwk
fñaMKImIxøH vasmnwgTTYlnUvkarcab;GarmμN_BiessedaysarPaBsnSMsMécrbs;va.
sMPar³suIm:g;t_epSgeTotdUcCa polymer/ fly ash nig silica fume GacRtUveRbIsuIm:g;t_CMnYssMrab;ebtug.
Plomer KWCa Plastic EdlmanRcvak;mU:elKulEvg. ebtugEdllayedaysuIm:gt;RbePTenHman KuNPaB
x<as;CagebtugedaysIum:g;t_Fmμta.
Silica fume EdlRtUv)ansÁal;Ca microsilica EdrenaHKWplitplsMNl;BIkardutedayLFñÚrGKÁisnI
(electric- arc funaces) . silica manRbtikmμCamYynwgfμkMe)arbegáIt)anCasMPar³suIm:g;t_enAkñúgebtug. bMENk
énfume manGgát;p©itEt 1° énbMENkGgát;p©itsuIm:g;t_.

1>2 suIm:g;t_Br½ELn (Portland Cement)
smasFatusMxan;mYy ¬fμkMe)ar (Cao), Edk(Fe o ), silica (Sio ) nig alumina (Al O ) ¦ nigsmasFatu
2 3 2 2 3
bnÞab;bnSM2eTot ¬mñagsila (CaSO -2H 0) nig magnesia (MgO) ¦ KWCavtßúFatuedIm. RbePTsarFatu

4 2
calcareous (CaO) )anmkBIfμkMe)ar (limestone), calcite, mail b¤fμPaCn_ (shale) nigxSac; (sand) . sarFatu
argillaceous( SiO nig Al2O3) )anmkBIkarTajykBIdI\dæ ¬Clay¦/ fμPaCn_¬Shale¦ nigxüac; (Sand) .

2
sarFatuEdleRbIsMrab;plitRbePTsuIm:g;t_Cak;lak;myY KWGaRs½yeTAnwgTItaMgeragcRkplit nigPaBEdl

Gacrk)annUvvtßúFatuedI.
suIm:g;t_B½rELnGacplitBIplitpl ]sSahkmμCaeRcInRbePT. kñúgkarplitsuIm:g;t_dMbUgvtßúFatuedIm
RtUv)anykecjBIEr:rYcehIykineGayeTACaem:SAmunnwglayRcbUkCamYynwgsmasFatuEdlerobcMCamuneRsc.
karlayRcbUkKW eFVIeLIgedayLdutkMedAEdlvilenAEpñkxagcugx<s;CageK edaykMedABI2600 eTA 3000 F º
EdldutedayeRbg ]sμ½n b¤famBlFüÚgfμ. edaysarkarplitsuIm:g;t_KWCa dMeNIrkarplitEdlRtUvkarfamBl

d¾sMebIm ]bkrN_kMedA nigbMerIbMras;d¾éTeToteRkABI RbPB\n§n³ dUcCaC½rekAs‘Ucas;²
RtUv)aneRbIedIm,Ikat;bnßyéfø \n§n³. ¬kardutekAs‘Ukg;pþl;kMedAedIm,Iplit Clinker nigdutExSRkv:at;
Edkpþl;[FatupSMénEdk¦. kareFVI[ sItuNðPaBeLIgx<s;KW edIm,IFatuKImIénvtßúFatuedIm rlaycUlKña
begáIt)anCaduMtUc²rwgEdleKehAfa clinker. bnÞab;BITukeGayRtCak; duMtUc² clinker RtUv)andak;eGayqøgkat;
ball mill nigkinbMEbkeTACaPaKl¥itepH Edl PaKl¥itTaMgenHnwgRtUvErgqøgkat;kERBa¢gelx 200 (75µm)
CaBiess. kñúgGMLúgeBlenHkarkinbMEbk sarFatumñagsilaRtUv)anbEnßmkñúgbrimaNd¾tictYcedIm,IRtYtRtanUv

sItuNðPaBnig Fanadl;kareFVIkarénsuIm:g;t_ eTogTat;. sMPar³EdlRtUvqøgkat; ball mill KWCasIum:g;t_ lanning.
CaFmμtavaRtUv)an lk;CakBa©b;suIm:gt_ EdlmanTMgn; 941b.
ebtugEdlFmμtaCageKeRbIsMrab;suIm:g;t_ lanning KWCasMPar³saMjauMEdlmanrYm suIm:g;t_ lanning RKYs
xSac; Twk nigTwkfñaMKImI nig Er:epSgeTotEdlGacrk)an. kareRbIR)as;suIm:g;t_ lanning EtÉgKWkMrNas;EdleRbI
sMrab;dUcCa)ayGrsuIm:g;t_sMrab;bMeBj Wellhole b¤bMeBj fine grout . dUcenH vamansarsMxan;Nas;kñúgkar
RtYtBinitüTMnak;TMngrvaglkçN³epSg² énsIum:g;t_ lanning nig\T§iBld¾manskþanuBlrbs;vaeTAelIebtugcug
bBa©b;. CaTUeTAebtugsIum:gt;B½rELnRtUv)aneRCIserIssMrab;kargarsMNg;eRKagBIeRBaH edaysarPaBFn;én
kMlaMg nigPaBeRbIR)as;)anyUrGEgVgrbs;va. PaBFn;énkMlaMgKWGacvas;)any:aggay nigGaceRbIsMrab;Ca
smasPaBcg¥úlbgðajeday pÞal;CalkçN³TUeTAénPaBeRbIR)as;)anyUréneRKagTaMgRsug. PaBeRbIR)as;)an
yUrGEgVgCak;lak;minGacvas; )anedaygayeT b:uEnþvaGacbBa¢ak;y:agc,as;edaykarRtYtRta énlkçN³KImI
énsuIm:g;t_niglkçN³fμbMEbk.
1>3 suIm:g;t_GaluymIj:Úm Aluminous Cement
l,ayénvtßúFatu aluminous nig calcareous ¬CaTUeTA bauxite nigkMe)ar ¦ RtUv)anerobcMedaykarrMlay
cUlKñanig karkinbMEbkénplitplpÁÜb edIm,IeGay)anCaemSAm:t;.
suIm:g;t_enHRtUv)ankMNt;lkçN³edaylkçN³ énkarqab;rwgqab; nwgPaBFn;énkMlaMgeLIgx<s;enAeBl
EdlvaGayux©IenAeLIy.
enAeBlEdlbrimaNkMedAeRcInRtUvedaHElgy:agelOnedaysuIm:g;t_ aluminous kñúgGMLúgeBl
GuIRdatkmμ GñkKYrRbytñ½kuMeRbIsuIm:g;t_dak;bBa©ÚlkñúgeBlEdlkMedAminGacrsay. CaTUeTA eKminR)afñadak;
ebtugsuIm:gt¾ aluminous eTAkñúg lift Edlx<s;Ca 12Guin ebIeTaHbICasItuNðPaBekIneLIgvaGacbNþaleGay

ebtugcuHexSayPaBFn;CaxøaMg.
suIm:g;t_ aluminous manPaBFn;eTAnwgskmμPaBénTwks‘ulpatxøaMgCagsuIm:g;t_ lanning. vaemIlBIxag
eRkAeTAdUcCamanPaBFn;nwgkarvayRbharedayTwkEdl mansarFatuQøanBan carbon dioxide b¤GasuItEr:
exSayxøaMgCasuIm:g;t_suIlIkat. eKalkarN_énkareRbIR)as;vaenAkñúgebtug KWenAeBlEdlPaBFn;énkMlaMg
x<s;qab;CaGtßRbeyaCn_ b¤edayPaBFn;éns‘ulpatrbs;va nigenAeBlEdl tMélbEnßménsuIm:g;t_ minEmnCa
ktþa sMxan;.
bMerIbMras;epSgeToténsuIm:g; aluminous KWrYmpSMCamYynwg firebrick edIm,IbegáItCaebtugFn;nwgkMedA
(refractory concrete) . enAeBlEdlsItuNðPaBekIneLIg karykFatuTwkecjBIplitplGuIRdatkmμGacekIt
eLIg. TIbMput smasFatuenHbegáItCa ceramic bond CamYynwgfμbMEbk.

1>4 suIm:g;t_FmμCati Natural Cements
sIum:g;t_FmμCatiRtUv)anbegáIt edaykarduteGayeTACapHedayFmμCatinUvl,ayEdl)anekItBIsarFatu
calcareous nig argillaceous enAsItuNðPaBeRkamGVIEdl sintering ykmkeRbIkar. enAeBlEdlsuIm:g;t_FmμCati
RtUv)andkecjBIvtßúFatuEdlekIteLIgedayFmμCatinig KμankarxMRbwgNamYyRtUv)aneFVIeGayEktMrUvsmasPaB
TaMgsmasPaB niglkçN³ERbRbYllμmy:agTUlMTUlay. suIm:gt_FmμCatixøH GaclkçN³esÞIrEtdUcKñanwg
suIm:g;t_ lanning suIm:g;t_FmμCatiepSgeTotmanPaBexSayxøaMgCag. suIm:g;t_FmμCatiRtUv)aneRbICaTUeTAenAkñúg
kMe)ar)ayGr (masonry mortar) nigeRbICaTwkfñaMKImIenAkñúgebtugsuIm:g;t_ lanning.
1>5 kMe)ar Limes
kMe)arenHRtUv)anbegáItCaTUeTAedaykal;süÚmG‘uksuIt (CaO) EdlkekIteLIgCaFmμCatienAkñúgfμkM)ar
(limestone) / fμm:ab (marble), chalk, coral nigsMbkxüg (Shell) .sMrab;eKalbMNgsMNg;GaKar vaRtUveRbICa
hiefly enAkñúgkMe)ar)ayGr.
Hydaulic lime
kMe)arenHbegáItBIkarduteGayeTACaepHénfμkMe)arEdlmansarFatu silica nig aluminia enAsItuNðPaB
d¾xøI énkarrMlaybBa©ÚlKñaEdleTIbnwgcab;maneLIg EdlbegáItCa kMe)aresrIRKb;RKan; edIm,IGnuBaØatidl;
GuIRdatkmμ nigkñúgeBlCamYyKñabeBa©jnUvkal;süÚmsuIlIkatRKb;RKan;EdlmineFVIGuIRdatkmμedIm,I[Ca em:SAs¶Üt
lkçN³ hydraulic rbs;va.
edaysarEtkarpSMy:agTabénsuIlIkat nigkMe)ary:agx<s; kMe)ar hydraulic manTMnak;TMngy:agexSay.

eKrkeXIjkareRbIR)as;CaeKalkarN_enAkñúgkMe)ar)ayGr. kMe)arGuIRdUlItmansuIlIkateRcInCag10° nwg
kkenAeRkamTwk.
Quicklime
enAeBlEdlfñkMe)arRtUvdutkMedAenAsItuNðPaBhYsBI 17008F
sarFatu]sμ½nkabUnDIGuksuItnwgRtUv )andkecj nigplitplrwgEdlenAsl;KW Quicklime.
CaBiessvaman]sμ½nkal;süÚmGuksuIt nigm:aej:süÚm
GuksuItbUknwgsarFatuminsuT§dUcCasuIlIkatGuksuItEdkGuksuIt nig GaluymIjÚ:mGuksuIt. CaFmμta sarFatu
minsuT§RtUv)ankMNt;eGayticCag5°. RbsinebIeRcInCag 10°plitplenHGackøayCakMe)ar hydraulic.
QuicklimeRtUv)aneKsÁal;fa vaman2cMNat;fñak; KWkal;süÚmx<s; (high-calcium) nig dolomitic.
Quicklime Edlmankal;süÚmx<s;CaFmμtamanm:aejsüÚmG‘uksuItticCag5°. dolomitic quicklime CaFmμta
manm:aejsüÚmBI35° eTA 40°. Quick tictYcEdlmaneKrkeXIjfa ma nm:aej:süÚmG‘uksuItBI 5°eTA35°

EdleKehAfa magnesian lime. lkçN³d¾RbesIrén quicklime KWsmtßPaBénkarlayCamYyTwk. enAeBl
quick lime RtUv)anlay 2 eTA 3 dgénbrimaNTwkeFobCamYynwgTMgn;rbs;va RbtikmμKImIcab;epþImekItman.
kal;süÚmGuksuItpSMCamYyTwkbegáIt)anCakal;süÚmGuIRduksuIt ehIykMedARKb;RKan;RtUv)anbegáItCalMdab;
edIm,IeFVI eGaym:asTaMgGs;RtUvBuH. CalT§plplitplénkarbMEbkFatu kal;süÚmGuIRduksIuty:agesþIg
RtUv)anGENþtkñúg elIépÞTwk ¬nigm:aej:süÚmGuksuIt b¤GuIRduksuIt RbsinebI dolomitic RtUv)aneRbIR)as;va¦.
enAeBlRtCak; GgÁFatum:as;Bak;kNþalrav (semifluide) rwgeTACadIElgRbkdedaysgÁt;PaB RtUv)ancUkeLIg
edayEb:l b¤ekIb dak;Fug. dIElg Quicklime layTwkenH enAeBlRtCak;ehIyeKcUlcitþykeTAErg
EdlCasMPar³EdlRtUveRbIR)as;sMrab;sMNg;. Quicklime KYrEtgEtRtUv)andak;layTwkeGaysBV.
TinñpléndIElgvaERbRbYl GaRs½yelIRbePTén Quicklime kMritdWeRkénkardutkMedA niglkçN³énkar
layTwk nigCaFmμtaTTYl)an 70 eTA 100 ft KIbéndIElgelI quickliem 1 ton. eKalkarN_énkareRbIR)as;
dIElgKWenAkñúgkMe)ar)ayGr enAkEnøgEdlvamantMéléRkElg edaysarEtkMrit)øasÞikrbs;vax<s; b¤PaBgay
RsYleFVIkarrbs;vacUlrYmenAkñúg)ayGr. vak¾RtUv)aneRbIkñúgeBldUcCaTwkfñaMKImIenAkñúgebtugEdr edIm,IbegáIt
PaBgayRsYleFVIkar. vak¾RtUv)aneRbIenAkEnøgxøHdUcCa RsTab;kMe)arbUkbegðIyEdr
EdlKuNsm,tþid¾l¥rbs;va )anmkBIkMrit)øasÞikd¾x<s;rbs;va.
Mson’s hydrated lime
hydrated lime RtUv)anerobcMBI quicklime edaykarbEnßmnUvbrimaNkMNt; énTwkeTAlIva. bnÞab;BI

GuIRdatkmμbBaÄb;edIm,IvivtþkMedA plitplCalT§plKWCa emSAm:t;s¶Üt. bnÞab;mkvaRtUv)ancMnat;fñak;edayvIFI
aiz-classification edIm,IykecjnUvTMhMRKab;l¥itEdleKminR)afñacg;)anehIy manTMhMFMCagxñat ehIyRckkñúg
fg;EdlmanTMgn; 50lb. vaEtgEtCaplitplEdlplitedayeragcRk EdlcMENkÉdIElg quicklime

PaKeRcInEtg EtCaplitplEdl)anBIkarlayenAnwgkEnøgkargar.
Mason’s hydrated lime KWCa hydrated lime EdlsmRsbeRbICamYykMe)ar)ayGr kMe)arbUkRsTab;
base-coat nigebtug. vacaM)ac;GnuvtþtamsmasPaBén Quicklime. hydrated lime

Edlmankal;süÚmx<s;RtUv )anpSMeLIgCadMbUgedaykal;süÚmGuIRduksIut. hydrated lime dolomitic
FmμtaRtUv)anpSMeLIgedaykal;süÚm GuIRdúksuItbUknwg m:aej:süÚmGuIRduksuIt.
lkçN³)øasÞikénkMe)ar)ayGrEdleFVIBI mason’s hydrated lime Fmμta ¬RbePT N¦ KWmanlkçN³mFüm.
vamanlkççN³l¥RbesIrCagkarlayedaysuIm:g;t_PaKeRcIn b:uEnþvaminman lkçN³x<s;esμInwgkMe)ar)ayGr
EdllayedaybrimaNesμIKña éndIElglayTwkeT. dMeNIrkarFmμtaén GuIRdatkmμ énQuicklime
enAsMBaFbriyakaspþl;nUvGuIRdatkmμénkal;süÚmGuksuItnwgbMElgeTACam:aejsüÚm GuIRdUsuIt.
lT§plenHRtUv)aneGayeQμaHy:agdUcenHfa special hydrated ¬RbePT S ¦EdlminEmnmanEtsarFatu
sMxan; magnesia cUlrYmGuIRdatkmμsBVeT b:uEnþvamankMrit)øasÞikx<s;Pøam² enAeBlvaesImedayTwk. kMe)ar)ay
GrEdllayBIRbePT S gayRsYleFVIkarCag)ayGrlayCamYyRbePT N.
tamBit hydrated lime RbePT S gayRsYleFVIkaresÞIrEtdUc)ayGrlayCamYydIElg Quicklime Edr
ehIydUcenHGñkeRbIR)as; Hydrated lime RbePTenHmanPaBgayRsYledaysarplitplenHRckkñúgkBa©b; nig
mankMriténkargayRsYleFVIkarx<s;edayKμaneRKaHfñak; EdlGacekItmandUc Quick lime layTwkeT.
Finishing hydrated lime
Finishing Hydrated lime saksmübMputsMrab;eRbIR)as;enAkñúgkMe)arbUkRsTab;begðIy. vaRtUv)an
kMNt;lkçN³edaykMritBN’sx<s; nigkMrit)aøsÞikx<s;. RKb; Finishing Hydrated lime RtUv)anplit
CaBiessenAkñúg Rsuk Toledo énekaH Ohio BIfμkMe)ar Dolomitic. kMe)ar Hydrate FmμtapSMeLIgeday
kal;süÚmGuIRduksuIt nig m:aej:süÚmGuksuIt. enAeBlvaesImdMbUg vamanlkçN³)øasÞikmanxøaMgdUc mason’s
hydrated lime RbePT NeT. eTaHbICay:agNa vamanPaBxusKñaenAeBleRkay EdleRkayBIkarRtaMTwk
eBjmYyyb; Finishing hydrated lime begáInnUvkMrit)øasÞikrbs;vax<s;Nas;Edl mason’s hydarted Lime
bgðajnUvTMnak;TMngénPaBlUt las;énlkçN³)øasÞiky:agtictYcenAeBlRtaMTwk.
1>6 suIm:g;t_erob\dæ Masonry ament
suIm:g;t_erob\dæ (masonry cement) b¤CYnkaleKcUlcitþehAehAsuIm:g;t_kMe)ar)ayGr (motar cement)
EdlRtUv)anlayCamYynwgxSac; nigeRbIsMrab;begáItCaCBa¢aMg\dædUcCa \dæ kar:U nigfμ. vaGacCaRbePTmYyén
suIm:g;t_GuIRdUlIkEdl)anbriyayrYcehIy b¤karlayrbs;vaenAkñúgsmamaRtNamYy.
suIm:g;t_erob\dætamEbbBaNiC¢kmμxøHRtUv)anlaybBa©ÚlKñaedaysuIm:g;t_ lanning nigkMTicepHpg;fμ
kMe)ar (limestone) CaerOy² mansmamaRtfμkMe)areRcIn 50° b¤60°. enAeBlEdlKμankarkMNt;BIsarFatu
KImInig tMrUvkarlkçN³rUb lkçN³bBa¢ak;y:agc,as;BIsuIm:g;t_erob\dæ KWmanlkçN³esrICamFüm.
plitkrxøH )anERbRbYlnUvsmasFatuy:agTUlMTUlayGaRs½yeTAnwgkarRbkYtRbECg lkçxNÐGakasFatu
b¤vtßúFatuesIm EdlGacrk)an. lT§plénkMe)ar)ayGrGacmanlkçN³ERbRbYly:agxøaMg.
1>7 Fly ashes
Pozzolans FmμCatiRtUv)anykecjBI diatomaceous earth/ opaline ehets nig fμPaCn_ (shales) nig
sarFatuepSgeTot.
Fly ashes RtUv)anplitecjBIcMehHFüÚgfμCaTUeTA enAkñúgsßanIym:asuInGKÁisnI (electrical generating
station) . kMeTcepHEdlCaFmμta RtUv)anykecjtamry³bMBg;EpSgEdlykecjtamviFICaeRcIndUcCa
electrostatic precipitators. Fly ash GacRtUvmanTMhMeTAtamkardwkCBa¢Úntamk):al;rbs;GñkpÁt;pÁg;ebtug.
Fly ahses TaMgGs;manlkçN³ Pozzolan EdlGacmanlT§PaBcUlrYmRbtikmμCamYynwg

kal;süÚmGuIRduksuItenAsItuNðPaBFmμtaedImbegáItCasmasPaBCamYynwglkçN³suIm:g;t_.
enAeBlEdlsuIm:g;t_RtUv)anlayCamYynwgTwk RbtikmμKImI ¬GuIRdatkmμ¦ nigekIteLIg. lT§plén
RbtikmμenH KW calcium silicate hydrated (CSH) nigkal;süÚmGuIRduksuIt [Ca(OH) ] . Fly ashes manPaKryén
2
suIlIkUnDIGuksuIt (SiO ) x<s;. enAeBlEdlmanvtþmanCamYynwgsMeNIm Ca(OH) eFVIRbtikmμCamYynwg SiO

2 2 2
edIm,ITTYl)an CSH epSgeTot. Fly ashes RbePT F )anBIlT§plénkardutFüÚgfμexμAPøW (anthracite) rWFüÚgfñ

ekAs‘Ub‘ÍTIm (bituminous) nwgmansarFatu Pozzolan. vaRtUv)anbgðajedaykarRsavRCavnig GnuvtþedIm,Ipþl; nUv
PaBrIkcMerInCaTUeTAénPaBFn;nwg sulfate nigedIm,Ikat;bnßynUvPaBrIkraldalénfμ alkali. Fly ahses RbePT
C )anBIlT§plénkardutFüÚgfμ lignite rWFüÚgfμ subbituminous. edaysarEtlkçN³KImIénFüÚgfμ fly ashes

RbePTC manlkçN³suIm:g;t_edaybEnßmeTAkñúgsarFatu Pozzolon. Fly ash RbePT C Gackat;bnßyPaByUr
GEgVgénebtug EdlvacUlrYmlaybBa©ÚlKña.
2> fμbMEbk Aggregate
fμbMEbkKWCadak;bBa©ÚlKñanUvsarFatuCaeRcIndUcCafμ boulder, fμ cobble, fμkinbMEbk (crushed stone) fμ
gravel, fμ aircooled blast furnace slage, xSac;FmμCati b¤xSac;sib,nimiμtþ nigRKYssib,nimiμtþ nig RKYsFmμCati
Rsal. fμbμ MEbkGacRtUv)anBN’naeTAtamTMhMCaeRcIneTot.

2>1 fμbMEbkTMgn;Fmμta Normal –weigth aggregates
fμbMEbkRbePTenHmandg;suIetxniC (specific gravity) enAcenøaH 2>0 nig 3>0. CaTUeTAvaRtUv)anEck
eTAtamTMhMxageRkam³
fμ Bounder manTMhMFMCag 6in
fμ Cobble mancenøaH 3in eTA 6in
RKYs (coarse aggregate) manTMhMcenøaHkERBa©g Nº 4 eTA 3in
xSac; (fine aggregate) manTMhMcenøaHkERBa©g Nº 200 eTA Nº 4
sarFatum:t;epHpg; (miniral filler material) qøgkat;kERBa©gelx Nº200
fμbMEbkTMgn;Fmμta EdleRbIenAkñúgsMNg;ebtugPaKeRcIn KW)anBIkarbUmBI)atTenø b¤CIkykBIkñúgdI
nig )anBIkarbMEbkvtßúFatuepSg². ebtugEdlman)anBIkarlayCamYynwgRKYs nigxSac;TMgn;FmμtaCaTUeTAman
TMgn;RbEhl 144 lb/ . 1ft
3
fμ Bounder nigfμ Cobble CaTUeTAmin)aneRbItamTMhMEdl)anEdl)anCIkBIkñúgdIeT b:uEnþRtUv)ankinbMEbk

edIm,IeGaymanTMhMepSg²CaRKYs (coarse aggreagate) xSac;sib,kmμ (manufactured –sand) nigkMeTcepHpg;
(mineral filler) . RKYs gravel nigxSac;EdlekIteLIgedayFmμCatiRtUv)anekIteLIgedayskmμPaBénTwknig
karpøas;bþÚrrdUvkal nigkarnaMykdImkcak;kñúg)atTenø. sarFatuTaMgenHmanragmUl épÞrelag nigkarEbgEck

TMhMénRKab;edaydMeNIrkary:agtictYc. sarFatuTaMgenHGacpÁt;pÁg;tamTMhMCaRKYsnig xSac;.
xSac;KWCasarFatuEdlqøgkat;kERBa©gTMhM 3¼8 in 100%. RKYsmanvtßúFatuEdlmanTMhMeTIelIkERBa©g

elx 4.
fμbMEbkmanbrimaNmaDKitCaPaKryeRcInCageK enAkñúgebtugsuIm:g;t_ lanning kMe)ar)ayGr b¤
asphaltic concrete . enAkñúgkarlayCaebtugsuIm:g;t_ lanning RKYsnwgxSac;cUlrYmRbEhlBI 65 eTA 70° én
maDrbs;l,aysarub. sMrab; asphaltic concrete fμbMEbkcUlrYm 75 eTA 85°énmaDrbs;l,ay. CalT§pl

fμμbMEbk KWCasarFatubMeBjminkMerIk. lkçN³fμbMEbkGacbgðajBI\T§iBleTAelIRbBn½§CIvit nigPaByUr GEgVg
énebtugEdlRKYsfμbMEbkRtUv)aneRbIdUcCasuIm:g;t_ lanning , asphaltic concrete, kMe)ar)ayGr b¤fμRkal RKwHfñl;
(aggregate base) .
karGnuBaØati[eRbIR)as;RKYs b¤xSac;sMrab;layenAkñúgebtug b¤kMe)ar)ayGr KWvinicä½yedaylkçN³Ca

eRcInrYmmandUcCa karErgkMNt;TMhMRKab; (gradation) brimaNxSac;qøgkat;kERBa©g Nº 200, PaBrwg (hardness) ,
soudness, TMrg;RKab;/ PaBlMnwgénmaD (volume stability) RbtikmμeTAnwg alkili y:agskþanuBl (potential alkali
reactivity) PaBFn;eTAnwgkarkkCaTwkkk nigkarrlayénTwkkk (resistance to freezing and thawing) nig
sarFatuxniCminsuT§.
2>2 fμbMEbkEdlmanTMgn;F¶n;nig Rsal Heavy weigth and light weigth aggregate
fμbMEbkTMgn;F¶n;rYmman magnitite Edlmandg;suIetxniC (specific gravity) 4>3 barite mandg;suIet
xniC 4>2 limonit mandg;suIetxniC 3>8 EdkpUsV½rmandg;suIetxniC 6>3 nigkMeTcEdkmandg;suIetxniC 7>4.
fμbMEbkTMgn;F¶n;xagelIGaceRbICMnYsfμ gravel b¤fμkinbMEbkedIm,IbegáItCaebtugd¾ENntan;.
fμbMEbkTMgn;Rsal light weigth aggregate
vaGacEbgEckCaBIrRbePTKW eRKagsMNg; (structural) nigminEmneRKagsMNg; (nonstructural) . va)an
BIkarplit ¬eFVIBIdI\dæ/ fμPaCn_ b¤silaqñÜn (slate) b¤kMeTcGamn_ EdkpÞúHecjBIL (blast furnace slage) b¤eday
FmμCati (scoria nig pumice) . fμbMEbkenHGacbegáItCaebtugEdlmanPaBFn; nwgkMlaMgTUeTAenAcenøaHBI
3000 eTA 4000 psi PaBFn;énkMlaMgx<s;CagenHk¾GaceFVI)an. TMgn;Éktaxül;s¶Üt (air-dry unit weigth) én
PaBFn;énkMlaMgx<s;CagenHk¾GaceFVI)an. TMgn;Éktaxül;s¶Üt (aiz-dry unit weght) énPaBFn;énkMlaMgFmμta
énebtugTMgn;Rsal ¬ticCag 5000psi¦ enAcenøaHBI100 eTA 115 pcf . PaBFn;Edlx<s;énebtugTMgn;Rsal
manTMgn;Ékta (unitweight) kñúgcenøaH 120pcf.
fμbMEbkTMgn;RsalminEmneRKagsMNg;FmμtaKW vermiculite nig perlite sUm,IEt scoria nig pumice

k¾GacRtUv)aneRbIEdr. sMPar³TaMgenHRtUv)aneRbIenAkñúgebtugEdlmankMralxNÐ½GuIsULg; karBarsMelg nig
kMralminEmneRKagxagelIeK. fμbMEbkTMgn;RsalbegáItebtugEdlmankarcMlgkMedATab Edlmankar
karBarePøIg)anl¥esμIKña. enAeBlebtugenHRbQmnwgkMedAxøaMg bMputsMeNImEdlmanenAkñúgebtug)anERbkøay
y:agqab;BIPaBrav eTACacMhayEdlmanmaDrhUtdl;15dgFMCagmun. cMnYnrn§es<atd¾eRcIn nigmanTMhMFMenA
cenøaHfμbMEbkTMgn;Rsal)anbegáIttMbn;sMBaFFUrRsal (pressure relief region) .
3> TwkfñaMKImIsMrab;ebtug Admixture for concrete
TwkfñaMKImIKWCasarFatuepSgeTotBI suIm:g;t_ lanning Twk nigfμbMEbkEdlRtUv)anbEnßmeTAkñúgebtug
edIm,IEkERblkçN³rbs;ebtug. rYmbBa©ÚleTAkñúgGtßn½yenHvaKWTwkfñaMKImI TwkfñaMEr: dUcCa fly ash nig silica fume
sarFatukarBareRcH/ sarFatuEfmBN’ sarFatusésrsURt nigepSg² ¬CMnYykarbUm/ karBarsMeNIm/
bgá]sμ½n/ Pñak;garkat;bnßykarRCab¦.
3/1 TwkfñaMKImIBIKImI nig BIEr: Chimical and mineral admixture
TwkfñaMKImIRtUv)aneRbICaTUeTAenAkñúgebtugCaGgÁFatuCYykat;bnßybrimaNTwk GgÁFatuBenøÓn nigBnüWt
eBlkk b¤CaGgÁFaturYmpSM.
A GgÁFatubnßybrimaNTwk
B GgÁFatuBnüWteBlkkrwg
C GgÁFatuBenøÓneBlkkrwg
D GgÁFatubnßybrimaNTwk nigBnüWteBlkkrwg
E GgÁFatubnßybrimaNTwk nigBnøÓneBlkkrwg
F GgÁFatubnßybrimaNTwk kMritx<s;
G GgÁFatubnßybrimaNTwk kMritx<s;nigBnüWteBlkkrwg
TwkfñaMKImIkMritx<s;kat;bnßybrimaNTwk EdlcaM)ac;cUlrYmbegáItCaebtugCaBiessedayminpøas;bþÚr
12° b¤eRcInCagenH.
TwkfñaMKImIkat;bnßybrimaNTwk Water-reducing admixture
TwkfñaMenH)ankat;bnßytMrUvkarTwksMrab;layebtugedayeFVIRbtikmμKImICamYynwg
plitplGuIRdakmμ )anqab;eLIgedIm,IbegáItRsTab;TwkfñaMKImI m:UNUm:UelKulenATwksuIm:g;t_.
RsTab;enH)anEjkRKab;suIm:g;t_ nig kat;bnßytMrUvkarfamBledIm,IeFVIeGayl,ayenH)anhUr.
dUcenHl,ayenHKW “lubricated” nwgCMrujeGayRKab; suIm:g;t_cUlrYmGuIRdatkmμ.
TwkfñaMKImIkat;bnßybrimaNTwkCaFmμtaplitBIGasuIt Lignosulfnic nig GMbilrbs;va
GasuItkabUksuIlicGuIRduksuIt nigGMbilrbs;va b¤ polymer Edl)anBI melamine b¤ naphthalene rWGuIRdUkabUns‘ul
pUNat. bnSMénTwkfñaMKImIEdleRbIenAkñúgl,ayebtugKYrEtRtUvRtYtBinitü nigeFVIBiesaFy:agRbugRbytñ½ edIm,I
Fanafa lkçN³EdleKcg;)anRtUv)anTTYl. ]TahrN_GaRs½yeday kMritlay (dosage) énTwkfñaMKImI nig
lkçN³KImIénsuIm:g;t_ vaGacmanlT§PaBeFVIeGayTwkfñaMKImIBnüWtkarkk nigBenøÓnkarkkrwgénebtug. vak¾
bgðaj nUvkarkt;sMKal;fa TwkfñaMKImIEdlCMrujkarkkrwgFmμta nigBnüWtkarkkRbsinebIkMritlayman
brimaNelIs. elIsBIenHeTot edaysarEtPaBxusKñaenAkñúgPaKry énduMsUlItrvagplitpl )anBI
Rkumh‘unepSgeTotvaEtg EtminmanTMnak;TMngKñaedaypÞal;rvagTwkfñaMKImIEdlmancMNat;fñak;dUcKña. dUcenH
vamansar³sMxan;kñúgkarkMNt;smasPaBKImIy:agRbugRbytñ½ enAeBlRtYtBinitükarRbkYtRbECgénTwkfñaMKImI.
TwkfñaMKImIEdlbegáItBBuHxül; Air-Entraining Admixture
TwkfñaMenH)anbegáItBBuHxül;d¾EsntUcbMputCaeRcInEdlmanenAkñúgebtug edIm,IkarBarebtugBIeGanPaB
bNþalmkBIskmμPaBRcMEdlénkarkk nigkarrlayénTwkkk b¤karEsþgénkarQøanBanénsarFatuKImI.
sMrab;ebtug EdlRbQmnwgkarkk énkarrlayRcMdEdl enaHBBuHxül;pþl;nUvbnÞb;sMrab;rIkdalénTwk
xageRkA nigxagkñúgEdleTaHCay:agNavaGacbNþaleGayeRKaHfñak;dl;ebtug. enAeBlEdlebtugEdlman
BBuHxül;RCabecjmanvisalPaBtictYcCag ebtugKμanBBuHxül;enaHvanigekItmansésqμatictYcbnøayBIsñÚl
énebtugdl;épÞxageRkA. dUecñHsésqμad¾tictYcenHCapøÚvcUlénkarQøanBanénsarFatuKImIeTAkñúgebtug.
TwkfñaMKImIBenøÓnkarkk Set-accelerating admixture
vaRtUv)aneRbIsMrab;kat;bnßyeBlevlaBIcab;epþImlayTwkeTAkñúgsuIm:g;t_ dMbUgénkarcab;dMeNIrkar nig
begáInGaRtaénPaBFn;énkMlaMgEdlTTYl)anedayebtug. TwkfñaMKImIBenøÓnkarkkEdlRtUv)aneRbICaFmμta
eRcInCageK KWkal;süÚmkørIt. eTaHCay:agNa kareRbIR)as;rbs;va KWRbqaMgkñúgkrNIEdlEdkBRgwgnig Edk
prestressing manvtþman. mUlehturbs;va KWfavamanlT§PaBfa GgÁFatuBenøÓnnigbBa©Úly:agesrInUvEdkkørIt
eTAkñúgebtug dUecñHvanwgbgáeGaymaneRcHsuIEdk. PaBEbøkKñaénkareRbIR)as;Twk fñaMKImImYykñúgcMeNamTwkfñaM

KImIEdlminmansarFatukørIt RtUv)aneRbI.
TwkfñaMKImIBnüWtkarkk Retarding Admixture
sMrab;visalPaBxøH TwkfñaMKImIkat;bnßybrimaNTwkFmμtaTaMgGs;BnüWtkarkkdMbUgénebtug.
TwkfñaMKImIsarFatuEr: Mineral Admixture
Fly ashes, pozzolans nig microsilicates RtUv)anbBa©ÚleTAnwgcMNat;fñak;fñaMTwkfñaMKImIsarFatuEr:. eBl

xøHsuIm:g;t_FmμtaGaceRbICaTwkfñaMKImI.
karkarBareRcHsuI Corrosion inhibitor
CaTUeTAEdkBRgwgenAkñúgebtugRtUv)ankarBarRbqaMgnwgeRcHsuIedaysarFatu alkalinity
y:agx<s;énebtug Edl begáItnUvRsTab;GskmμenABIelIépÞEdk. RsTab;enHmansmasFatuEdkGuksuIt (ferric

oxide) EdlCasarFatulMnwg. eTaHCay:agNa enAkñúg b¤enABIelIépÞénEdkGuksuIt (ferric oxid)
KWCasmasFatuEdkGuksuIt (ferrous oxid compound) EdlmanRbtikmμy:agxøaMg. enAeBlEdlsmasFatu

EdkGuksuItcUleTATak;TgCamYynwg sarFatuQøanBan dUcCa chloride oxide vaeFVIRbtikmμCamYyGuksuIEsn
edIm,IbegáItCaduMsUlIt plitpleRcHEdk GuksuIt (iron-oxide corrosion product) . lT§plenH)anbegáIn
TMhMmaDrbs;va4dg nigbegáItkMlaMgrIkFak;kan; EtFMCagPaBFn;énkMlaMgTajpþac;énebtug. lT§plenHkan;Et
eFVIeGayebtugmanlkçN³y:ab;yWnEfmeTot.
enAeBlEdleRcHsuIcab;epþImkekIt vtþmanrbs; chloride enAcenøaHBI1 eTA 1>5lb/yd . ]TahrN_

3
RbsinebIGacmanlT§PaB chloride GacRCabcUlBIxageRkAsñÚlebtug edayykTwkkkecjBIGMbil ebtugGac

RtUv)ankarBaredaypleFobTwk nigsuIm:g;t_kan;EtTabeLIg² b¤begáInbrimaNRKb;dNþb;elIEdkBRgwg b¤BBuH
xül;mankñúgebtug b¤bEnßmTwkfñaMKImIEdlmansarFatukal;süÚmnIRtat rWbEnßmTwkfñaMKImIr)aMgxagkñúg (internal-
barrier) b¤karBarkartUt (cathodic protection) b¤CabnSMénvIFITaMgenH.
edIm,IkarBareRcHsuI TwkfñaMKImI kal;süÚmnIRtatRtUv)anbEnßmeTAkñúgebtugkñúgeBlkMBuglaymþgeTot

(batching) .vamin)anbegáItr)aMglkçN³rUbeTAnwgpøÚvcUlénEdkkørIkeT. va)anpøas;bþÚrlkçN³KImIénebtugEk,r
KYrsmépÞEdk. vtþmanénG‘uksuItEdknIRTIt )anbMElg ferrous oxid eTACa ferric oxide.

sarFatunIRTItk¾RtUv)anRsUbykenAÉépÞénsrésEdkehIy begáInkMlaMgdl;RsTab;Gskmμ ferric oxide.
sMrab;TwkfñaMKImI kal;süÚm nIRTItEdlRtUv)anykmkeRbI kMriteRbIR)as; (desoage) KYrRtUv)anEktMrUv

edaysMrbCamYynwglkçxNÐRbQmrbs;ebtugeTAnwgPñak;gareRcHsuI. épÞRbQmkan;EtFMkMriteRbIR)as;KYrEt
FMEdr. kMriteRbIR)as;d¾RtwmRtUvGacRtUv)ankMNt;eTAelIKMeragmYyeTA KMeragmYyedayQrelImUldæanCamYy
nwgTinñn½ysMrab;esckþIesñIsuMTwkfñaMKImICak;lak;. TwkfñaMKImIr)aMgxagkñúg (internal –barrier) manBIrRkum. RkumTI
mYymansmasFatukarBarRCabTwk nigkarBarRCabsMeNIm. RkumTIBIrmanPñak;garEdlbegáItRsTab;sarFatu
xniCCuMvijEdkBRgwg bEnßmBIelIRsTab;Gskmμ. TwkfñaMKImIRbePTenH)anCMrujsMrab;bEnßmBIelIGRtaEdl)an
kMNt;edayKμanKitBIkarRbQmnwgsarFatukørItdayKitfanwgekIteLIg.
TwkfñaMKImIBN’ Coloring admixture
sarFatuBN’RtUv)anbEnßmeTAelIebtugsMrab;ehtuplsßabtükmμ. vaGacCaG‘uksuItEr: b¤RKab;fñaMBN’
sib,kmμ. sarFatukabUneqABN’exμA RtUv)aneRbICaTUeTAsMrab;sarFatuBN¥exμAEdl)ankat;bnßybrimaNBBuH
xül;EdlekItmanenAkñúgl,ayy:ageRcIn. dUcenHRbsinebIebtugBN’exμARtUv)aneKcg;)ansMrab;ebtugEdltMrUv
eGaymanBBuHxül; ¬sMrab;ebtugEdlRbQmnwgPaBkk b¤rlayénTwkkk b¤karQøanBanénsarFatuKImI¦ enaH
kabUnexμA (carbon black) KYrRtUvEkERbeTACaBBuHxül; b¤eTACaPñak;garbEnßmkekItBBuHxül;EdlGacrYm
bBa©ÚleTAkñúgl,ay. karKitBIl,ay (mix design) KYrRtUv)aneFVIBiesaFn_eRkamlkçxNÐCak;Esþgénkardæan
edIm,IeRbIR)as;enAkñúgsMNg;kardæan. kareRbIR)as;nUvtMrUvkarBN’edayRbugRbytñ½RtYtBinitüsMPar³ ]bkrN_
nigkarbEnßmbrimaNTwkedIm,IrkSanUvPaBminpøas;bþÚrenAÉkardæan.
4> kMe)ar)ayGr nig ebtug Mortar and concrete
4>1 kMe)ar)ayGr Motar
)ayGrRtUv)anpSMeLIgedaysarFatusuIm:g;t_ RKYsfμl¥it xSac;nig Twk. vaRtUv)aneRbIsMrab;eFVIkMraldl;
kargarrab\dæ sMrab;bUk nig stucooes nig laybEnßmCamYyRKYsfμFM² køayeTACaebtug. karKitenATIenH
RtUv )aneGayCadMbUgeTA)ayGrenaHEdlRtUveRbIR)as;sMrab;kagarrab\dæ nigbUkkMe)ar.
lkçN³rbs;)ayGrERbRbYly:agxøaMg GaRs½yeTAnwglkçN³énsarFatusuIm:g;t_EdlykmkeRbIpl
eFobénsuIm:g;t_ nigxSac; lkçN³ nigkMritcMNat;fñak;xSac; nigpleFobTwknigsarFatusUlIt.
4>2 ebtugsuIm:g;t_B½rEln Portland cement concrete

ebtugsuIm:g;B½rElnCal,ayénsuIm:g;t_ lanning Twk RKYsFM nigxSac; nigsmamaRt énTwkfñaMKImIedIm,I
begáItCam:as)øasÞikEdlmanlT§PaBGaccak; dak; nigbBa©ÚleTAkñúgBum<EdlvanwgrwgeTACam:assUlIt. lkçN³
EdleKcg;)anénebtug)øasÞikenH KWPaBGaceFVIkarrbs;vaPaBGacdak; nigminbMEbksmasFaturYmpSM nigEdlva
GackkeTAtameBlevlaEdleKcg;)an. ebtugEdlrwgKYrpþl;nUvlkçN³esvaEdleKcg;)an³
1> PaBFn;énkMlaMg ¬sgát; nig flexural¦
2> PaByUrGEgVg ¬ minmansñameRbH Fn;eTAnwgkarkk nigkarrlayénTwkkk nigkarvaylukén
sarFatuKIm/ Fn;eTAnwgPaBrMj½r nigbrimaNxül;Edlman¦
3> rUbragemIlBIxageRkA ¬BN’/ épÞmanPaBminRKb;lkçN³¦
lkçN³nimYy² CH\T§iBldl;tMélcugeRkayénkarKitl,ay (mixdesign) nigtMélénkarcak;ebtugenA
nwgkEnøg. lkçN³TaMgenHGacTTYl)anBIebtugTMgn;Fmμta TMgn;Rsal nigTMgn;F¶n;.
4>3 ebtugb:UlIEmr Polymer concrete
lkçN³)øasÞikrbs;ebtugCamYynwg Rcv:ak;mU:elKuld¾EvgRtUv)aneKehAfa ebtugb:UlIEmrRtUv)aneKeRbI
R)as;kñúgviFICaeRcInedIm,IbegáInnUvlkçN³rbs;ebtug karCMnYsnUvsuIm:g;t_ lanning EdlcUlrYmpSMCamYynwgl,ay
dUcCaTwkfñaMKImI nigeFVIeGayebtugnwgs‘b;.
ebtugb:UlIEmr dUcCa methyl methacrylate nig polyyester EdlminEq¥tTwk EdlenAkñúgenaHb:UlIEmr
CMnYssum:g;t_ lanning GacmanPaBFn;énkMlaMg nigmU:DuleGLasÞic (modulus of elasticity) FMCagebtugsuIm:g;t_
lanning 2dg. CamYynwgebtugb:UlIEmr creep RtUv)anbnßynig PaBFn;énvdþénkarkk nwgkarrlayénTwkkk
eLIgx<s;. ]TahrN_bnÞab;BIkarEfrTaMTwksMrab;ry³eBld¾xøIbMput eBjmYyyb;kñúgsituNðPaBbnÞb;

ebtugb:UlIEmr )aneRtomxøÜnCaeRscsMrab;eRbIkar EdlpÞúyBIebtugFmμtaEdlRtUvTTYlkarEfrTaMsMeNIm
RbEhlmYys)aþh_ munnwgTTYlbnÞúkBIxageRkA.
m:UNUEmr nigb:UlIEmrGacRtUveRbICaTwkfñaMKImIsMrab;eFVIeGaydUcedImvij nigeFVIeGayépÞénebtugEdlman
PaBy:ab;yWnmanPaBdUcedImeLIgvij. latexe én methyl methacrylate, polyester, styrene, epoxy-styrene,
furan, styrence-butacliene nig vinylindene chloride RtUv)aneRbIsMrab;eKalbMNgTaMgenH. lT§plénkarkkrwg
énebtugmansPaBelOnCagebtugFmμta. TwkfñaMKImIb:UlIEmrk¾GacnwgRtUv)aneRbIedIm,IbegáInlkçN³PaBs¥it én
suIm:g;t_ Lanning. kardak;laybBa©Úlkñúgl,ayCaTwkfñaMKImIlayTwk sMrab;eKalbMNgenH TwkfñaMKImI)anpþl;
nUvbrimaNTwkCaeRcInenAkñúgl,ay EdlGaccUlrYmsMrab;RbtikmμGuIRdatkmμénsuIm:g;t_. karbeBa©jnUvbrimaN

Twkk¾)ankMNt;nUvbrimaNTwkfñaMlayTwk.
dUcenH karEfrkSasMeNImminRtUv)aneKeFVIeT sMrab;karEdlRtUvkarTwkfñaMKImIlayTwk brimaNeRcIn
edIm,IeFVIeGays¶Üt nigbegáInnUvPaBFn;EdleKcg;)an. grout nig)ayGrEdlmanlayTwkfñaMKImIbegáInPaBs¥it
(bondin admixture) begáInnUvPaBFn;énPaBs¥itkan;Etx<s;enAeBleKeFVIvaCaRsTab;y:agesþIgCagRkas
ehIyPaB s¥itGacnwgxøaMgCagsMPar³sMrab;eFVImuxtMNreTot.
Impregnation énebtugb:UlIEmr eBlxøHRtUv)aneKeRbIedIm,IBRgwgépÞEdlRbQmnwgcracrN_F¶n;². PaB
Fn;énkMlaMg niglkçN³epSgeTotén impregnation ebtugKWRsedogKñaeTAnwgebtugEdlb:UlIEmrCMnYseday

suIm:g;t_ lanning. Impregnation RtUv)anTTYlCadMbUgedayeFVIeGayépÞénebtugeLIgs¶ÜtedaykardutkMedAnig
bnÞab;mkRtaMépÞebtugnwgm:UNUEmrdUcCa methyl methacrylate, styrence, acrylonitrile b¤ tert-butyl styrene.
nigvaRtUvEfrrkSasMeNImkñúgeBlbnþeTotedaykMedA.
RsTab;begðIyénkMral (slab topping) y:agticedayEpñk² edaysarEtPaBs¥it\tex©aH epoxy RtUv)an
pSMrUbmnþCamYynwgxSac; nigkMeTcepHepSgeTot edIm,IeFVIvavtßúFatueFVIépÞsMrab;ebtug. edaymindUcnwgbTdæanén
RsTab;begðIyrbs;ebtug vtßúFatueFVIépÞ epoxy-based GacRtUveFVIy:agesþIg². CaBiessvamanRbeyaCn_sMrab;
eFVIeGayépÞEdlmansPaBminFmμta eGaymanPaBrelag rabesμI. epoxy RtUv)ans¶Üty:agelOnEdlGnuBaØati
eGayeRbIR)as;nUvRsTab;épÞenaH)ankñúgry³eBly:agxøI.
Grout: sñameRbHénebtugGacRtUv)anCYsCuleday epoxy grout . grout RtUv)anbgçMeGayRCabcUlkñúg
sñameRbH)any:ageRCAeRkamsMBaF. edaysarEtPaBFn;énkMlaMgén bonding rbs;val¥ expoxy grout GaceFVI

eGayPaBFn;énkMlaMgmansPaBdUcedImvij )any:agTUlayEdlkñúgeBlCamYyenaHkarbiTP¢itsñameRbHRbqaMg
nwgkarRCabénsarFaturav.
5> karcak;ebtug Concrete Placement
5>1 karGnuvtþn_d¾l¥ Good Pratice
eKalkarN_énkarRKb;RKgd¾RtwmRtUvkñúgkarcak;ebtugKW
karbMEbksarFaturYmpSMRtUv)anecosevogkñúgGMLúgeBlRKb;RbtibtþicenøaHeBllaynig cMNucénkar
cak;rYmbBa©ÚlTaMgkarbgðab;cugeRkay (final consolidation) nigkareFVIeGayépÞmuxelIrabesμI.
ebtugRtUvEteFVIeGayhab;sBVsac; edayGnuvtþedayKμancenøaHRbehagCuMvijkardak;bBa©úHdgrMj½rbgðab;
nwgKYrbMeBjRKb;muMnig RCugénBum<.
enAeBlEdlebtugravRtUv)ancak;BIelIebtug EdlrwgrYcehIyPaBs¥itl¥RtUvEtbegáInBIelIebtugEdlrwg
rYc.
5>2 viFIénkarcak; Methods of Placing
ebtugGacRtUvdwknaMtaMgBIkarlayrhUtdl;cMNucénkarcak;edayviFInig ]bkrN_eRcInRbePTepSg²
RbsinebIkardwkCBa¢Üny:agRtwmRtUvRtUv)anecosevogkarbMEbkFaturYmpSM.kareRCIserIsbec©keTssMrab;karsnMS
sMécd¾smRsbCageK GaRs½yeTAnwglkçxNÐkardæankargar CaBiessTMhMKMerag ]bkrN_nig bTBiesaFn_ én
Gñkem:Akar (contractor) . sMrab;sMNg;GaKarCaTUeTA ebtugRtUv)ancak;edayéd b¤eday power-operate
buggies; edayFugcuHTMluH)at CamYynwg]bkrN_sÞÚceyag/ edaycak;eGayhUrtamCMerlT/ bUmedaybMBg;
EdlGacbt;Ebn)an rWrwg/ shotcrete EdlTaMgsarFatus¶Üt nigTwkRtUv)an)acsacedayELkBIKña

b¤l,ayénebtugRtUv)an)aj;eTAkñúgBum< nigsMrab;karcak;ebtugeRkamTwk tremie chute
¬bMBg;EdlGacbt;Ebn)anRtUv)anbiT¦. sMrab;sMNg;ebtugm:as reTHEdlGacebIkxag)anenABIelIpøÚv

reTHd¾ceg¥ót (narrow-gage track) b¤RtUvdwknaMedayExSGacRtUv)aneRbI. sMrab;kMralépÞpøÚv ebtugGacRtUvdak;
eTAkñúgFugBIdgsnÞÚceyagénm:asuInlay Edlcak;edaypÞal;edayLanEbn b¤LanRklukebtug b¤minpÞal;
edayLaneTAkñúg]bkrN_)acsac.
vIFICaBiessénkarcak;ebtug smRsbsMrab;lkçxNÐminFmμtaCaeRcInman karbMeBjgrout eTAelIRKYs
fμFM² EdlerobCaeRsc. viFIenHGacmanRbeyaCn_CaBiesssMrab;ebtugeRkamTwk BIeRBaH grout RtUv)anbBa©Úl
eTAkñúg fμbMEbktamry³kar)aj;edaybMBg;Rtg;y:agsnSwm² ehIypøas;kEnøgTwkEdlvamanTMgn;RsayCag
grout. edaysar bearing contact énfμbMEbktUcCagFmμtaEdlPaBrYmmaDTaMgRsugk¾RtUv)anTTYl.
5>3 PaBelIsTwk Excess water

sUm,ICamYynwg karkMNt;y:agCak;lak;sMrab; Slump nigpleFob Twk suIm:g;t_ PaBelIsbrimaNTwk
RtUvEtecosvag. enAkñúgGtßbTenH PaBelIsénTwkRtUv)anbgðajsMrab;karbEnßménkarcak;RbsinebImankar
bgðajnUvbrimaNTwkGENþteLIg ¬karbMEbkFaturUmpSMtamTisedAQr¦ nigbrimaNTwkhUr ¬karbMEbkFaturYm
pSMtamTisedAedk¦ ekIteLIg. PaBelIsTwkk¾GaceFVIeGayépÞénebtugmanPaBGaRkk;CagmunedaybegáInkar

elcTwktamRbehagBum<. CalT§plGacCasMbukXμM Ca sanstreak CaeRcInBN’b¤ CacMNucTn;enAelIépÞebtug.
sMrab;Bum<bBaÄr brimaNTwkekIneLIgbNþaleGay Plane exSaccenøaHRsTab;énkarcak;nimYy². Ca
bEnßmeTAelI\T§iBléneRKagEdlmansPaBkan;Ety:ab; Plane xagelI enAeBleLIgrwwgmanrn§EdlTwkGachUr
qøgtamry³rn§.
sMrab;eRKOgbgÁúMedk dUcCakMralxNÐ½ PaBelIsTwk)anekIteLIg nig bNþaleGaymanRsTab; laitance
exSayenAelIbg¥s;. RsTab;enHrgnUvPaBFn;énkMlaMgTab PaBFn;nwgkarrMj½r PaBrYmmaDx<s; nigCaTUeTAman
KuNPaBGn;.
5>4 kareFVIeGayhab; Consolidation
eKalbMNgénkarbgðab; KWkat;bnßyrn§Edlmanxül; nigedIm,IFananUvkarb:HBal;y:agCitsñit nigsBV
sac;énebtug nigépÞénBum< nigEdkBRgwg. eTaHCay:agNak¾eday karrMj½rd¾xøaMg k¾Gackat;bnßynUvmaDén
BBuHxül; EdleKcg;)an b:uEnþkat;bnßyenHGacRtUvTUTat;edaykarEktMrUvénsmamaRténl,ay.
]bkrN_rMj½rEdlbeB©ajfamBlBIxagkñúgGacRtUveRbIedIm,IeFVIeGayebtughab;.eTaHCay:agNa sMrab;
kMralesþIgEdlmanebtugKuNPaBx<s; slump TabGacnwg)anbgðab;eGayhab;edaymanRbsiT§iPaBedayman
PaBelIsTwk eday]bkrN_rMj½répÞemkanic. sMrab;eRKOgbgÁúMEdlcak;TukRsab;EdlmanBum<rwg maM nigTwkcUl
min)an karrMj½rBIxageRkA ¬énBum<xøÜnva¦ KWmanRbsiT§iPaBx<s;. karrMj½rBIxageRkAk¾manRbsiT§iPaBsMrab;Bum<
enAnwgkEnøg b:uEnþKYrminRtUv)aneRbI elIkElgEtBum<enHRtUv)anKitrcnabøg;CaBiesssMrab;PaBekInCabeNþaH
GasnñénsMBaFxagkñúgenAeBlEdlvtßúraveBjnig bUkbEnßmnUvkMlaMgén]bkrN_rMj½r.
elIkElgsMrab;RbtibtþikarN_cak;kMralEdlKYreGayTukcitþ)an karrMj½rEdkBRgwgRtUv)anelIkElg.
sUm,IEtvamanRbsiT§iPaBk¾eday karRtYtBinitücaM)ac;edIm,IkarBarrMj½relIs KWBi)ak. dUcKñaenAeBlEdl
ebtugRtUv)ancak;CaeRcInRsTab; karrMj½rénEdkbBaÄrqøgcUlkñúgEpñkxøHénebtugrwgBIxageRkam GacmaneRKaH
mhnþray. eTaHCay:agNa karkt;cMNaMfa karrMj½reLIgnUvebtugmun nwgkkrwgcugeRkay eRkamlkçxNÐén kar
RtYtBinitüGacbegáInnUvPaBFn;énkMlaMgrbs;ebtugKYreGaykt;sMKal;nUvkat;bnßynUvrn§elIépÞebtug ¬rn§tUc²¦.
bec©keTsenH KWBi)akNas;kñúgkarRtYtBinitüsMrab;karGnuvtþn_TUeTAkñúgkarcak;ebtugéneRKOgbgÁúMbBaÄr b:uEnþva
manRbsiT§iPaBNas;sMrab;kMralbegðIyCamYynwg]bkrN_rMj½redayfamBl. karCIkedayEb:ledayeRbIéd
manRbsiT§iPaBCageKsMrab;ykecjnUvBBuHxül;enAelIépÞBum<.
viFIenH KWmanRbsiT§iPaBCaBiesssMrab;sMPar³Bum<EdlmanRCabTwkrelagRtUv)aneRbI nigsMrab;épÞEdl

manCMerleLIgelI. sMrab;KMeragsMNg;Fmμta
lkçxNÐepSgKñaénkarcak;RtUv)anrab;bBa©ÚlCaFmμtaEdleFVI[ karcg;)anedIm,Ipþl;dl;bnSMénbec©keTsepSg²
Edl)anBN’na.
karRbugRbytñ½CaTUeTAmYyEdlGacGnuvtþ )anKW ]bkrN_rMj½rbgðab;minRtUveRbIedIm,Icl½tebtugtamTisedAedke
T.
5>5 karcak;ebtugeRKOgbgÁúMbBaÄr Concreting vertical element
Epñkxagkñúg énssrCaTUeTARtUv)aneFVIeGayCit vamanmaDFMsMrab;r)aEdkBRgwgebIeRboeFobCamYy nwg
maDénebtug ehIyvamankMBs;FMebIeRbobeFob nwgTMhMépÞkat;TTwg.
dUcenH ssrKYrRtUvcak;CabnþbnÞab; ebtugKYrRtUv)ancak;ekIneLIgmþg² kñúgCMerABI 2eTA 4ft
nigbgðab;[ hab;eday]bkrN_rMj½rxagkñúg. vaRtUv)anelIkeLIgbnÞab;BIkarekIneLIgmþg²
énkarcak;ebtugRtUv)anrMj½r. RbsinebIkarBnüaeBlkñgú karpÁt;pÁg;ebtugekIteLIgmunnwgssrRtUv)anbBa©b;
esckþIxitxMCaxøaMgKYRtUveFVIy:ag NaecosvagmuxtMNr cold . enAeBlssrEdlcak;enAsl;RtUv)ancak;bnþ
karcak;bnþelIkTI1KYrEtman brimaNtictYcehIyKYrRtUvrMj½redIm,IeGayRCabcUlEpñkxagBImuny:agtictYc.
enAkñúgssrTaMgGs; nigCBa¢aMgEdlEdkBRgwgceg¥ót karcak;ebtugKYrcab;epþImCamYy 2 eTA 4ineday
grout . mü:agvijeTot fμRtsuHnigRtUv)aneRCIserIsdak;xag)at pþl;nUvlT§plénkarkekItsMbukXμúM. grout enH
KYrEtmansmamaRtEdlman slump RbEhlKña nwgebtug b¤eRcInCagbnþic b:uEnþRtUvmanpleFobénTwksuIm:g;t_

b¤ticCagenH. ¬visVkrexøHeBjcitþcab;epþImkarcak;bBaÄr CamYynwgl,ayEdlmansmmaRtesμIKñaénTwk suIm:g;t_
nigRKYsm:t;b:uEnþCamYynwgbrimaN1knøH énfμbMEbkFM dUcenAkñúgkarKitl,ay nigedIm,Icak;RsTab;cab;epþImkñúg
CMerABI 6eTA 12 in¦. enAeBlebtugRtUvcak;sMrab;CBa¢aMgn½ysMrab;karGnuvtþ)anedIm,IecosvagkarbMEbkFatu
rYmpSMRtUv)ancak;mineGayeRcInCag 24in kñúgmYyRsTab;eTAmYyRsTab;. RsTab;nimYy²KYrRtUvrMj½rdac;eday
ELkBIKña nigrkSaeGaymankMritkMBs;esÞIrEtesμIKña. sMrab;CBa¢aMgEdleRCACag 4ft ebtugKYrcak;CalkçN³bBaÄr
tambMBg;EdlGacbt;Ebn)an b¤TMlak;BIkMBs;RbEhl 8ft BIKña. bMBg;GacrwgnigGacbt;Ebnnig mkCaEpñkEdl
eKGacelIkeLIgtamkMritkMBs;énkarcak;ebtugekIneLIg. ebtugminGacbt;Ebn)an nigmkCaEpñkEdlGac
elIkeLIgtamkMritkMBs;énkarcak;ebtugekIneLIg. ebtugminKYrTukeGayFøak;esrI BIxagcugénbMBg;eT kMBs;
elIsBI 4ft karbMEbkFaturYmpSM nwgekIteLIg CamYynwgRKYsfμFM)øat eTAekonBum<edIm,IenACab;Epñkmçag. RsTab;
EdlbnþbnÞab;BIRsTab;dMbUgGacRtUv)anRCabcUleday]bkrN_rMj½rxagkñúgsMrab;CMerARbEhl 4 eTA 6in edIm,I

FananUvkarbBa©ÚlCamYyKñay:agsBVRKb;enAelIépÞRsTab;nimYy². karRCabcUleRCACagmunGacCaKuN
RbeyaCn_ ¬karrMj½reLIgvij¦ b:uEnþkarRtYtBinitüeRkamlkçxNÐkardæanEdlERbRbYl KWsMrab;karENnaM
énkarGnuvtþenH sMrab;kareRbIR)as;TUeTAminR)akdNas;.
lT§plénkarcak;minl¥enAkñúgCBa¢aMgCaerOy² RtUv)anGnuvtþ³ RsTab;bnÞab;CMerl RbsinebImanvtþman
TwkenaHnwgmansMbukXμúM nigelcTwk ehIyRbsinebIsñÚlRtUv)andak;CakMBs;bnþbnÞab;rhUtdl;karbnßyPaBFn;
énkMlaMgdl;eTA 50°taMgBI)atdl;kMBUl. karRbugRby½tñcaM)ac;xøHedIm,Iecosevog\T§iBlminl¥TaMgenHKW ³
-karcak;ebtugenAkñúgRsTab;kMritkMBs;tamry³KMlatbMBg;b¤ chute y:agCitsñit
-kuMcak;ebtugeBjCMerAenAral;cMNucénkarcak;
-minRtUvcl½tebtugtamTisedAedkeday]bkrN_rMj½r
- sMrab;CBa¢aMgEdl EvgnigeRCA kat;bnßy slump sMrab;RsTab;xagelIeK 2 eTA 3in BIeRkam slump
sMrab;RsTab;Edlcab;epþIm.
RbsinebIkarcak;ebtugRtUvEtTukeGayenAmYykEnøgcenøaHmuxtMNrsMNg;bøg;edk kMritkMBs;énkarcak;
mYyRsTab; karykecjnUv laitance nigPaBelIsTwk nigeFVIeGayRtg;kMritkMBs;sMNg;muxtMNr RbsinebIGac
eFVIeTA)anP¢ab;duMkMNat;eQId¾tUceTAelIépÞRbQménBum<.
5>6 karcak;ebtugeRKOgbgÁúMedk concreting horizontal element
sMrab;épÞEdlnwgRtUvRKbnigkarBarRbqaMgnwgrMj½r nigGakasFatukarRbugRby½tñCaBiesstictYcRtUvkar
caM)ac;.
sMrab;ebtugkMral viFIénkarcak;EdleFVsRbEhspþl;nUvlT§plénkarbMEbkFaturYmpSMtamTisedAedk
CamYynwglkçN³Edlcg;)ansMrab;TItaMgxus épÞxagelIEdlmanPaBelIsénTwk nigsarFatum:t;CamYynwgPaB
Fn;énrMj½r nigGakasFatutucnigkarrYmmaDx<s;. sMrab;épÞénkMralmYypÞaMg (one course slab) ebtugEdlman
slump Tab nigGb,brmaénrMj½r nigkarBRgabépÞebtugRtUv)aneKRtUvkarcaM)ac;. kareFVI screeding Pøam²
eday ]bkrN_ screed rMj½redayfamBl KWmanRbeyaCn_kñúgkarBRgayebtugEdlman slump

TabnigKuNPaBx<s;. KμankarBRgabbegðIyteTAeToteTKYrRtUvGnuvtþrhUtdl;brimaNTwkesrIminTan;manelc
ecjrUbrag. ]bkrN_kþavIbgVilbgðab;edayfamBl GacrMlIgebtugEdlman slump TabNas;kñúgdMNak;
kalenH. karrMlIgedaysøabRBacug bBa©b;KYrRtUvBnüaeBl RbsinebIcaM)ac;rhUtdl;épÞGaRT)anTMgn;énRsTab;
begðIy. enAeBlebtugRtUv)ancak;sMrab;FñwmeRCAEdlman monolithic CamYynwgkMral FñwmKYrRtUv)ancak;

ebtugbMeBjmun. bnÞab;mkkarBnüaeBld¾xøIsMrab;karRBmeRBog KYrFanamunnwgkMralebtugRtUv)ancak;. kar
rMj½rqøgkat;BIkMBs;kMralKYrRtUvTMluHcUlkñúgebtugFñwmRKb;RKan;edIm,IFanadl;karbgðab;eGayhab;sBVsac;.
enAeBlkMralRtUv)ancak ebtugénkarlaymþg²bnþbnÞab;KñaKYrRtUv)ancak;bnþBICayénebtug Edl
laymunedIm,IrkSanUvkarbMeBjbnþedayKμankarbMEbkFatu. sMrab;kMralEdlmanépÞCMerl karcak;ebtugCa
FmμtaKYrcab;epþImenACayeRkameK. sMrab; shell esþIgEldmantMbn;CMerlecaT karcak;KYrRbtibtþiBIeRkam.
Slump KYrRtUvEktMrUv ehIyRsTab;begðIy KYrRtUvsRmbsRmYledIm,IkarBarkarTb;edayr)aEdkBRgwg
edk EdlbNþalmkBIkarRbHeday)øasÞicenAkñúgebtugRss;.
5>7 karcak;ebtugkñúgrdUvRtCak; Concreting in cold weather
sarFatuEdlGackkTwkkkKYrminRtUvykmkeRbI. ebtugminRtUvcak;enAelIkMral subgrade Edlkk
TwkkkeTehIy ehIyTwkkkKYrRtUvykecjBIBum<mun nwgcak;ebtug. ebtugEdlGnuBaØatieGay
sMeNImeLIgkkmun b¤GMLúgeBl karEfrrkSasMeNImdMbUg GacnwgbgáeRKaHfñak;F¶n;F¶r. elIsBIenHeTot
sItuNðPaBKYrrkSaeGayx<s;Cag 58 C sMrab;karEfrrkSasMeNImEdleFVIeRcInKYrsm (strengthgain) .GñkpÁt;pÁg;
º
ebtug)anbMBak;]bkrN_kMedAsMPar³ nig edIm,IdwkCBa¢ÚnebtugedayRtYtRtasItuNðPaBenAkñúg GakasFatu

RtCak;. esvaenHKYrRtUv)aneRbIR)as;. sMrab;GakasFatuRtCak;xøaMg sMrab;EpñkEdlesþIgeRbIR)as; kñúgsMNg;
GaKarebtugEdlcak;rYmfμI² RtUvEtRKb[ Citnig pþl;nUvkMedACabeNþaH Gasnñ. sMrab;EpñkEdlRkas;xøH
b¤enAkñúgGakasFatuRtCak;lμm CaFmμtakarcMNay Gs;ticCagsMrab;pþl;eGaynUvBum<manGuIsULg;)aMg b¤eRKb
edayGuIsULg;edIm,IbgçaMgkMedAdMbUg nigkMedAbnþbnÞab; éndMeNIrkarGuIRdatkmμ enAkñúgGMLúgEdlEfrrkSa
sMeNImebtugdMbUg.
tMrUvkarEfrrkSasMeNImGaRs½yeTAnwgsItuNðPaBEdlvarkSarTuk nigebtugEdlmanPaBFn;énkMlaMg
eTogTat; b¤eLIgx<s;qab;RtUv)anykmkeRbI. ebtugEdlmanPaBFn;énkMlaMg eLIgx<s;qab;GacTTYllT§pl
CamYynwgTwkfñaM KImI BenøÓn b¤CamYysuIm:g;t_EdlmanPaBFn;énkMlaMgx<s;qab; b¤pleFobTwksuIm:g;t_TabCag
edIm,IbegáItnUv tMrUvkarPaBFn;énkMlaMgry³eBl28éf¶ kñúgry³eBl7éf¶.
karRbugRbytñ½caM)ac;kñúgkareRbIR)as;nUvkMedAEdlmanr)aMgBT§½CuMvij KWpÁt;pÁg;kMedAedaymin)ansMgYt
ebtug b¤eFVIeGaycMhay kabUnDIGuksuItehIrecj. kardak;eGayebtugRss;s¶Üt b¤ecjcMhaypþl;
lT§ipleGay chalky. karRbugRbytñ½epSgeTotRtUv)aneCosvagkarpøas;bþÚrsItuNðPaBqab;énépÞebtugenA
eBlkMedAmin)anbnþCab;Kña. karpþl;kMedAKYrbnßyy:agsnSwm² ehIyr)aMgBT§½CuMvijKYrykecjBIkEnøgedIm,I

GnuBaØati[briyakas sItuNðPaBRtCak;CabeNþIr² CaFmμtakñúgGMLúgeBly:agtic 24h.
5>8 karcak;ebtugkñúgGakasFatuekþA Concreting in hot weather
karrlay nigkarcak;ebtugenAsItuNðPaBx<s;GacbgánUv flash set kñúg]bkrN_laykñúgGMLúgeBlcak;
b¤munkargarbegðIyRtUv)anbBa©b;. kar)at;bg;PaBFn; énkMlaMgk¾GacCalT§plBIkarcak;ebtugekþA.
sMrab;sItuNðPaBx<s;Cag kar)at;bg;PaBFn;énkMlaMgeTACakarsMxan;. dUcenHcUreFVIkarbegáInPaBrYmmaD
ehIykarbegáInPaBrYmmaD KWGackMNt;eGayminEmnsMrab;EtsItuNðPaBx<s; b:uEnþk¾GacbegáIntMrUvkarbrimaNTwk
edIm,IeGay)an slump dUcEdlkarekIneLIgénsItuNðPaB. sMrab;karGnuvtþcMeBaHsMNg;GaKarFmμta GñkpÁt;pÁg;
ebtugRtYtBinitüsItuNðPaBénebtugedayeFVIeGayfμbMEbkRtCak; nigenAeBlcaM)ac;Gacpþl;CaEpñkénkarlay
TwkCaTwkkkbMEbk. sMrab;GakasFatuekþAxøaMg karRbugRbytñ½enHbUknwg karcak;CaEpñkedIm,IGnuBaØatieKcecjBI
kMedAénGuIRdatkmμ GacRtUv)antMrUvsMrab;kMralRKwHFM². TwkfñaMKImIBnüWtk¾GacRtUveRbICamYy nwg\T§iBll¥edIm,I
kat;bnßy slump Edl)at;bg;kñúgGMLúgénkarcak; nigkargarbegðIy.
5>9 karEfrrkSasMeNImebtug Curing concrete
karEfrrkSasMeNImebtugmandMeNIrkar karbegáItedayFmμCati b¤sib,nimitþ EdlCH\T§iBly:agvisal
PaB nigGRtaénGuIRdatkmμénebtug.
eRKagbgÁúMebtugxøHGacRtUvrkSasMeNImedayKμankarkarBarsib,nimitþRbePTNamYyeT. vaRtUv)an
GnuBaØatieGayrwgenAeBlRbQmnigBnøWRBHGaTitüxül; nigePøóg. RbePTénkarEfrrkSasMeNImEbbenHmin
GaceCOCak;)aneT BIeRBaHTwkGachYrtecjBIépÞ.
viFIepSg² RtUv)aneRbIedIm,IrkSasMeNIm ebtug edayRtYtBinitüsMeNImkñúgrbs;va b¤sItuNðPaBrbs;va.
kñúgn½yGnuvtþkarrkSasMeNImKW EfrrkSasMeNImdl;ebtugEdlcak;fμI² edaypþl;bEnßmnUvsMeNImedaybEnßm
eGaymandUcedImvijnUvbrimaNTwkEdl)at;bg;edaysarkarhYt.
CaFmμta karRbugRbytñ½tictYcRtUv)anKiteTAelIsItuNðPaB elIkElgkarrkSakñúgrdUvRtCak;nig EfrrkSa
cMhayTwk.
plRbeyaCn_énkarEfrrkSasMeNImd¾manRbsiT§iPaBCageK KwvaeFVIeGayebtugminRCabTwkxøaMgCagmun
nigbegáInPaBFn;énkMlaMg. viFsI Mrab;EfrrkSasMeNImGaccat;Ca³
1> viFIEdlpþl;Twkdl;dMeNIrkarGuIRdatkmμTaMgRsugmuneBlkMNt; nigmaneKalbMNgcg;rkSa

sItuNðPaBeGayÉksNæan. viFIenHrYmmanRtaMTwkdUcføúk )acsacTwk nigRkalnUv burlap esIm b¤kMNat; cotton
dIesIm/ Gacm_rNa/ esμAs¶Üt b¤cMebIg.
2> viFIEdlKitedIm,IkarBarnUv)at;bg;Twk man\T§iBltictYceTAelIkarrkSaÉksNæanPaBénsItuNðPaB.
viFITaMgenHrYmmanRkdaskarBarRCabTwk nigPñasminRCabTwk. CaFmμtaeRkaymksarFatu føa b¤C½rekAs‘U
(bituminous) RtUv)an)aj;eTAelIebtugedIm,IbMeBjrn§ nigkarBarrMhYt. sarFatuuehIrBN’enAkñúgfñaMRClk;BN’
enAkñúgfñaMRClk;BN’Edlqab;ehIreTAvijCYykñúgkar)aj; nigRtYtBinitü. RKab;fñaMBN’sEdleGay)øatkaMrsμI

BN’RkhmGacRtUv)aneRbIsarFaturkSasMeNImedIm,I rkSaépÞebtugeGayRtCak;enAeBlRbQmeTAnwgBnøwRBH
GaTitü.
5>10 muxtMNrsMrab;ebtug Joint in concrete
RbePTmuxtMNrCaeRcInGacnwgekIteLIg b¤RtUv)anbegáItenAelIeRKagbgÁúMebtug³ sMNg;muxtMNrRtUv)an
begáItenAeBlebtugRss;RtUv)ancak;Cab;nwgebtugEdlrwgrYc.
muxtMNsMrab;karrIk (expansion joint) RtUv)anbegáItsMrab;eRKOgbgÁúMEdlmanRbEvgEvgedIm,ITb;Tl;nwg
stress énkMlaMgsgát;Edlmü:ageTotCalT§plBIkarekIneLIgénsItuNðPaB.
rUb 3-1 muxtMNrsMrab;karrYj

muxtMNrsMrab;karrYj (contraction goint): (control joint) RtUv)anpþl;edIm,IGnuBaØatieGayebtugrYjenA
eBlsItuNðPaBFøak;cuH nigGnuBaØatisMrab;karsMgYtEdlrYmmaD EdlKμanlT§plekItCasñaMeRbHécdnü
Edlmin)an RtYtBinitü.
muxtMNrsMrab;karrYj³ KYrdak;enAkEnøgNaEdl ebtugemIleTAGacnwg eRbHedaysarbMlas;bþÚr
sItuNðPaBb¤ rYmmaD.muxtMNrKYrRtUv)andak;bBa©ÚlenAkEnøgNaEdlmankMras;pøas;bþÚr nig offset .CaFmμta
muxtMNrKYrmanKMlat 30ft BIGkS½kNþal b¤y:agticsMrab;karRbQméneRKagsMNg; dUcCaCBa¢aMgTb;dI.
edIm,Iecosvag nUvsñameRbHEdlGaRkk;emIlbNþalmkBIkarrYmmaD muxtMNrsMrab;karrYjRbePT

dummy RtUv)aneRbICaerOy². enAeBlNakarrYmmaDekIteLIgsñameRbHEdlekIteLIgedayectna )aneFVI
eGay bøg;manPaBTn;exSay. sMrab;viFIenHsñameRbHEdlRtUvekIteLIg CabnÞat;Rtg;EdlgayRsYlCYsCul.

control joint k¾GacmancenøaHRbehagBI 2eTA 3 ft kñúgbeNþayCBa¢aMg b¤kMral CamYynwgEdkBRgwg BI
cugsgxagdak;RCYsmuxKñakñúgcenøaHRbehag. CaeRcIns)þah_bnÞab;BICBa¢aMgb¤ kMralRtUv)ancak;ebtugrYj cenøaH

RbehagenaHRtUvbMeBjedayebtug. edayeBlenaH PaBrYmmaDPaKeRcInRtUv)anekIteLIg.
sMrab;muxtMNrsMrab;karrIk CaFmμtaGgÁFatubMeBjRtUv)anpþl;edIm,IEckeRKagsMNg;CaBIrEpñkdac;eday
ELkBIKña. GgÁFatubMeBjenH (filler) KYrEtCasarFatuEdlFn;nwgkMlaMgsgát;dUcCa corkboad or premolded
mastic. GgÁFatubMeBjKYrmanlkçN³dUcEdlvanwgminRtUvPøat;ecjBImuxtMNr nigminRTuDRTm (slump) enAeBl
RtUv kMedAénBnøwRBHGaTitü nigmineFVIeGayxUcépÞénebtug.

muxtMNrRtUv)andak; edIm,IkarBarkarRCabTwk. sMrab;eKalbMNgenH copper flashing GacRtUv)aneRbI.
CaFmμtavaRtUv)anbgáb;eTAkñúgebtug cugsgxagénmuxtMNr nignwgRtUvbt;bBa©ÚlkñúgmuxtMNEdlmanmuxtMNr
GacebIkedayKμaneFVIeGayEdkdac;. flashing RtUvEtrwgRKb;RKan;edIm,Idak;vanwgnUvTItaMgenAeBlebtugRtUv)an
cak;.
Water stop EdlGacbt;Ebn)an nigsmasFatu polysuefide calking k¾GacRtUv)aneRbICaGgÁFatu P¢itEdr.
eBlxøHmuxtMNrsMrab;karrIkcMhr RtUv)aneRbIsMrab;TItaMgxagkñúgEdlPaBcMhrRtUv)anCMTas; mineGay

eRbIenAeBlEdlvaRtUvRbQmnwgTwkFøak;BIelI dUcCakEnøgctLanCaCan;².
muxtMNrcMhrGacRtUv)anpþl;CamYynwg bMBg;bgðÚrTwk (gutter) BIxageRkamedIm,IbgðÚrTwkecj. visVkrKYr
bgðajnUvmuxtMNr bBaÄr b¤edkcaM)ac; enAelIbøg;énkarKitbøg; (design drawing) . ral;bøg;lMGitEdlTak;Tg
nwgGVIEdlCH\T§iBldl;sésEdkBRgwg water stop nigGgÁFatuP¢it k¾KYrRtUv)anbgðaj.
muxtMNsMNg;KYrRtUv)anKit nigRtUv)ankMNt;TItaMgRbsinebIGaceFVIeTA)anenAEpñkEdlmankMlaMgkat;
pþac;Gb,brima. EpñkTaMgenHCaFmμtanwgRtUv)andak;enAGkS½kNþalénFñwmnwgkMral kEnøgEdlkMlaMgm:Um:g;Bt;
mantMélFMCageKbMput. vaKYrRtUv)andak;enAkEnøgNaEdlmanPaBgayRsYlCageKedIm,IbBaÄb;kargar.
muxtMNrsMNg;CaerOy² RtUv)andak;enAkEnøgNaEdlmanPaBkMlaMgkat;pþac;. RbsinebIva
minGaceFVIeTA )ansMrab;kMralebtugTaMgmUl sMrab;RbtibtþikarmYymuxtMNrRtUv)aneKcUl
citþdak;CageKenAcMGkS½kNþal énElVg. muxtMNredkCaFmμtaRtUv)aneKpþl;enAcenøaHssr nigkMralxNÐ½ Edl

ssrRtUv)ancak;ebtugmun bnÞab;mkeTIbeKcak;RbBn§½kMralTaMgmUl.
5>11 karRtYtBinitüBIkarcak;ebtug Inspection of Concrete placement
ebtugKYrRtUv)anRtYtBinitüsMrab;m©as; munnwg/ kñúgGMLúgeBl nigeRkayBIkarcak;. munnwgebtugRtUv)an
cak;kþaBum<RtUvEtBuMmanTwkkk kMeTckMTI nigRtUv)anlabfñaMy:agRtwmRtUvedayeRbgbMEbkPaBs¥it (bond –
breaker oil) . r)aEdkRtUv)andak; TMrd¾RtwmRtUvedIm,I
RTnUvcracrN_EdlnwgekIteLIgkñúgGMLúgeBlénkarcak;ebtug. lUbgðÚrTwk/ ]bkrN_EdleKjat;bBa©Úl nigEpñk
epSg²eTotRtUveK)anbgáb;eGaycMTItaMgEdl)ankMNt;eGay)anENnedIm,IkuMeGaykMerIk. buKÁliksMNg;KYrEt
manRbsinebIbMBg;Twk nigbMBg;ExSePøIgRtUv)anbgáb; CaFmμtaCageQICagdak;nigcgEdk nigCMnajd¾éTeTot
RtUvmantYnaTICaGñkGegátBum< nigedIm,ItMrg;edIm,IvijnUvEdk bMBg;ExSePøIg b¤bMBg;TwkEdlpøas;kEnøg.
enAeBlebtugRtUv)ancat; slump rbs;ebtug RtUv)anRtYtBinitünig mantMélkMNt;Cak;lak;dUcEdl)an
B’NnaBIxagelIrYcehIy b¤PaBFn;énkMlaMgCak;lak;EdlQrelImUldæanén Slump GacRtUv)anRtUvkat;bnßy.
GñkRtYtBinitüénkarcak;ebtug EdlCaGñkTTYlxusRtUv xagBiesaFn_KYrEtBiesaFn_ slump, entrained air
sItuNðPaB nig unit weigths kñúgGMLúgénkarcak;ebtug nigKYrEtBinitükarEktMrUvNamYyén slump nig bEnßm
brimaNTwknig suIm:g;t_. GñkRtYtBinitük¾KYrBinitübBa¢ak;fadMeNIrkarRbRBwtþkarcak; nigkarbegðIy
EdlRtUv)anyl;RBmCamunfaral;kargarbnþbnÞab;KWRtwmRtUvedIm,IecosvagkarbMEbkFatubnSMénebtug.CabEnßm
GñkRtYBinitüKYrFanafa muxtMNrsMNg;EdlbnÞan;RtUv)aneFVIcaM)ac;enAeBlkarpÁt;pÁg; ebtugRtUv)anbBaÄb;
manePøóg b¤mankarBnüaeBlNamYyd¾RtwmRtUv)anekIteLIg nigRtUv)aneFVIedayGnuelam eTAtamdMeNIrkar
Cak;lak; b¤)anTTYlkaryl;RBmBIvisVkr.
kargarrbs;GñkBinitücatuTukfarYcral;enAeblEdlebtug)ancak;rYc BRgabépÞ rYc/ karBarsMrab; karEf
rkSasMeNIm nigTTYl)anebtugEdlmanPaBFn;eBjelj.
6> eRKOgbgÁúMénsMNg;ebtug Members of concrete construction
6>1 kMral Slab
kMralebtugEdkBRgwgmanTisedAmYy One way reinforced- concretslab
kMralebtugEdkBRgwgEdlmanTwsedAmYy KWCaeRKOgbgÁúMEdlrgkMlaMgBt;EdlmanElVg manTisedAEt

mYyenAcenøaHTMrnigKWCaEdkBRgwgEdlrgkMlaMgBt;sMrab;EtTisedAEtmYy. RbsinebIkMralRtUvRTedayFñwm rW
CBa¢aMgEdlmanxagTaMg4 b:uEnþElVgsMrab;TisedAEvgmanRbEvgEvgCagTisedAxøIelIsBIBIrdg bnÞúkPaKeRcInnwg
RtUvRbmUleTAelITisedAxøI dUcenHkMralGacRtUv)anKitCakMralEdlmanTisedAmYy (one-way-slab) . kMral
TwsedAmYyGacCaduMtan; (solide), ribbed b¤ Rbehag (hollow) . kMralTisedAmYyRbehagkñúgCaTUeTACakMral
Edlcat;TukrYcehIy (precast) . sMrab;karcakenAnwgkEnøg kMralTisedAmYyRbehagkñúgGacRtUvsagsg;eday
Bum<ragsuILaMgeFVIBIséssURt b¤eFVIBIbnÞÞHkþa (cardboard) edayBum<EdlGaceLIge):agEdlGacykmkeRbIkar
mþgeTot)an b¤edaybøúk b¤RbGb;Edlcak;rYc. kMralTisedAmYyGacRtUv)ansagsg;enAelITMrEdlrgkMlaMgkat;
b¤EdlmanPaBFn;kMlaMgkat;pþac;.
kMralEdlmanTisedABIr A two-way slab
kMralTisedABIr KWCapÞaMgebtugEdlBRgwgsMrab;rgkMlaMgBt;EdlmanTisedAeRcInCagmYy. RbePTén
sMNg;rebobenHCaeRcInRbePTRtUv)aneRbIsMrab;kMralxN½Ð nigdMbUlrYmbBa©ÚlbnÞHrabesμI (flat plate) kMralrab
esμItan; (solid flat slab) nig kMralrabesμI waffle.
CaTUeTA ssrEdlRTsMNg;xagelIRtUv)antMerobEdlGkS½kNþalrbs;vaEckkMralCakaer b¤esÞIrEtCa
pÞaMgkaer b:uEnþRbsinebIeFVItamkarcg;)an GacCactuekaNEkg RtIekaN b¤CapÞaMgEdlmanlkçN³mineTogTat;.
bnÞHrabesμIKW CaTMrg;edlsmBaØCageKsMrab;kMralEdlmanTisedABIr EdlsamBaØCageKsMrab;kar viPaK
karKitbøg; karlMGit karbegáIt nigkardak;sésEdk nigkarBum<. bnÞHrabesμIRtUv)ankMNt;CakMralTisedABIr
EdlmankMrasÉksNæan EdlRTedaybnSMénssr nigCBa¢aMgEdlman rWKμanCayFñwm nig KμankarkMNt;Cay
kMral (drop panel) Kμank,alssr nigEkgRT.
kMlaMgkat;pþac;nig PaBdabkMNt;sMrab;bnÞHrabesμIEdlmanElVgRbEhl 30ft sMrab;bnÞúkRsal nig
RbEhlBI20 eTA 25 ft sMrab;bnÞúkF¶n;. enAeBlbMerIbMras;énEdkBRgwg b¤eRKagEdkTMr kMlaMgkat;pþac;enAnwg
ssrGacRtUv)anBnøÚtEdnkMNt;enHbnþicbnþÜc karGnuvtþn_cMbgrbs;va KWGnuBaØatieGayeRbIsMrab;ssrtUc. eTaH
Cay:agNa RbePTepSgeTotCaeRcIn GacRtUv)aneRbIsMrab;bnøaybnÞúksnSMsMéc nig EdnkMNt;énElVg.
6>2 Fñwm Beam

tamtMrUvkarPaKeRcInénFñwm b¤rtsMedAcMeBaHeRKOgsMNg;rgkMlaMgBt;. enAeBlkMral
nigrnUtminRtUv )anKitTukmun kUdsMedAy:agCak;lak;cMeBaHFñwm nigmineTogTat;cMeBaHFñwm nigrt
nigkarpþl;Gnuvtþn_esμIcMeBaHFñwm nigrt. dUecñHBaküEtmYy KW FñwmGacRtUv)aneRbIsMrab;krNIdUcxageRkam.
niymn½yéneRKOgbgÁúMrgkMlaMgBt;
niymn½yxageRkamGnuvtþcMeBaHeKalbMNgénEpñkxageRkam³
kMral³ CaeRKÓgbgÁúMEdlmanCMerAÉksNæanRTbnÞúképÞEdlpþl;eGayBIelIépÞkMral. kMralGacRtUv)an
BRgwgedayEdksMrab;kMlaMgBt;tamTwsedAmYy b¤BIr.
rnUtkMral (joist-slab)³ kMral ribbed Edlman rib TisedA 1b¤2. TMhMénkMralenHRtUvEtsßitkñúgEdn
énkUdsMNg; ACI 318.
Fñwm³ eRKOgbgÁúMEdlrgkMlaMgBt;EdlKitsMrab;TTYlrgnUvkMlaMgbnÞat;ÉksNæan b¤kMlaMgbnÞat;cMcMnuc.
FñwmGacedIrtYCaeRKOgbgÁúMdMbUgsMrab;ssrFñwm (beam-column frames) rWGaceRbIedIm,IRTkMral b¤rnUtkMral.
rt³ eRKOgbgÁúMEdlRtUv)aneRbIedIm,IRTFñwm nigRtUv)anKitedIm,IRTElVgenAcenøaHssr/ CBa¢aMg/ b¤rtepSg
eTot. rtEtgEtCaeRKOgbgÁúMemeK.
6>3 CBa¢aMg Wall
CaTUeTAeRKOgbgÁúMbBaÄrEdlRbEvg nigkMBs;FMCagkMras;eRcInenaHva RtUv)aneKrab;CaCBa¢aMg. CBa¢aMg
EdlGacRTnUvbnÞúkbBaÄr)anRtUv)aneKeGayeQμaHfa CBa¢aMgTMr (bearing wall) . CBa¢aMgEdlminGacRTnUvbnÞúk
eRkABIbnÞúkpÞal;xøÜndUcCapÞaMg b¤CBa¢aMgbiTCit RtUv)aneKehAfaCBa¢aMgminEmnTMr (non-bearing wall) .CBa¢aMg
EdlmantYnaTIcMbgFn; nwgbnÞúkxagRtUv)aneKehAfa CBa¢aMg shear.BYkvak¾GaceRbICa bearing wall Edr.
Bearing Wall
CBa¢aMgebtugEdkBRgwg bearing wall GacRtUv)anKitCassrEdlrgnUvbnÞúkmincMGkS½kNþal. tamviFI
Edl)anBIkarBiesaFn_GacRtUv)aneRbIenAeBlbnÞúkpÁÜbEdlmanGMeBIelIva sßitenAmYyPaKbIénkMras;CBa¢aMgBak;
kNþal.
Nonbearing Wall
CBa¢aMgebtugEdkBRgwg nonbearing wall CaerOy²RtUv)ancat;TukdUcCapÞaMg (panel), partition b¤
crosswall GacRtUv)ancat;rYceRsc b¤cak;enAnwgkEnøg. enAeBl Panel RtUv)ancakrYceRscvaRKan;EtRtUv)an
eRbIR)as;Ca cladding CaFmμtaRtUv)anP¢ab;eTAnwgssr b¤kMralxN½ÐéneRKagbgÁúMEdlRTeday grade beam b¤RT

eday spanning cenøaHeCIgtagEdleRbIR)as;TaMgCa grade beam nigCBa¢aMg. cross wall Edlcak;enAnwgkEnøg
FmμtaPaKeRcInsMrab;eRKagRKwH. minCaerOy² panel cak;enAnwgkEnøgGacRtUv)anRTeday grade beam nigP¢ab;
eTAnwgeRKagbgÁúM.
PaKeRcInkarGnuvtþn_cMeBaHCBa¢aMg nonbearing wall stress KWTab nigsMPar³d¾éTeTot dUcCaCBa¢aMg
\dæKμan EdkBRgwgenAeBlRTedayFñwmBIelI grade b¤ panel énsMPar³epSgeTot k¾GacRtUv)aneRbI. Cavi)ak
elIkElgEt ebtugEdkBRgwgEdltMrUvkarPaBs¥at pÞaMgénebtugEdkBRgwwgEdlman stress TabKYrRtUv)anKit
cMeBaHkarsnSMsMéc Gtibrma. kMras;Gtibrma sésedkBRgwgGtibrmaplRbeyaCn_eBjeljénbTdæan
PavUnIykmμsMrab; bec©keTsén mass-production nigKitsMrab;tYnaTIBIrTaMgCaCBa¢aMgnig FñwmeRCaKYRtUv)anTTYl.
kMras;énCBa¢aMg ebtugEdkBRgwg nonbearing wall KYrEtmantMély:agtic 1¼30 éncMgaycenøaHTMrb:uEnþminRtUv
tUcCag 4in.
eTaHbICay:agNa karGnuBaØatieGayfycuHral;tMrUvkarGb,brimatamTMenIgcitþsMrab;kMras; nigsésEdk
EdlkarviPaKeRKagbgÁúMbgðajnUvPaBFn;énkMlaMg niglMnwgRKb;RKan;. kEnøgEdlTMrRtUv)anpþl; dUcCasMrab;pÞaMg
BIxagelI grade BIelI grade beam tP¢ab;eTAnwgssrGacRtUv)anKitlMGitedIm,IGnuBaØtieGaymanPaBrYmmaD.
PaBkkitrvag eCIgénpÞaMg panel GacRtUv)ankat;bnßyedayRsTab; asphalt coating nig karminrab;bBa©Úlén
dowel. karpþl;TaMgenHGacnwgGnuBaØti eGaykat;bnßyPaBrYmmaDénsésEdkedk. sésEdkbBaÄRtUv)an
tMrUvedaykMr elIkElgEtmankarcaM)ac;sMrab;KMlaténsésEdkedk.
RbsinebICBa¢aMg nonbearing wall RtUv)ancak;enAnwgkEnøg sésEdkGacesÞIrEtRtUvkat;bnßyelIkElg
EtenAEpñkCay². RbsinebICBa¢aMgRtUv)ancak;CaeRsc stress énkaretagf<k;nwgRtUv)anRtYtBinitüCaerOy².
cMnuc pickup eRcInEbby:agCamYynwg rigid-beam pickup nigkat;bnßy stress xagelI. Vaccumpad pickup
Gackat; bnßy lifting stress esÞIrEtTaMgGs;.
6>4 RKwH Foundation
RKwHsMNg;KYrEckbnÞúkCBa¢aMg nigssreTAdI nigfμEdlenABIeRkamRKwHeday limit EdlGacTTYlyk)an
énlT§plénsm<aFdI nigPaBRsutsrub nig differential .bnÞúkénCBa¢aMgnig ssrmanbnÞúkxageRkA (live load)
RtUv)ankat;bnßyedayGnuelamtam karGnuvtþn_kUdsMNg;TUeTA nigbnÞúkpÞal;xøÜnRtUv)anpSMCamYynwg bnÞúkxag
énxül; rMBa¢ÜydI sMBaFdI rWsMBaFGgÁFaturavRtUv)antMrUv. bnÞúkTaMgenHGacRtUv)anEckeTAEk,r Grade edayRKwH

ECgtag b¤eTAdIenAkMritkMBs;TabCagenHedayebtug RKwHeRCA b¤ pier EdlxYg.
RbePTénRKwH Type of Foundation
RKwHebtugCaRcInRbePTRtUv)aneRbIsMrab;sMNg;GaKar. RbePTEdlFmμtaCageKxøHRtUv)anbgðajkñúgrUb
3-2.
RKwHeCIgtagssrKWCa plain b¤kMralEdkBRgwgEdlmanTTwgFMCagCBa¢aMg EdlbnøaytambeNþayén
CBa¢aMg. Plain b¤ssrEdkebtugRKwHeCIttagÉekaKW CaRKwHsamBaØ/ manCan; rWCMerlkMralebtug 2TisCabøg;kaer
b¤ctuekaNEkg. sMrab;ssrBIrenACitKña b¤ssrxageRkAenACit property line dUcenHeCIgtag b¤eCIgtag pile-
cap minGacdak;enAcMcMnuckNþalrYmeTeCIgtagrYm (combined footing) b¤eCIgtagRTEvgGacRtUv)aneRbIedIm,I
TTYlsMBaFdIEdlbeBa©jesÞIrEtÉksNæan b¤bnÞúk pile. eCIgtagRTEvg (strap footing) køayCasnSMsMécCag

combined footing enAeBlKMlatssrkan;EtEvgedaysarEtm:Um:g;Bt;FMsMrab;eCIgtagrYm (combined footing).
sMrab;sMBaFdITabb¤kEnøgbnÞúkmantMélFMeFobeTAnwglT§PaBRTRTg;rbs;dI RKwHebtugsésEdkcak;eBj
(reinforced concrete mat) b¤ raft foundation GacbgðajBIPaBsnSMsMéc. RKwHcak;eBjKW CakMralTisedA 2 (2
way slab) enABIeRkameRKagsMNg;TaMgmUl. CBa¢aMgebtug cross wall b¤Fñwm inverted GacRtUv)aneRbICamYynwg
RKwHcak;eBjedIm,ITTYlPaBrwgmaMnigkarsnSMsMéc.
sMrab;kEnøgEdllT§PaBRTRTg;rbs;dIRKb;RKan; KWeKGaceRbIRtwmEtRKwHkMritkMBs;TabCagTUeTA (pile
foundation) b¤RKwHeRCAEdlxYg.
rUb3-2 RbePTRKwHFmμtasMrab;sMNg;GaKar
CMBUk IV
sMNg;eRKagbgÁúMGMBIEdk
STRUCTURAL STEEL CONSTRUCTION
3
1> karKitbøg;éneRKOgbgÁúM Design of Members
sMrab;eRKOgbgÁúM GñkKitbøg;KYrtamdansegátelIlkçxN½Ð énPaBFn;énsMNg; b¤ Stress Ca
eKalkarNmYy b¤eRcInCagmYy b¤bnSMTaMg5 rbs;vaEdlrYmman kMlaMgTajcMGkS½ (axial tension) kMlaMg
sgát;cMGkS½ (axial compression) kMlaMgBt; (bending) kMlaMgkat;pþac; (shearing) nigkMlaMg cripping
éneRKOgbgÁúM. lkçxN½ÐepSgeTotEdlKYrtamdanGegátBIeRkamlkçxN½ÐBiessKW local buckling PaB
dabelIslb; (excessive deflection) kMlaMgrmYl (torsion) nigPaBGs;kMlaMg (fatigue) . rhUtmk
dl;edImstSvtSqñaM 1990 karviPaKxagelIQrelIeKalkarN_ karKitedayQrelI stress Edl GnueRKaH
allowable stress design (ASD) . sMrab;eBlfμI²enH viFIEdleKTTYlsÁal;fa CakarKitbøg;
edayQrelIktþaPaBFn; nigbnÞúk (load and resistance factor design) (LRFD) RtUv)aneKykmkeRbI
eRBaHvaGnuBaØatidl;karKitEdlRbkbedayvicarNBaØaNCag. va)anRbmUlnUvlkçxNÐ½énbnÞúkEdl
GacnwgekItman (probability of loading condition) nigsißtiénPaBéRbRbYlénPaBFn;nwgkMlaMg (statistical
variation in the strength) b¤ smtßPaBénPaBFn; (resistance capability) b¤sMPar³énmuxtMN nigeRKOgbgÁúM.
kareRbIR)as;nUvviFI LRFD pþl;nUvkarsnSMsMécsMPar³ CaTUeTAmantMélBI 15 eTA20° nig

sMrab;eRKagbgÁúMFM² EpñkxøH)anbgðaj[eXIjnUvkarsnSMsMécrhUtdl; 25°. CaTUeTAkarsnSMsMéc
nUvTMgn;xagelI KW)ann½yfakarcMNayGs;ticCagsMrab;eRKagbgÁúMEdk. eTaHCay:agNak¾eday elIkElgcMeBaH
eRKagbgÁúMxañtFM enAeBlEdlktþaénkareRbIR)as; (servicability) dUcCaPaBdab (deflection) nig rMj½r (vibration)
RtUv)anykmkKitsMrab;eRKOgbgÁúMmYy² enaHkarsnSMsMécFmμta tamviFI LRFD Tl;nwgviFI ASD
emIleTAxusKñaRbEhlCa 5°b:ueNÑaH.
1>1 eKalkarN_sMrab; ASD nig LRFD BASED FOR ASD AND LRFD
ASD KWQrelIRTwsþI elastic . karKwtbøg;Edl)ankMrit stress
GtibrmaenAelIeRKOgbgÁúMKWRtUv )anGnuBaØatiedIm,IRTnUvkMritbnÞúkEdleRbIR)as;
EdlkMNt;edaykarvinicä½yb:uEnþQrelIbTBiesaFn_ktþa suvtßiPaB. kUdsMNg;)anbegáIteLIgnUvÉktþa stress
GnueRKaHEdlmanTMnak;TMngCaFmμtaeTAnwg Yield Stress Gb,brimasMrab;cMNat;fñak;énRbePTnimYy² . Plastic
Design KWQrelIeKalkarN_PaBFn;énkMlaMgFM bMputéneRKOgbgÁúM. ebIeRbobeFobeTAnwgkarbegáIteLIgsMrab;
Elastic Design ktþasuvtßiPaBRtUv)an eRbIsMrab;karKitbnÞúkedIm,I kMNt;nUvbnÞúkx<s;bMput (Ultimate Load)
EdleRKOgbgÁúM GacmansmtßPaBRTrYc.
LRFD KWQrelIeKalkarN_rebobKit EdlKμansPaBkMNt;Gnuvtþ)an (applicable limit state)
KYrEtelIsenAeBleRKagbgÁúM b¤eRKOgbgÁúMNamYy b¤EpñkNamYyCaRbFanbTsMrab;bnSMénktþa bnÞúkd¾smrmü.

Limit State KWCalkçxNÐ½EdleRKagbgÁúM b¤smasPaBéneRKOgbgÁúMkøayeTACaminman smtßPaBrbs;
Structural service Edlmanv½ykan;EtcMNas;. eRKOgbgÁúMGacman Limit State CaeRcInRbePT.
Strength Limit State Tak;TgeTAnwg smtßPaBénkarTTYlbnÞúkGtibrma. Serviceability limit state
Tak;TgeTAnwgkarRbRBwtþeRkamlkçxNÐ½ service FmμtaedayeKarBktþaPaBdab nigrMj½r xagelI.

esovePAlMGitbec©keTssMrab;karKitbøg; (design specification) )anbegáIteLIgnUvktþabnÞúk
edIm,IeRbIeTAelIRbePTén Service Load nimYy² dUcCabnÞúk pÞal;xøÜn (Dead Load) bnÞúkxageRkA (Live Load)
nigkMlaMgxül; (Wind load) tMélénktþa KWGaRs½yeTAnwgbnSMénbnÞúkBiess Edldak; eTAelIeRKagbgÁúM.
AISC “Load and Resistance Factor Design Specification for Structural Steel Building”
tMrUv[eRKagbgÁúM rWeRKagbgÁúMpÞal;xøÜnrbs;vanimYy² minRtUvelIseBk. sMrab; Strength Limit State nimYy²
karKitPaBFn;énkMlaMgKW begáItnUvPaBFn;énkMlaMgFmμta nigktþaénPaBFn; ø Casmtßkmμ sMrab;
esovePAlMGitbec©keTs (Specification) .
eday)anTajykCamYyénbMerIbMras;énRTwsþI Probability ø pþl;nUvkMritsuvtßiPaBbEnßmsMrab; limit state
EdlRtUveFVIkartamdanGegát. PaBFn;énkMlaMgFmμta (norminal strength) éneRKOgbgÁúM
GaRs½ynwglkçN³erxaKNit Yield b¤ Ultimae strength nig RbePTénbnÞúkEdlvaRtUvts‘UdUcCa kMlaMgTaj
kMlaMgsgát; b¤kMlaMg Flexure.
esovePAlMGitbec©keTsén AISC LRFD GnuBaØati[karviPaKeRKagsMNg;QrelIlkçN³ Elastic b¤
Plastic. CaTUeTA RTwsþIbT elastic RtUv)aneRbIR)as;PaKeRcIn. RTwsþIbT Plastic RtUv)an
ykeTAeRbIR)as;sMrab;eRKagbgÁúMsμúKsμaj ynþkarEdlGacGnuvtþ)anTaMgGs;EdlGacbegáItenAkñúg
eRKagbgÁúMsμúKsμaj ynþkar)ak;Rsut KWCaynþkarmYytMrUv[bnÞúkRsalCageK sMrab;kar)ak;Rsut ekIteLIg.
eKGacrk)ankmμviFIkuMBüÚT½rCaeRcInsMrab;viPaK nigKitbøg;éneRKOgbgÁúM b¤eRKagbgÁúM. Rbsin
ebITinñplEdlRtUvbBa©ÚlBN’nanUveRKagbgÁúM nigbnÞúk)anRtwmRtUv enaHTinñplénkmμviFIenHPaKeRcIn
pþl;nUvkarKitbøg;)any:agelOnnig RtwmRtUv. sMrab;eRKagbgÁMúsaMjauM eKKYrRbugRby½tñkñúgkar
eRbIR)as;kmμviFIkuMBüÚTr½edIm,IRtYtBinitülT§pl edIm,IFanafavaBitCasmehtusmpl RbsinebIkar bBa©Úl
Tinñn½ymankMhusqÁgd¾sMebImenaH vamingayRsYlkñúgkarEsVgrkeT. RbsinebIkmμviFIenaH Gace)aHBum<nUv
rUbsNæan énbnÞúkenAelIeRKagbgÁúMedayQrelITinñn½yEdleGay kare)aHBum<RtUv)aneRbIsMrab;RtYtBinitü
dUcCakarmin)anbBa©ÚleRKOgbgÁúM b¤kMhusqÁgepSgeTot enAkñúgTinñn½yEdlTak;TgKñaGacyl;y:aggayBI
RkdasEdl)ane)aHBum<.
1>2 CMnYyénkarKitbøg; nigesckþIeyag Design Aids and References
dMeNIrkarénkarKitbøg;edayeRbI esovePAlMGitbec©keTs ASD b¤ LRFD tMrUveGayeRbIR)as;

tMélelxCaeRcIn EdlsMEdgnUvlkçN³énmuxkat;énTMrg;xøÜnvanimYy² b¤bnÞHeRkamkarKit.
eragcRk ]sSahkmμ)anbegáItnUvesovePA énTMrg;CaeRcInedIm,Ipþl;[GñkKitbøg;nUvBt’mand¾manRbeyaCn_.
1>3 eRKOgbgÁúMrgnUvkMlaMgTay Tension member
vaKWCa smamaRtEdlRklaépÞTaMgGs; nigRklaépÞsuT§ (gross and net area) manTMhMFM

RKb;RKan;edIm,IFn;eTA nwgbnÞúkEdldak;elIva. lkçN³sMrab;kMNt;RklaépÞsuT§éneRKOgbgÁúMrgnUv
kMlaMgTajCamYynwg rn§eLasuIvamalkçN³RsedogKñanwg ASD nig LRFD. kñúgkarkMNt;RklaépÞsuT§ TMhM
TTwgenrn§eLasuI KYrRtUvyk[FMCa 1¼16 BIelITMhMFmμtaénrn§ eTAnwg TisedAén Stress .
eTaHbICamuxkat;TaMgGs;rbs;eRKOgbgÁúMrgnUvkMlaMgTajEdlKμanrn§Rbehag KYryktam TisedAénRklatUc
CageKEdl kat;tamCYr NamYyénrn§RbehagEdlkat;tamTTwgéneRKOgbgÁúM. dUcenHépÞRklasuT§ GacRtUvqøg
kat;tamCYrénrn§ EdlsßitenAelIbøg;FmμtaeTAtamTisedaén Stress b¤ tamrn§beNþayGgát;RTUgénbnÞat; Zigang.
muxkat;suT§sMrab;eRKOgbgÁúMEdlmanCYrrn§bnøaytamGgát;RTUg b¤bnÞat; Zigzag KWCaplKuN
énTTwgsuT§nigkMras;. edIm,IkMNt;TTwgsuT§ KW)anBIkardkTTwgTaMgGs; nigplbUkénGgát;p©it én
rn§TaMgGs;kñúgCYr bnÞab;mkbUkbEnßm Gage Space énCYrEdlmanbrimaN S /4g Edl S= KMlattam

2
ry³beNþay (pitch in) énrn§BIrt²Kña nig g KWCaKMlattamry³TTwg (Gage, in) énrn§BIrdUcKña.

muxkat;suT§EdlKYreGay)armÖ (critical net section) éneRKOgbgÁúMKW)anmkBICYrEdlmanTTwg
suT§tUcCageK. enAeBleRKOgbgÁúMman Stress cMGkS½rgnUvkMlaMgTaj KWCaRbFanbTénkarbMElg
bnÞúkminÉksNæan BIeRBaHtMNrtameLasuIeTAnwgmuxkat; énEpñkxøHEtb:ueNÑaH dUcCakñúgkrNITMrg; W, M rW S
EdlP¢ab;EtÉgeedayeLasuItam Flange muxkat;suT§KYrEtkat;bnßydUcxageRkam 10° RbsinebITTwg Flange
tUcCag 2¼3 CMerAénFñwm nigy:agticRtUvmansMPar³P¢ab;3 tambeNþay bnÞat; Stress 10°
EdrsMrab;RTnab;eRKagbgÁúMEdl)anBIkarkat;tamTMrgxagelI 15° sMrab;TMrg;
edImxøHEdlminmanlkçN³dUcxagelIenH nigsMrab;TMrg;epSgeTotEdlmansMPar³P¢ab;y:agtic3kñúg CYr Stress
nig 25° sMrab;RKb;eRKOgbgÁúMEdlmanEtsMPar³P¢ab; 2kñúgCYr Stress.
1>4 ssr Column
ktþaCaeKalkarN_Edl man\T§iBldl;eRKOgbgÁúMEdlrgnUvkMlaMgsgát; KWman overall column buckling
nigépÞRklamuxkat;TaMgGs; (Gross Section Area) .\T§iBlén overall column buckling GaRs½ynwgpleFob
Slenderness K1/ Edl K/KWCaRbEvg effective énssrKitCa In, L KW CaRbEvg Unbraced nig r KWCaRbEvgkaM
r
gyration tUcCageKénmuxkat;KitCa in. \T§iBlén Local buckling GaRs½ynwgpleFobénTTwgnig
kMras;énmuxkat;éneRKOgbgÁúM. TMrg; W EdlmanCMerABI 8/ 10/12/ nig 14 in

RtUv)aneKeRbIR)as;TUeTAeRcInCageKsMrab;ssrGaKar nig eRKOgbgÁúMrgkMlaMg sgát;epSgeTot.
sMrab;eRKOgbgÁúMrgnUvkMlaMgsgát;KμanCnÞl; TMrg;EdlmansmtßPaBCageK KWCaTMrg; EdlmantMél r y
cMeBaHGkS½tUcCageK nigtMél r cMeBaHGkS½FMCageK. sMrab;muxkat;EdlekIneLIg bnþicmþg²

x
RtUv)aneRbICaeRKOgbgÁúMrgkMlaMgsgát; EpñkEdlcUlrYm kñúgEpñkCaeKalEdlrgbnÞúkdUcCa

karcgr)arKYrmansmtßPaBkat;pþac;y:agtic 2°énbnÞúktamGkS½.
RbEvgssr effective Affectivity column length
rUbmnþGnuvtþn_d¾RtwmRtUvsMrab;smtßPaBssr sMrab; ASD b¤ LRFD GaRs½ynwgkareRCIs erIstMél K

d¾RtwmRtUv. GkS½enHmanGtßn½yfa CapleFobénRbEvgssr effective eTAnwgRbEvg KμanCnÞl;BitR)akd
(actual unbraced length) . sMrab;ssr pin-ended EdlmanclnabMlas;TIxag cugRtUvkarBar
K=1 .b:uEnþCaTUeTA K GacFMCag b¤tUcCag 1Éktþa. ]TahrN_ BinitüemIlssrkñúg eRKagbgÁúMkñúgrUb 4-1
vaGaRs½yTaMgRsugeTAnwgPaBrwgpÞal;xøÜnva sMrab;lMnwgRbqaMgnwgcMehogxøÜn. RbsinebIbnÞúkcMGkS½

manGMeBIMelIvaRKb;RKan; RbEvg effective rbs;vanwgelIsRbEvgBitR)akdrbs;va. b:uEnþRbsinebIeRKagbgÁúM
RtUv)anTl;karBarcMehogxøÜn RbEvg effective RtUvEttUcCagRbEvgBitR)akd BIeRBaHPaBFn;énbgVil
xagcugpþl;eGayeday girder .
rUb 4-1 rUbragéneRKOgbgÁúMéneRKagrwgbNþalmkBIcMehogxøÜn
tMélK tamRTwsþIsMrab;lkçxN½ÐRbkbedaysuRkitPaB 6EbbEdlmantMNbgVil nigbMlas;TIenA

cugTaMgsgxag b¤k¾Kμan)anbgðajkñúgrUb 4-2.
rUb 4-2 tMélRbEvgssr effective K sMrab;lkçxNÐ½RbkbedaysuRkwtPaB
karkt;cMNaMtMélpgEdrRtUv)anENnaM edayRkumRbwkSaRsavRCavssrsMrab;eRbIR)as;enAkñúgkarKit bøg;enAeBl

lkçxNÐ½ TaMgenHmantMélRbhak;RbEhl. enAeBlEdlmuxtMNmanPaBrwgmaMRtUv)an TTYleBjeljedaykMr
tMélénkarKitbøg;mantMélFMCag tamRTwsþIbnþic RtUv)anpþl;sMrab;ssr EdlmancugrwgmaM. esovePAlMGit
bec©keTs (Specification) min)anpþl;nUvlkçN³sMrab;PaBFn; cMehogxøÜn eRkambnÞúkbBaÄrBIeRBaHvamin
GacvaytMél)anRtwmRtUvnUvPaBrwgmaMénsmasPaBepSg énsMNg;GaKar. pÞúyeTAvijesovePAlMGit
bec©keTs sMGageTAelIlkçxN½ÐTUeTAEdlFøab;man bTBiesaFn_Bimux KWCakarRKb;RKan;.
1>5 Fñwm Beam
FñwmRtUv)ancat;TukCa compact RtUv)anGnuBaØaticMeBaH bending Stress KitCa Ksi Edl F =0.66f

b y
sMrab;épÞcugbMputTaMgsgxagsMrab;kMlaMgTaj nigkMlaMgsgát;Edl F KWCa Yield Stress KitCa ksi.

y
eRKOgbgÁúMxagelIEdlmanGkS½suIemRTIeTAnwgbøg;énbnÞúk flange EdlrgnUvkMlaMgsgát;

RtUv)anTl;y:agRKb;RKan;edIm,IkarBarnwgkarbMlas;TIxag ehIyva)anbegáInnUvm:Um:g; Plastic eBj elj
(section modulus KuNnwg yield stress) munnwgekag (buckling) .
1>6 Plater girders

Plater girders GacmanTaMgCaTMrg;RbGb; b¤TMrg;GkS I. smasPaKcMbgKW Plate b¤ Plate nigmuM
RtUv)antMerob Edlbøg;BMnuHkat;TTwgKWsuIemRTIeTal b¤TaMgKUr. CaTUeTAEpñknimYy²RtUv)ant
P¢ab;edaykarpSay:agCab;bnþKña. sMrab;sMNg;EdlmanRsab; kartP¢ab;GaceFVIeLIgedayrIev b¤b‘ULúgkat; plate
nigmuM. rUb 4-3 BN’naBI girder RbePTTMrg;GkSr I. Plate girders RtUv)aneRbICaTUeTAsMrab; ElVgEvg
EdlvacMNayGs;luyticCag rolled TMrg; GkSr W b¤kEnøgEdleRKOgbgÁúMtMrUveGayman web esþIg
b¤CMerAFMCagGVIEdl rolled TMrg;GkSr W man.
rUb 4-3 Plate
2> karksagsMNg;Edk Steel erection

karyl;[)anc,as;BIGIVEdlGñkplit[ nigGVIEdleKminpþl;[dl;Gñksagsg;CaTUeTA sMrab;kic©snüa
plit KWGacehAsMrab;EtkardwkCBa©ÚnEtb:ueNÑaH vaCaerOgsMxan; ehIy]bmaEdkEdl)anplit eKTijedayQr
elIkar dwkdl;TIkEnøgCamUldæanb:ueNÑaH.
karpþl;[enAkñúgkic©snüasagsg;)aneFVICaelxkUd CaEpñkénkic©snüaEdlRtUv)aneRbI CaerOy²
enAeBlEdlkarbegáItCaTUeTAenaH)anTTYlkaryl;RBm nigyl;y:agc,as;BIkMritbnÞab; rvagGVIEdlpþl;[nwg
GVIEdlmin)anpþl;[enAkñúgkic©snüa. karxVHxatdUcCakarpþl;[ kic©snüa edIm,Iecosvag karyl;RclM
enAeBleRkayRtUvEtrab;eGay)anlMGitfaetI vaCaPar³kic©rbs;PaKI NamYysMrab;kic©snüa. eRkamelxkUd
nigy:agehacNas;k¾manehAbBa¢ak;y:agc,as;sMrab; Éksarkic©snüa dUcCa bg¥ÜcEdk (steel sash)
EdksnøwkdMbUlpñt; b¤EdksnøwkCBa¢aMg nigEdkrnUt openweb nigEpñkRsedogKña eTaHRbsinebIvaeFVIBIEdk
nigmanbgðajkñúgbøg;kic©snüak¾edayk¾vamin RtUv)anrab;bBa©ÚlkñúgRbePTeRKagsMNg;EdkeT. dUcKñasMrab;
RbePTeRKagTVarRtUv)andkecjeTaHbI eFVIBITMrg;eRKagbgÁúMk¾eday RbsinebIvaminP¢ab;eTAnwg eRKagbgÁúM tamviFI
edIm,IsMrbsMrYlCamYynwg ¬CaEpñkéneRKagEdk¦. mü:agvijeTotFñwmLaMgtU Edldac;EtÉg EdlbgðajenAelI
bøg; b¤enAelI kmμviFIdac;edayELkRtUv)anrab;bBa©Úl.
rUb 4-4 karpSatMNssr
tamry³elxkUd plitkr)anpþl;CamYynwgeRKagbgÁúMEdk sMrab;sagsg;edayGñkNamñak; enaHnUv

b‘ULúg EdltMrUvsMrab;P¢ab;eTAnwgEdk. eTaHCay:agNak¾eday plitkrmin)anpþl;[eTnUv ral;sMPar³xageRkam
elIkElgEtmankarbBa¢ak;y:agc,as;enAkñúg lixitGeBa¢Ij [edjéfø rYmman Slim, Fitting –up bolt, drift pins,
temporary cable FUbpSa b¤EdkbnÞHkMritkMBs;y:agesþIgsMrab;)at sesr.
elxkUdk¾)ancg¥úlbgðajpgEdr BIkarGnuvtþkarsagsg;. ]TahrN_ Gñksagsg;kuMlabfñaM

BIelIk,aleLasuI field weld b¤Ekkunkarrlat;RTnab;Edk b¤GnuvtþnUvkarlabfñaMepSgeTot elIkElg
EtmankartMrUvkarbgðajy:agc,as;EdlmanCamYynwgkarGeBa¢IjeGayedjéfø.
2>1 ]bkrN_énkarsagsg; Erection Equipment
RbsinebImanbMEbkCasklén]bkrN_sagsg; vaKWCa]bkrN_sÞÚceyag
(crane) .vaRtUv )andak;elIkg; b¤ tractor thread vaGaccl½t)an TaMgenAkñúgkardæan
nigcl½tBIkardæanmYyeTAkardæan mYyeTot. edayesckþIRbtibtþi
RKb;sMNg;GaKarRtUv)ansagsg;edayeRbI]bkrN_sÞÚceyagd¾man RbsiT§PaBenH.
CakarBitNas;mankarelIkElgcMeBaHGaKarx<s;² (Skyscraper) EdlmankMBs;x<s;Cag
kMBs;]bkrN_sÞÚceyag. edayRbtibtþim:asuInsÞÚcenAnwgkMritkMBs;pÞal;dI ]bkrN_sÞÚceyagRtUv)an
eRbIedIm,Isagsg;GaKarmankMBs;RbEvg20Can; kMBs;GtibrmaGaRs½yeTAnwgRbEvgéndgsÞÚc nig TTwgGaKar.
Guy Derrick KWCa]bkrN_sÞÚceyagEdleKeRbIR)as;sMrab;sagsg;GaKarx<s;² y:agTUlM TUlay.
GtßRbeyaCn_d¾cMbgrbs;va KWCakardak;Can;elIKña y:aggayRsYlkñúgdMeNIrkarsagsg;BI eRkameLIgelI.

dgsnÞÚcnig dgekþagmanTItaMgpÞúyKña ehIyGacbt;EbnedIm,IelIksMPar³epSgeTot vaRtUvkarry³eBl
2em:agedIm,Idak;Can;Kña )ankMBs;2Can;. Stiff-leg derrick nig gin poles KWCa ]bkrN_sÞÚceyag2 epSgeTot
EdlCYnkal RtUv)aneRbIR)as;TUeTAedIm,ICMnYydl;]bkrN_sÞÚceyag (crane) nig guy derrick . Gin poles
KWCa]bkrN_sÞÚceyagFmμtaCageK nwgmandgsÞÚceRbIExS eyagy:agsmBaØ. kMral)atrbs;vaRtUvEtman
karFanaedaysarEteRKaHfñak;edaysarkarFøak;ecj. ]bkrN_enHmanRbeyaCn_sMrab;elIkdak;sMPar³bnÞab;b
nSMsMrab;edaHruHerI nigeFVIeGay]bkrN_sÞÚc eyagFM² kan;EtTabeLIg²
nigsMrab;sagsg;sMNg;EdkRsalEdlkareRbIR)as;]bkrN_sÞÚceyag Crane minGac eRbIR)as;)an.
]bkrN_sÞÚceyag Stiff-leg derrick KWmanRbsiT§iPaBCageK EdleKGactMeLIgvasMrab;
ry³eBlyUrGEgVg. vaRtUv)aneKeRbIR)as;edIm,Isagsg;sMNg;GaKareRcInCan; b:uEnþminsUvman RbCaRbiyPaB
BIeRBaHeKtMrUvkarelIkbnþúbCaCan;² kñúgry³eBlyUr. eKalkarN_cMbgEdleKeRbI R)as; ]bkrN_sÞÚceyag
stiff-leg KW ¬1¦ elIkEdkecjBIreTHrujelIpøÚvEdkdak;elILandwk ¬2¦ pÞúknwgdak;tamRbePTsMPar³ nwg¬3¦
enAeBldak;elIdMbUlrabesμI nigelIkEdkeTAkan;kMritkMBs;dMbUl CaTIkEnøgEdlGacEjk nigdak;eday]bkrN_

guy derrick nimYy².
]bkrN_elIkdak;EdlRtUvkarry³eBldak;bnÞúkelIKñaCaCan;² ry³ticKWsMrab;RbePT ]bkrN_elIkdak;

Crane dak;elIEdkGaKarx<s;RbePTRbGb; (steel box type tower) RbEhlkMBs;bI Can;
Edldak;enABIxagkñúgRbelaHm:asuIneyagb¤ RbelaHRsedogKñaenHsMrab;sagsgEdk. ]bkrN_sÞÚceyag
Tower crane TaMgenHKWRtUv)aneyageLIgelIy:agsmBaØedaysMBaF Hydaulic b¤edayExSkabEdlman

kagarsagsg; GMBIEdlsMrab;CadgTMrg. sMrab;viFId¾éTeTot ]bkrN_sÞÚceyag stiff-leg derrick RtUv)andak;
enAelII trusse rabesμI nigeKagenAelIssrBIr b¤eRcIn nigfamBlEdlGacQandl;kar sagsg;ssrxageRkA.
CabEnßmsMrab;GtßRbeyaCn_énkarelIdak;bnþúbelIKña )any:agelOnCagmun viFIenHGnuBaØati[dMeNIr karsagsg;
Edk)ankan;Etx<s;kan;Etqab;.
2>2 RbeLaHkñúgkarsagsg;Fñwm Clearance for erecting beams
GñkKitbøg;RtUvEtpþl;nUvRbelaHRKb;RKan;pgEdr sMrab;RKb;eRKOgbgÁúMTaMgGs;EdlGnuBaØati [kar
sagsg;Kμan karRbeRCotCamYynwgEdkEdl)ansagsg;mun. GñkKUrKMnUrsMrab;kargarEtgEt erobcMy:ag
lMGitEdl eRKOgbgÁúMGacdak;cUleTAkñúgTItaMgcugeRkayrbs;va edayGacGgáileRKOgbgÁúM EdleyIgGact
P¢ab;vaeTA nwgTItaMgcugeRkay. rUb]TahrN_xageRkambgðajBIlkçxN½ÐEdlCYbRbTH jwbjab;CageK
kñúgkargarsagsg;sMNg;GaKar³
rUb 4-5 karsagsg;edayTukRbeLaHsMrab;Fñwm
sMrab;eRKagbgÁúMtMNFñwm ¬rUb 4-5¦ cMgayCagbnþicBIcugmçag eTAcugmçagéntMNEkg (B-½ in)

ebIeRbobeFobCamYynwgcMgayQmmuxKña rvageRKOgbgÁúMTMr CaTUeTARtUv)anpþl;RKb;RKan;edIm,Iruj
bBa©ÚlkñúgTItaMgcugeRkay. eTaHCay:agNak¾eday yUr²mþedaysarFñwmmanRbEvgxøI b¤FñwmmantMN
EkgrwgEdlmaneCIgTUlayd¾l¥RtUv)antMrUv RbEvgGgát;RTUgEtmYyeLasuIpÞúM² eTAnwgeRKagFñwmedIm,I
GnuBaØtidl;karruHerIvakñúgkarsagsg;. dMeNaHRsaydéTeTot RtUv)aneRbIsMrab;P¢ab;CaGcié®nþy_eTA
elImuxtMNEkg énKUrmçag² eTAnwg web énFñwmTMr nigmYleLasuIbeNþaHGasnñeTAnwgEkgepSgeTot én Web

sMrab;pÁúMdUcbgðajkñúgrUb 4-6.
rUb4-6 viFId¾éTeTotsMrab;pþl;RbeLaHkñúgkarsasg;
FñwmKYrRtUv)anGegátsMrab;RbeLaHsMrab;kardak;eLasuItMNEkgGcié®nþy_BImun. eKKYrmankarRbug
Rby½tñcMeBaHPaBRbeRCotKñakñúgkardak;sMPar³P¢ab; énFñwmeTAnwgTIkEnøg enAeBlEdleRKOgbgÁúMTMr KW plate
girder .
]TahrN_epSgeTotKW sMrab;FwñmEdldak;eKagelIssr web ¬rUb 4-7¦. CMhanTI1KWruHelI

EkgxagelIeK nigbnÞH shim beNþaHGasnñecj. bnÞab;mkenAeBlEdl derrick cgBüÜredayExS reyag
FñwmRtUvTajbnþwgcugmçageTAnwgCayéncug flange bnÞab;BIvabgVilRtlb;mkTItaMgedkehIy dak;enAelIbgÁúy.
RbEvgGgát;RTUgFMCageK G énFñwm KYrmanRbEvg ⅛ in tUcCagcMgay F cenøaHmux QmKñaénssr
Web .vak¾RtUvEtXøatecjBI]bsKÁxagelI ]TahrN_ RbEvg G RtUvEtesμI b¤tUcCa RbEvg C
b¤karlMGitBI]bsKÁRtUvEtbBa©Úlb‘ULúgsMrab;karruHerIbeNþaHGasnñ.
rUb 4-7 RbeLaHsMrab;Fñwmdak;elItMNssr Web

edIm,IGnuBaØatisMrab;karRbeRCotcUl)an RbEvg L rbs;FñwmKYrRtUvtUcCagRbEvglMGitE eday
tMély:agticEdlGnuBaØatidl;karkat;tMélGnueRKaH. Cajwkjab; ]bsKÁsMrab;tMNFñwmxagelIGac
CakarlMGiténmuxtMNrssr. vaGaccaM)ac;cgP¢ab;eTAnwgmuxtMNénssr Web .sMPar³enAxag
eRkamcugénxagelIbMputrbs;dgbgVil RbsinebIsagsg;Fñwmmunnwgsagsg;ssrsMrab;Can;xagelI.
2>3 lMdab;énkarsagsg; Erection sequence

karbBa¢asMrab;karplit nigdwkCBa¢ÚnEdkeTAdl;TIkEnøgsagsg;RtUvmanEpnkarCamunedIm,I kuMeGayman
karb:HTgÁicCamYynwg viFIb¤eBlevlasagsg;rbs;GñksMNg;. ]TahrN_RbsinebIEdk
RtUv)ansagsg;eday ]bkrN_sÞÚceyag derrick TItaMgRbhak;RbEhlRtUv)ankMNt;BIkartMeLIg
sMrab;dak;]bkrN_sÞÚceyag b¤CaEpñk eTAkñúgeRKagbgÁúMTaMgmUl RtUvEtbMEbkedIm,IerobcMeGayman rebob.
enAeBlEdlrt;eLIg) andwkCBa¢ÚneTAdl;kardæansMrab;TItaMgEdl)ankMNt;BImuneKRtUverob cMEpnkard¾smrmü
edIm,Ikat;bnßykargar Edl\tRbeyaCn_. Bt’manGacRtUvbgðajeTA[bnÞb; Gñk KUrKMnUr
EdlkartMeLIgGacRtUvbgðajenAelIbøg; sagsg;ngi bgðajenAelIbBa¢IénsMPar³. srab;kar sagsg;
CamYyGaKareRcInCan;eday guy derrick karGnuvtþn_KWkarelIknig dak;RKb;ssrsMrab;Can; nImYy²
dMbUgFñwmkat;ElVg nigCBa¢aMgTl;bnÞb; ehIyFñwmkñúgnig CBa¢aMgTl;bnÞb; ehIyFñwmkñúgCamYy nwgFñwmbMeBj
cugeRkayeKbg¥s;. bBa¢ak;[kan;Etc,as; karsagsg; RtUvcab;epþImedayElVgEdl
enAq¶ayBI]bkrN_sÞÚceyagcUlmkkan;Etekok]bkrN_sÞÚceyag rhUtTal;Et)an biTCit. bnÞab;
mk]bkrN_sÞÚceyagRtUv)andak;bnþúb rhUtdl;kMBUledayGnuvtþRcMEdlsMrab;Can;eRkay². Ca
TUeTACan;cugkMBUleKRtUvRkalkþaBIelIedIm,ITTYl)annUvkMraskargarrabesμIsMrab;Gñksagsg; nig edIm,Iman
lT§PaB karBarCMnajkargarEdlenABIeRkam. eTaHCay:agNak¾eday munnwg]bkrN_sÞÚc eyagRtUv)andak;
bnÞúbbnþ kþabnÞH RCugRtUv)anRbeyal[Rtg; RsedogKña enAeBlkþabnÞHRtUv)an sagsg;katGaKar
ExSkabRtUv )ancgbnþwgedIm,IRbeyaleRKagsMNg;.
2>4 dMeNIrkarpSar Field –Welding
muxgarcMbgénlMdab;énkarpSarKW karRtYtRtanUvkarxUcrUbragEdlbNþalmkBI\T§iBlén karkMedApSar.
CaTUeTAkMedAd¾ekþAEdlpþl;[kñúgry³eBld¾xøI)anbNþal[xUcRTg;RTayy:agxøaMg.
dUcenHvaEtgEteFVIeTA)ansMrab;muxtMNFM² edIm,IpSartamlMdab; CamYynwgeBlRKb;RKan;cenøaHral;
lMdab;nimYy² edIm,IFananUvkareFVIeGayEbkExVkénkMedAsBV elIkElgcMeBaHkMedAEdlRtUvkaredIm,I
b®gÁb;sItuNðPaB Interpass- temperature. sarsMxan;esμIKña ehIyRbEhlman\T§iBlCagBITsSn³
rbs;Gñksagsg; KWCaviFIEdldak;[manPaBesμIKña nUvkMedAbBa©ÚlkñúglkçN³Edlcg;e)aHbg;ecalnUv
\T§iBlvibtþirUb. pSarBIelI Flang mYyénssr)aneFVI[ssrmanlkçN³Ggáaj;² enAEpñkxageday
sarEtPaBrYjmaDén Stress. karGnuvtþn_d¾RbesIrCagsMrab;tMNFñwm enAelIépÞsgxagénssrKWpSar

tMNépÞpÞúyKñaRBmKña. dUcenHPaBrYjmaDén flang nimYy²KWrkSalMnwg nigrkSassrmanPaBRtg;.
RbsinebIkarpSarRBm²Kña minGaceFVIeTA)an bnÞab;mkdMeNIrkarpSarKWeFVIedaylMdab;.
RbEhl60°énkarpSarRtUv)aneFVisMrab;FñwmTI1 bnÞab;mkmuxtMNenAelIépÞpÞúyKñaGacnwgRtUvpSar
eGay)ansBVRKb;CabBa©b; karpSarenAelIFñwmTI1GacRtUvb®gÁb;.
dMeNIrkarenHGacbnßynUvvibtþirUb )any:agRbesIr. tambTBiesaFn_ )anbgðaj[eXIjfa
karGnuvtþn_d¾l¥kñúgkarpSarKWcab;epþImBI kNþal b¤CitTIkNþalrYcpSarecjmkxag. ssrKYrRtUv)anBinitüfa
jwbjab;sMrab;CYrQr BIeRBaH PaBrYjmaDénTwkbnSaGacnwgeFVI[cMgayrvagssrkan;EtxøI.
eTaHbICakarpøas;bþÚrTMhMénmuxtMNr nimYy² mantMéltUcEmnETnk¾eday
k¾vaGacRbmUlpþúMKñaCabrimaNKYreGayCMTas;sMrab;CYredky:ag Evgénssr. viFImYysMrab;kat;bnßy
vibtþirUbKWGnuBaØati[PaBrYjmaDenARKb;muxtMN 1¼16 sMrab; ElVg 20 ft edayTaj[twg b¤latenAelIssr.
dUcenH karlat ⅛ in sMrab;cugTaMgBIrénFñwmEdlman Flange pSarTl;eTAnwgssrGacnwg

sagsg;enAkñúgsib,kmμ ]TahrN_edayBRgIkKMlaténrn§eLasuIsMrab;Fñwm)at Flange. eTaHCay:ag
NakarRtYtBinitü KWedayExSlYsrhUtdl;RKb;cMnucTaMgGs;RtUv)anpSar.
kareFVIeGaykan;EtxøIeLIg² énElVgGackøayeTACaxøaMgeLIg² sMrab;CYredkénssrEdlFñwm
P¢ab;eTAnwgssr flange BIeRBaHkareFVIeGaykan;EtxøIedayPaBrYjmaDGacnwgpSMCamYynwgkarkinenA
elICMerAénssr. CayUrmþg karbEnßmedIm,Ilatssr GaccaM)ac;edIm,IEktMrUvlkçxNÐ½edaybEnßm
EdkbnÞHbMeBj b¤erobcMedaykarpSarEdk.
rUb 4-8 karbgðajBIlMdab;énkarpSarmuxtMN
GñkKitbøg;xøHéneRKagsMNg;edaysarkarpSarFM² cUlcitþ
lMGitlMdab;karpSarsMrab;muxtMNnimYy². ]TahrN_enAelIKMeragmYy dMeNIrkarsMrab;muxtMN)an
bgðajkñúgrUb 4-8 EdlehAfakarGnuvtþn_4Rbtibtþi b¤4 lMdab; ³ TI1 xagelIkMBUl 6in énkarpSar
kat;pþac;edaymuxtMNQrRtUv)aneFVI TI2/ pSareTAelI flange xagelI/ TI3 pSaeTAelI flange xageRkam
nigTI4pSarnUvkEnøgsl;sMrab;muxtMNQr. sItuNðPaBEdkRtUvTuk[eTA rksPaB
Fmμtamunnwgcab;epþImdMNak;kalnImYy². KuNsm,tþimYyéndMeNIrenH KWRbeyaCn_én prestressing
EdlTTYlenAkñúgkarpSarmuxtMN. Stress kMlaMgTajRtUv)anbegáInenAkñúg flange xageRkamenAeBl RtCak;
stress kMlaMgsgát;énTMhMRsedogKña EdlCalT§pl)anBI Flange xagelI. enAeBl Stress
TaMgenHpÞúyeTAnwgGVIEdlbegáItedaykMralbnÞúk stress énkarpSarKWmanRbeyaCn_sMrab;RTnUvkMral bnÞúk.
sUm,IEtkarCMnYjplitGac)ankark¾eday vaminmanviFIyl;RBmsMrab; edaHRsayRbeyaCn_ énkarecaTRbkan;
eTAkñúgkarKitbøg;tamEbbsnSMsMéc.
karsagsg;eRKagsMNg;eRcInCan;eday]bkrN_ TMrBIelIkargarEdkdUcvaelIkedaydak; bnÞúksagsg;
RbQmnwg stress nigPaBlUtrYj strain . lT§plénkMhUcRTg;RTayKYrKitenAkñúgrUbmnþ énkarpSarCalMdab;.
CMBUk V
eRKOgbgÁMGMBIeQI nigsMPar³
WOOD STRUCTURE AND MATERIAL
3
1> sMPar³ Material

1>1 lkçN³mUldæanrbs;eQI Basic Characteristic of Wood
Gtßn½yEbøk² BIKñaCaeRcInGMBIeQIRtUv)anmkBIsMPar³sMNg;epSgeTot. rcnasm<½n§eka sikarrbs;va
KWTTYlxusRtUveTAnwgkMritd¾sMebIménPaBxusEbøkKña enH. edaysarEtrcnasm<½n§enH lkçN³
rcnasm<½n§GaRs½yeTAnwgTisedAénsés eQI. enAeBlEdlrcnasm<½n§énsmÖar³KWCa isotropic Edl
lkçN³esÞIrEtdUcKñaenARKb;TisedA eQImanTisedAsréscMbgbIKW tamry³beNþay (Longitudina)
tamry³CakaM (radial) nigtamry³pudæerxa (tangential). bnÞúkEdlpþl;[tamTisedA beNþay KWsMedA
elIbnÞúkEdlRsbeTAnwg sréseQIcMENkÉbnÞúkkat;tam TTwg KWsMedAelIbnÞúk Edlkat;séseQI.
eQImanPaBFn;nwgkMlaMg niglkçN³rwgCagtamry³beNþaysréseQI. PaBFn;nwgkMlaMg nig
lkçN³rwmanlkçN³TabeRcInCagcMeBaHbnÞúkEdlkat;sréseQI.
cMeBaHkat;sgát;eQITTYlbnÞúkRsbeTAnwgsréseQIKWxøaMgCag 6eTA10dgenAeBlvaTTYlbnÞúk EkgeTAnwg
sréseQI. elIsBI enHeTotbgÁMeQImanm:UDúleGLassÞik (modulus of elasticity) 3EdlmanpleFobBIFMCag
eKeTAtUc CageKedayTMhMKW 150³1. eQIrgnUvkarpøas;bþÚrTMhMBI PaBxusKñaEdlmanenAkñúgrcnasm<n½sMPar³.
dUcCa eQIrIkmaDedaysarkMedA (thermal expansion) KWmantMéltUcNas;EdlmincaM)ac;cMeBaHkar
eRbIR)as;TUeTA. eTaHCay:agNa Gtßn½yénkarpøasbþÚrTMhMRbRBwtþeTAedaykar)at;bg; b¤TTYl sMeNIm.
karrIkmaD nigkarrYmmaDbNþalmkBIkarpøas;bþÚrsMeNImERbRbYleTAtamTisedAénsrés eQITaMg3³
karpøas;bþÚrTMhMTaMgenHKW 5eTA 10° tamTisedapudæerxa (tangential) 3eTA7° tam TisedArgVas;kaM (radial)
b:uEnþmanEtBI 0>1 eTA 0>3°tamTisedAbeNþay (longitudinal) .
eQIpþl;nUvsarRbeyaCn_y:ageRcInenAkñúgkarGnuvtþn_sMNg; rYmmankarkk;ekþA esaPN½ÐPaB
PaBGacEkécñ)an PaByUrGEgVg PaBgayRsYleFVIkar tMélefakkñúgmYyepan pleFobrvagPaB Fn;
nigTMgn;x<s; PaBmincMlgcrnþGKÁIsnI karcMlgkMedATab nigPaBFn;nwgkMlaMgd¾\tex©aH enA
sItuNðPaBTab.vamansmtßPaBkarBareRKOgqk;x<s;.vaGacRTaMRTl¥eTAnwgkarswkricril CaBiess enAcug
bBa©b;énséseQI. vaGacbt;Ebn)any:aggayRsYledaymanTMnak;TMngeTAnwg]bkrN_ EkécñmutRsYc.
fñaMlabbegðIyEdlRKbdNþb;elIvis½yCaeRcIn GacRtUv)aneRbIsMrab;tubEtglMG b¤ sMrab;eKalbMNgkarBar.
eQIGacRtUv)aneRbITaMgkñúgkarGnuvtþn_s¶Ütnig esIm. fñaMlabkarBarrkSa sac;eQIGacRtUv)aneRbI
enAeBlcaM)ac;dUcCaBnüWtkareqH ¬minsmRsbsMrab;rab;plitpleQITaMg Gs;eT¦. vak¾mankareRCIserIs

énlMdab;eRcIny:agEdlCalMdab;énlkçN³EtmYyKt;.
CabEnßm RbBn½§eRKageQIeRcInEbbk¾Gacrk)an. bMNgénkareRbIR)as;eRKagTItaMg PUmisa®sþ
tMrUvkarrUbrag tMél nigktþaepSg²xøHeTotkMNt;nUvRbB½n§bgÁMd¾l¥bMputsMrab;eRbIR)as;kñúg KMeragBiess².
FmμCatirbs;eQIKWFn;eTAnwgKImIxøHEdleFVIeGaysMPar³xøHmaneRcHxøaMg. vaKWsMPar³ sMNg;Edll¥CageK
kñúgkarFn;eTAnwgGasuItEdlminxøaMgCaBiess kñúgsItuNðPaBFmμta. vaFn;l¥ bMput eTAnwgGasuItxniCPaKeRcIn
CaBiess GaesTic (acetic) . eTaHCay:agNa eKkMrykeQIeTA eRbICamYyl,ayEdlexSayCag Gal;kaLaMg.
RbtikmμKImIedaykardak;laybBa©ÚlGuksuIEhSn nigGMbwlEdk sMrab;bnSMkñúglkçxNÐ½sMeNIm RtUv)anecosvag.
eQIRtUv)anpSMedaysarFatu cellulose RbEhlBI 50 eTA 70° lingin BI25 eTA 30° nig extractive 5°
EdlticCagRbUetGuIn 2°. GasuItdUcCa GaesTic (acetic), formic, lactic nig boric
min)anbegáItGuIy:ugRKb;RKan;enAkñúg bnÞb;sItuNðPaBedIm,IbMpøaj cellulose eT
dUecñHehIymin)aneFVI[eQIxUcxateT. enAeBl PH én sUluysüúgGasuItexSay KW 2b¤eRcInCagenH
pleFobén]Tskmμ ¬hydrolysis= karEjkykFatu Twk¦ BI cellulose KWtUc nigGaRs½yeTAnwgsuItuNðPaB.
kar)a:n;sμanRbhak;RbEhlén\T§iBlsItuNðPaB KWral;karekIneLIg20 F pleFob ]Tskmμ nwgekIneTVrdg.
º
GasuItEdlmantMél PH FMCag2 b¤)asEdlmantMél PH tUcCag 10 man\T§iBlexSactictUc

eTAelIeQIenAkñúgbnÞb;sItuNðPaB RbsinebIry³eBlénkareFVIRbtikmμenA cenøaHkNþal.
karpþaMepJIrBIkarKit Design Recommendation
xageRkamenHKW CakarpþaMepJIr kñúgeKalbMNgTTYlnuvkarKitRbkbedaykarsnSMsMécnUv eRKagbgÁMeQI ³
- eRbInUveQIGarEdlmanTMhM niglMdab;fñak;EdlCabTdæan. ykcitþTukdak;kñúgkareRbIR)as;

CabTdæannUvsmasPaKeRKagbgÁM rYmmaneQIGar FñwmEdl)anBIbnSMeQIbnÞHedaybiTkav ¬stoc glue-laminated
beam ¦ b¤eRKagbgÁMepSgeTotEdlKitsMrab;eRKagbgÁMeGaymanPaBRKb;RKan;man KuNPaB nigkarsnSMsMéc.
- eRbInUvmuxtMNrtictYc nigsmBaØEdlGaceFVIeTA)an. dak;tMNenAeBlcaM)ac;enAkEnøg Edlman

stress tUcCageKbMput. kuMdak;tMNenAkEnøgEdlmanm:Ub:g;kac;FM dUecñHecosvagnUvkarKit kartMeLIg
karbegáIteLIgEdlmanPaBlM)ak. ecosvagkarpøas;bþÚrmuxkat;TTwgénbgÁMEdlmincaM )ac;tambeNþay
RbEvgrbs;va.
- eRbInUvbTdæanlMGit enAkEnøgNaEdlGacRbRBwtþeTA)an ecosvagnUvkarKitCalkçN³ Biessnig

karplitnUvmuxtMNeRKOgrwg.
- eRbInUvkarKiteRKOgbgÁMdUcKña RcMdEdl²sMrab;eRKagbgÁMTaMgmUl enAeBlNaEdlGaceFVI eTA)an.
rkSanUvelxénkartMerobEbøkKñaeGay)anGb,brima. bBa¢ak;nUvtMrUvkarénkarKit stress edIm,IGnuBaØatinUv
lMdab;d¾TUlayénplitplEdlGac[ykmkeRbIsMrab;pþl;nUvsßanPaBénkarKit.
- eRbInUvplitplKabeQI erobcMCamYynigkarrkSakarBar kEnøgEdllkçxN½ÐesvabBa¢a.
karcaM)ac;énRbRBwtþkmμxagelIminRtUv)aneRbIsMrab;sac;eQIBuk b¤k¾stVl¥itkat;. karlabfñaMBnüWt
GKÁIP½yGacRtUv)aneRbIedIm,IbRgÁb;nUvGRta specific flamespead sMrab;RsTab;begðIyEpñkxagkñúgb:uEnþ
mincaM)ac;sMrab;eRKOgbgÁMEdlmanmuxkat;TTwgFM² Edldak;y:agTUlaynigmanPaBFn;nwg ePøIgBI FmμCatieday
sarEtTMnak;TMngeTAnwgTMhMk¾FMrbs;va.
- CMnYsnUvElVgsamBaØehIyEvg cUrBicarNaeRbIR)as;nUvElVgCab; b¤BüÜrb¤ElVgsmBaØEdlmandg
BüÜrBIelI.
cUreRCIserIsnUvlMdab;Edlbgðaj[eXIjEdll¥CageK EdlsakmüeTAnwgKMerag. kuMeRCIs erIsnUv
lMdab;Edl)anbgðaj[eXIjEdlmanKuNPaBx<s;CageKsMrab;eRKOgbgÁMTaMgGs;RbsinebIvaminRtUvkar.
1>2 lkçN³emkanicéneQI Mechanical Properties of Wood
edaysarEtrcnasm<n½§rbs;va eQImanlkçN³Fn;eTAnwgkMlaMgtamTisedAbeNþaynig Ekg

eTAnwgséseQIepSgKña. PaBFn;enAnwgkMlaMgTaj kMlaMgBt; kMlaMgsgát; mantMélFMCag sMrab;
kMlaMgEdlRsbnwgsésreQI nigmantMéltUcCagsMrab;kMlaMgEdlkat;sésreQIEdlPaBFn;nwg
kMlaMgkat;pþac; mantMéltUcCagsMrab;kMlaMgEdlRsbnwgsésreQI ehIyFMCagsMrab;kMlaMgEdl
kat;TTwgsésreQI. elIkElgsMrab;eQIkug)øaek Plywood PaBFn;eTAnwgkMlaMgkat;pþac;éneQI
CaTUeTARtUv)anRKb;RKgtamTisedARsbnwgsésreQI. PaBFn;nwgkMlaMgsgát;tamTisedAepSgBI Rsb
rWEkgnwgsésreQIRtUv)anpþl;[tamrUbmnþxageRkam ³
C1 . C 2
Cө =
C 1 sin2ө + C 2 cos2ө
Edl Cө :KWCaPaBFn;eTAnwgkMlaMgEdlpþl;[EdlmanmuM ө eFobnwgsésreQI

C : KWCaPaBFn;eTAnwgkMlaMgEdlRsbeTAnwgsésreQI
1
C2: KWCaPaBFn;eTAnwgkMlaMgEdlEkgeTAnwgsésreQI
karekIneLIgénsMeNIm)ankat;bnßynUvRKb;lkçN³Fn;nwgkMlaMg elIkElgEtkMlaMgBt;
EdlsMrab;eQIRss;rwgmaMgCageQIs¶Üt. kñúgkarGnuvtþn_KμanPaBxusKñaRtUv)anKiteTrvagPaBFn;én kMlaMgsMrab;
eQIRss;nig eQIs¶Üt sMrab;visVkmμeQIBIeRBaHedaysarkgVHxaténkarsMgYtEdlGac ekIteLIgeTAelIeQI
nigBIeRBaHCaTUeTAeQIFM²RtUv)andak;[eRbIR)as;edayKμansMgYt. vaminEmnCa karBiteT sMrab;eQIbnÞH
(laminated timber) EdleQIs¶ÜtRtUv)aneRbIsMrab;edIm,ITTYlnUvkarbiTmux tMNedaykar)anl¥. sMrab;eQI
bnÞHeKGaceRbI stress x<s;CageQIGarFmμta. CaTUeTAkMlaMgsgát;

nigkMlaMgBt;tambeNþaysac;eQIRtUv )anTTYl\T§iBlPaKeRcInBIsMeNIm Edlm:UDuleGLasÞic (modulus of
elasticity) PaBFn;nwg kMlaMgkac;pþac; nigPaBFn;nwgkMlaMgTajk®nþak;TTYl\T§iBlticCag.
kñúgkarGnuvtþn_PaBFn; nwgkMlaMgTajk®nþak;RsbeTAnwg séseQImantMélesμIKñanwgPaBFn; énkMlaMgBt;éneQI.
edIm,ITTYl)annUv Working Stress BIva xageRkamenHRtUv)anykmkKit ³
¬1¦³ duMnimYy²RtUvERbRbYl25°BIxageRkam nigBIxagelIénmFümPaKdac;edayELkBIKña
¬2¦³ tMélEdlTTYl)anKW)anBIkarBiesaFn_CalkçN³bTdæanEdl)anbMeBjkñúgry³eBl b:unμannaTI.
eTaHCay:agNak¾eday elIsBIGMLúgeBl1qñaM eQIGacnwgGn;fyeRkambnÞúkbnþbnÞab; Cab;KñaRbEhl 9¼16
énlT§plEdl)anBIkarBiesaFn_CalkçN³bTdæan.
¬3¦³ mUDul rupture énkarBiesaFn_ flexural CalkçN³bTdæannUvsMNak 2-in-deep KWFM
CagGVIEdlsMrab; deep beam. dUcenHsMrab;Tajyk working stress eKRtUvKitBIkarpøas;bþÚrEdlGac
ekIteLIgkñúgGMLúgeBlénbnÞúk nigTMhMehIykarkat;bnßyktþaRtUv)aneRbIeTAelIPaBFn;CamFüm Edlx<s;Cag
eKedIm,Ipþl;nUv basic stress b¤ working stress sMrab;eQIGaEdlmansñamCaM. Stress enHk¾enAEtRtUv)an
kat;bnßyteTAeTotedIm,IsnμtsñamCaMxagelICa duMBk (knot), wane,sréseQI ragCMerl (Slop of grain)
(shakes) (checks) edIm,Ipþl;[ working stress sMrab; fñak;visVkmμeQIBaNiC¢kmμ.
1>3 lkçN³\T§iBlRsUbcMhayTwkkñúgxül; Effect of hygroscopic properties

edaysarEtFmμCatirbs;va eQImanTMnrRsUbnUvsMeNImkñúgxül;enAeBlEdlTMnak;TMngsMeNImeLIg
x<s; nigbeBa©jmkvijenAeBlTMnak;TMngsMeNImcuHTab. sMeNImEdlepSImcUleTAkñúg cell wall eFVI [eQIrYm
nigrIkmaDdUceTAnwgkarpøas;bþÚrsMeNImkñúgxøÜnva CamYynwgTMnak;TMngsMeNIménxül;Edl BT§½CuMvijva.
brimaNGtibrmaénsMeNImEdlepSImkñúg Cell wall Gac[eKdwgfaCacMNucsésrEq¥t Twk (Fiber-saturation
point) nigsMrab;RbePTPaKeRcInTMgn;eQIsMgYtrYc (Oven-dry) Rbhak;RbEhl BI25 eTA30°b:ueNÑaH.

brimaNTwkesrI (Free Water) EdlmanenAkñúgRbehagekasikarelisBI cMnucsésEq¥tTwk (fiber- saturation
point) min)anCH\T§iBleTAelIPaBrYm nwgPaBrIkcMerInsac;eQI eT. karpøas;bþÚrénsMeNImEdlTabCag
cMnucsésEq¥tTwkCH\T§iBlsþÜcesþIgbMputdl;karrIkmaD nigkar rYmmaDénsac;eQIEdlPaBrIkmaD

nigkarrYmmaDénsac;eQI EdlPaBrIkrYmmaDenHCaTUeTARtUv)aneKmineGIeB. b:uEnþkat;TwgséseQIvij
karIkrYmmaDEdlKYreGayKit)anekIteLIgTaMgtamTisedAkaM rgVg; (radial) nigpudæerxa (tagential) .
karrYmmaDtampuerxa (tangential) dUcCasMPar³kat;CabnÞH (flat-cut material ) CaTUeTARbhak;RbEhl
50°FMCagkarrYmmaDtamkaMrgVg; (radial) dUcCasMPar³ Caysés (edge-grain material) .
séseQIEdlEjkecjBIKña b¤ checking KWCalT§plénsMeNIm énépÞeQIEdleFVIeGayTabeLIgy:agelOn
rYmpSMCamYynwgPaBEbøkKñarvagEpñkénsac;eQIxagkñúg nigxageRkA. enAeBlEdleQI)at;bg;sMeNIm
eTAkñúgbriyakasBT§½CuMvijva ekasikaénsac;eQIxag eRkA)at;bg;nUvGRtaelOnCagekasikaxagkñúg.
enAeBlEdlekasikarxageRkABüayamnwgrYmmaD vaRtUv)anbgçaMgedayEpñkénsac;eQIxagkñúg.
karsMgYtEdlmanel,ÓnelOnCagGac[PaBxusKña énkarrYmmaDénsac;eQIxagkñúg nigxageRkAFMCag
ehIybNþayeGay stress énkarrYmmaDk¾FMCag EdrCalT§pl check GacvivDÆeTACary³rEhksac;eQI.
Check EdlCakareRbHtamkaMrgVg; KWbNþalmkBIkarsMgYtminÉksNæanénsac;eQI. kar ry³rEhk
KWCasñameRbHEdlCalT§pl)anBIkarEjkEckséseQITaMgRsugtamkMras;énsac;eQI nigbnøayRsbtam
sréseQI. (Shake KWCaRbePTénKuNvibtþiepSgeTot. CaTUeTACakarvivDÆn_én sac;eQIEdlRsbeTAnwg
kaMrgVg;ragCacieBa©ón enAeBlEdledImeQIminTan;RtUvkab; cMENk Check nigkarry³rEhkKWCaKuNvibtþi
énkarsMgYt¦.c,ab;énkarcat;fñak;eQIGarkMNt;nUvRbePTénKuNvibtþi TaMgenH. check CH\T§iBldl;eQInUv
PaBFn;eTAnwgkMlaMgkat;pþac;tamExSedk. ktþaénkarkat; bnßyy:agFMKWRtUv)aneRbIedIm,IBiesaFn_tMélkñúg
karbegáIteLIgnUvkarKittMél (Design Values) esÞIrEtsmamaRtedaypÞal;eTAnwg pleFobénCMerAén check
enAsMrab; kMlaMgkat;pþac;tamExSedkKW RtUv)anEktMrUv sMrab;GnuBaØati[RtYtBinitünUvkMrit Stress CaeRcInkñúg
GMLúgeBlénkarcat;cMNat;fñak;. enAeBlEdllkçN³ énPaBFn;nwgkMlaMgrbs;eQIekIneLIgCamYy nwgPaB
s¶Üt check GacnwgBRgIkTMhMCamYynwgkarekIn eLIgnUvPaBs¶ÜtbnÞab;BIkardwkCBa¢Ún edaymin )ankat;bnßy
nUvPaB Fn;nwgkMlaMgkat;pþac;Edl KYr[cab; GarmμN_xøaMg. check nigkarry³rEhkEdl kat;tamsés
eQIEdlmanenAépÞxagénduMeQI b¤ check nigkarry³rEhkd¾elIslb;Edlcg;cUlrYm kñúgkEnøgkat;Kña
GacCabBaðad¾F¶n;F¶r nigGactMrUvnUvkareFVIesvakmμ. karpþl;sMrab;karRtYtBinitü \T§iBlén check enAkEnøg

kat;KñaGacnwgRtUvrYmbBa©ÚlKñaeTAkñúgkarKitlMGit.
edIm,IecosevognUvkarry³rEhkkan;EtekIneLIn cenøaHCYrénb‘ULúgEdl bNþalmkBIkarrYm
maDGMLúgeBlsMgYt duMeQIsUlItEdlGarrYc (Solid-sawn timber) CYrénb‘ULúgenaHminKYrmanKMlat eRcInCag
5Guin BIKñaeT b¤Gacm_rNarRtUvjat;cUleTAkñúgrn§enaHenAcenøaHCYrénb‘ULúg. enAeBlEdl GacmanlT§PaB
cMgaycugGtibrmasMrab; KYrEtbBa¢ak;edIm,Ikat;bnßy\T§iBlén check Edldak;cUleTA kñúgkEnøgtenaH.
GñkKitbøg;xøH (Designer) tMrUv[efñrénb‘ULúgEdlmanmux tMNeRcInéneRKOgbgÁúMTTYlbnÞúk
beBaäógeTAnwgséseQI. efñrénb‘ULúgRtUvrkSaPaBtwg nigmanEdk BRgwgenAeBlEdl check FM.
eKalkarN_d¾mansarsMxan;mYyénsMNg;eQIbnÞHbiTkav (Glued-laminated timber) KWman
TMnak;TMngrYcputBI check. eTaHCay:agNa karsMgYt check GacRbRBwtþeTA)anenAkñúgeRKOgbgÁMbiT
Cab;KñaCabnÞH² edayC½rkavCamYynwgcMNat;fñak; EdlmanEbbEpnénsMeNImkñúxøÜnvaBI 7 eTA 16°
sMrab;karbnÞHeQIEdlbiTCabnÞH² kñúgeBlénkarbiTehIyvanwgmansMeNImkñúgxøÜnRbhak;RbEhl
kñúglkç½xNÐ½eRbIR)as;Fmμta edayehtuenH check RtUv)ankat;bnßy. dUcenHsMeNImenAkñgsac;eQI
EdlmanTMhMFM² bnÞab;BIbiTkavCalT§plénkarrYmrIksac;eQI ehIykñúgkMLúgeBlrYmmaD check
GacvivDÆn_TaMgkñúgmuxtMNkavnig sac;eQI. GRtaénPaBxusKñarvagkarrYmmaD énkþabnÞHbiTnimYy² nigRbmUl
stress énkarrYmmaD enACitb¤enAnwgExSkavEtmþg. sMrab;ehtuplenHCaTUeTA check ekIt eLIgenAnwg
b¤enAEk,rExSkav. vtþmanénkarEjkecjBIKñaénsésreQI (Wood fiber separation)

cg¥úlbgðajnUvPaBs¥itCab;énkavy:agRKb;RKan; nigminGacebHecjBIKña)an. CaTUeTA Check man
\T§iBltictYcbMputeTAelIPaBFn;énkMlaMgrbs;eRKOgbgÁMGMBIeQIbnÞHbiTkav.
karbiTCab;éneRKOgbgÁMxagelIedaykavKW manlkçN³esþIglμmEdlgayRsYlsMgYtkñúgLsMgYt
edaymin )aneFVIeGay Check vivDÆn_. enAeBlEdl check sßitenAelIbøg;kaMrgVg; (radial plane) ehIykþabnÞH
biTkavPaKeRcInmansésreQIrabesμICaBiessenaH Check RtUv)ankMNt;TItaMg elIeRKÓgbgÁúMeQIbiT
kavtamExSedkEdlvaCasMPar³EdlminCH\T§iBldl;PaBFn;énkMlaMgkat;pþac;. enAeBlEdleRKOg
bgÁúMKitCamYybnÞHkþaeQIbiTkavtamTwsedAbBaÄr ¬EdlmanmuxFMRsbeTAnwgTisedAénkMlaMgEdl
pþl;eGayva¦ ehIyenAeBl Check Gacman\T§iBleTAelIPaBFn;énkMlaMgkat;pþac; \T§iBlén check
GacnwgRtYtBinitükñúgrebobdUcKña nig Check enAkñúgeRKOgbgÁúMeQIsUlItEdlGarYc (Solit-sawn member) .
Check EdlekItBIkarsMgYtenAkñúgeRKOgbgÁúMEdlrgnUvkMlaMgBt;man\T§iBlEtelIPaBFn;nwg
kMlaMgkat;pþac;tamExSedk. CaTUeTAvaminmanCaeRKagbgÁMsMxan;eT elIkElgEt check KWmanTMhMFM
enAkñúgCMerAnwg ekIteLIgenAkNþalkMBs;éneRKOgbgÁMEk,rTMr ehIyEdlRbsinebIkMlaMgkat;pþac;Et1
dwknaMkarKiténeRKOgbgÁM. karkat;bnßysMrab;PaBFn;énkMlaMgkat;pþac;elIssrminEmnCaeRKOgbgÁM
sMxan;elIkElgEt check vivDÆn_eTACary³rEhkehtudUecñHcUrbegáInnUvkpleFob slenderness én ssr.
Check EdlmanTMhMtUc² GacRtUvbdiesFecal eRBaHktþasuvtßiPaBRKb;RKan;RtUv)aneRbI
sMrab;tMélénkarKitGnueRKaH. karsMerccugeRkayKWenAeBlEdl check énkarrYmmaDmanGnþray
eTAnwgtMrUvkarPaBFn;énkMlaMgéneRKagbgÁM b¤karKitbøg;BiessNamYy KYrTukeGayvisVkrEdlman
smtßPaBehIymanbTBiesaFn_kñúgsMNg;GMBIeQIKwitnig KNna.
1>4> lMdab;fñak;éneQI Grade of Wood
eQIGarRtUv)ancat;cMNat;fñak;edaysmaKmn_éneragcRkpliteQICaeRcInedaymankar
vinicä½yelIeRcInCMBUk. eKalkarN_2 RtUv)anelIkykmkeRbIkñúgc,ab;énkarcat;fñak;eQIKW sMrab;eQI Tn; (soft
wood) nigsMrab;eQIrwg (hard wood) .
eQITn; Soft wood

eQITn;RtUv)ancat;fñak;Cas¶ÜtenAeBlsMeNImkñúgsac;eQI 19° b¤ticCagenHehIyRss; enAeBl
sMeNImkñúg sac;eQIelIsBI 19°. eyagtambTdæaneQITn;GaemrickaMg (American Software Lumber
Standard) eQITn;RtUv)ancat;fñak;edayeyagelIkareRbIdUcCa³
- Yard Lumber: cMNat;fñak; TMhM nigKMrUéneQIGarEdlCaTUeTARtUv)aneRbIkñúgeKalbMNg

sMrab;sMNg;Fmμta nigsMNg;GaKarTUeTA.
- Structural Lumber: eQIGarEdlmankMras;Fmμta2GuIn b¤eRcInCagenHnigTTwgsMrab;eRbI
enAkEnøgNaEdl working stress RtUvkar.
- Factory nig Shop lumber: eQIGavplit b¤eRCIserIsCadMbUgsMrab;eKalbMNgsMrab;plit
kñúg]sSahkmμ.
karcat;fñak;eQITn;edayeyagelIvisalPaBénplitplKW³
- eQIGaeRKIm (Rough lumber): eQIGarEdlminTan;)anerobcM b:uEnþ)anGarkat;Cay nigtMrwmrYc.
-eQIGarEdlTan;)anerobcM (Dressed (surfaced) lumber) eQIGarEdl)anerobcMrYceday

qøgkat;m:asuInQUsrYm (planning machine) ¬sMrab;eKalbMNgcg;)anépÞrabesμInig man
TMhMCaÉksNæan¦ sMrab;1xag (S1S), 2xag (S2S), Cay1 (S1E) Cay2 (S2E) b¤bnSMénxagnig
Cay(S1S1E, S1S2, S2S1E, S4S) .
- Worked Lumber: eQIGarEdlbEnßmelIsBI dressed RtUv)an matched, shiplapped or platterned.
- Match Lumber: eQIGarEdl)an worked CamYynwgGNþatenACaymçagénduMeQInimYy²
nigcg¥ÚrenACaypÞúyKñamçageTot ¬eFVItMNab;eQI¦
- Shiplapped lumber: eQIGarEdl worked b¤dab;CayTaMgsgçagedIm,IGnuBaØatidl;kar
begáItmuxtMNbiTCitRCYsKña (Close-lapped joint).
- Patterned Lumber: eQIGarEdlmanrUbragCaKMrU b¤CaBum<eQITn;k¾RtUv)ancat;fñak;eday
eyagelITMhMEdr
- Board: eQIGarEdlmankMras;FmμtatUcCag 2GuIn nigTTwgFmμta 2in b¤eRcInCagenH. Board
EdlmanTTwgFmμtatUcCag6 GuInGacRtUv)ancat;fñak; strip.
- Dimension: eQIGarEdlmankMras;Fmμta 2GuIneLIgeTAedayminrab;bBa©Úl 5GuIneT
ehIymanTTwgFmμta2GuIn b¤eRcInCagenH. Diamension GacRtUv)ancat;fñak;CaeRKag (framing), rnUt
(joist), epÞag (rafter), emeQI (stud), kþa (plank), small timber .l.
- Timber: eQIGavEdlCaFmμtamanTMhMy:agtic5GuIn b¤FMCagenH. timber Gaccat;fñak; Ca rnUt

(beam), stringer, begÁal (post), cap, sill rt (girder), purlin .l.
TMhMBitR)akdéneQIGaKWtUcCagTMhMFmμta edaysarEtPaBrYmmaDnig dressing.CaTUeTA TMhMén board

s¶Üt/ dimension lumber nig timber EdlmanTTwg b¤kMrastUcCag 2in KWtUcCaTMhM Fmμta ¼in TTWgb¤kMras;BI2
eTA7 GuintUcCag ½ GuIn nigTTwgb¤kMras;elIsBI 6GuIn tUcCag 3¼4GuIn.
eQIGarRs;EdlmanTMhMTTWgb¤kMras;tUcCag 2GuIn KWFMCageQIs¶Üt 1¼32 GuIn TMhMTTwgb¤kMras;BI 2 eTA 4GuIn
FMCag 1¼16GuIn sMrab;TMhMTTWgkMras; 5 nig6GuInFMCag ⅛ GuIn nigsMrab;TMhMTTWg b¤ kMras;8GuIn b¤elIsenH
FMCagTMhMeQIrGars¶Üt ¼ GuIn. eTaHCay:agNavamankrNIelIkElg. Yard Lumber
RtUv)ancat;cMNat;fñak;edayQrelIeKalkarN_énKuNPaBdUcxageRkam³
- rUbragxageRkA (apppearance): eQIGarEdlmanrUbragxageRkAl¥ nigKuNPaBén smiT§plCaerOy²

eKehAfa select .
+ saksmsMrab;kargarbegðIy (finish) EbbFmμCati
Citføa (Practically clear)

føaCaTUeTA nigKuNPaBx<s;
+ saksmsMrab;kargarbegðIyedaykarlabfñaM
bnSaMxøÜneTAnwg labRsTab;begðIyEdlmanKuNPaBx<s;
enAcenøaHkNþalrvagcMNat;fñak; kargarbegðIylMdab;x<s; (high-finishing grade)
nig cMNat;fñak;Fmμta ehIynigcUlrYmbnþicbnþÜcénFmμCatiTaMgBIr.
- Common: eQIGarsaksmsMrab;eKalbMNgsMNg;TUeTA nig]bkrN_eRbIR)as; CaerOy²
pþl;nUvkarKitEbbBaNiC¢kmμCaeRcInRbePT.
+ sMrab;kareRbIR)as;kñúgbTdæansMNg;
saksmsMrab;bMNgsMNg;RbePTl¥Cag (better type construction)

bnSaMy:agl¥sMrab;bTdæansMNg;beNþaH karKitsMrab;sMNg;GasnñEdlGs;éføefak.
+ sMrab;bMNgtMrUvkartictYc
KuNPaBTabEtGaceRbIR)as;)an
- tMélTaMgenHRtUv)anykeTAKitCaktþaxagelIdUcCa TMhM nigTItaMgén Knot, slop of grain, wane nig
shake b¤check rYmTaMgTMnak;TMngRTg;RTayxøHetotdUcCaGRtaénkarlUtlas; nig smmaRtén summerwood .
Factory nig shop lumber RtUv)ancat;fñak;edayeyageTAelIkar eRbIR)as;rbs;vaCaTVa b¤bg¥Üc

b¤QrelIeKalkarN_énlkçN³TTYl\T§iBl énkareRbIR)as;rbs;va vasMrab;eKalbMNgkat;Ca duMCaTUeTA
b¤QrelIeKalkarN_énTMhMénkarkat;. cMNat;fñak; én Factory nig Shop Lumber
RtUv)ankMNt;edayPaKryénRklaépÞén Board b¤ Plank nimYy²Edl Gacykmkkat;)antamkarbgðaj
b¤tamkarpþl;[nUvTMhMGb,brima nigKuNPaB. cMNat;fñak;én Factory nig Shop lumber
RtUv)ankMNt;BIépÞmuxd¾Gn; sUm,IEtKuNPaBénépÞTaMgsgxagénkarkat; nimYy²RtUv)anykmkKitBIcarNa.
eQIrwg Hardwood
edaysarEtPaBepSg² KñaCaeRcInénkarGnuvtþn_sMrab;eQIrwgTaMgxagkñúgnig xageRkAsMrab;

sMNg;]sShkmμ k,Ünkñúgkarcat;cMNat;fñak;eQIrwgKWQrelIeKalkarN_ smamaRténduMEdl[ EdlGackat;
CaduMtUc²sMPar³EdlmanépÞmçagc,as; b¤TaMgBIr nigminmanTMhMtucCagkarbgðajbBa¢ak;. dUcenHkar
cat;cMNat;fñak;KW QrelIeKalkarN_énbrimaNPaBføakñúgduMeQIén eQIGarEdlGaceRbI )an.
k,Ünénkarcat;cMNat;fñak;eQI CaBiessEdlKYr[cab;GarmμN_sMrab;sMNg;]sSahkmμBwg Ep¥kelI
eQIrwg s‘umxagkñúg nigk,ac;rcnaEdlmanépÞmçagRtUEtCitTMenrEdlminRKb;lkçN³nigEdlkMrit A Gac
kMNt;bEnßm eTotTaMgbrimaNénsac;eQIbnÞab;sMbkeQI nigsñamRbLak;. elIsBIenHeTot
k,ÜnkMNt;TMhMeQIrwg GaRs½yelIPaBføaEdlRtUvmanmuxføaTaMgsgxag b¤føaépÞmYynigGaRs½yelIKuNPaB
fñaMlab EdlGacRKbeday fñaMlab ehIyGaRs½yelIrn§RbehagEdlRtUvEtmanPaBrwg elIépÞ TaMgsgxag
nigsaksmsMrab;karbiTrn§Rbehag ehIynigGaRs½yelIPaBrwgEdlCacMNat;fñak;én kareRbIR)as;TUeTA.
kMraleQIrwgRtUv)ancat;cMNat;fñak;tamk,Ündac;edayELkBIrRbePTKw TI ¬1¦ sMrab;edIm maple, edIm
birch nigedIm beech nigTI ¬2¦ sMrab;edImEsnBN’s nigBN’Rkhm nigedIm Pecan . sMrab;TaMgBIrRbePTenH
cMNat;fñak;énBN’ nigKuNPaBerobBIKuNPaBkMBUldl;cMNat;fñak;eKOg eRbIR)as;TabCag. edImEsnGac

RtUvcat;cMNat;fñak;bnÞab;teTAkan;Etq¶ayeTotCa qarter sawed nig plain sawed. sMrab;RKb;cMNat;fñak;
TaMgGs;sMParr³EdlmanKuNPaBkMBUlRtUvEtmanBN’Ék sNæanenAeBlEdlcMNat;fñak;epSgeTotminman
kMNt;BIBN’.
epÞag (shingle) RtUv)ancat;cMNat;fñak;eRkamk,ÜnBIessCaTUeTA manCabIfñak;KW elx1 elx 2 nig elx
3. elx 1 KWRKb;Caysés nigPaBføay:agditdl; minRtUvmansac;eQIbnÞab;sMbkeQIeT. elx2 nigelx3
dac;xatPaBføaRtUvmancMgayq¶aylμmBI butt edIm,IRKb)any:agl¥eday course énepÞagbnÞab;.
1>5 sarFatubMpøaj nig sarFaturkSakarBar Destroyer and preservative.
sarFatubMpøajeQIcMbgKW karBukrlYy EdlbNþalmkBIBBYkrukçCatipSit nigkarbMpøaj edaystV
srIr³CaeRcInRbePT rYmmankeNþór/ Rsemac/ dgáÚvénBBYkEbøkKñaCaeRcInmanBBYkXμúM knøg; GeNþIkmas xüg nig
Limnoria EdlsuT§CaBYkstV bMpøajsac;eQICacMbg. elIsBIenHeToterogral;qñaMGKÁIP½y)anbMpøajCaTUeTAnUv
eRKageQI.
karBukpuynigminekItmaneTRbsinebIeQIrkSaenAkEnøgmanxül;ecjcUl nigxül;s¶ÜtEt pÞúymkvij
Rbsin ebIvaRtUv)anrkSakñúgTwkCabnþbnÞab;enaHKμanxül;eT. keNþórPaKeRcInenAshrdæ- Gaemric KWCastV
eRkamdI nigRtUvkarTak;TgCamYynwgdI. keNþóreQIs¶Üt nig keNþóreQIesIm Gac rkeXIjtam beNþay

Cayxagt,ÚgénRbeTs nigtambeNþayeqñrxagliceTaHCay:agNak¾eday vaminRtUvkarTak;edaypÞal; CamYy
dIeTnigmankarlM)akkñúgkarRbtYtRta. xüg nig limnoria nig sarFatubMpøajeQIGENþtTwkxøHeTot RtUv)anrk
eXIjEtenAkñúgTwkéRbb¤éRbbnþicbnþÜc.
CMBUkeQIepSg² ERbRbYleTAtamGayukalCaFmμCati nigPaBFn;nwgkarBukpuy nigkarbMpøajeday
stVl¥it. sac;eQIbnÞab;BIsMbkeQIénRbePTeQITaMgGs;Kw mankargayRsYlkñúgkarbMpøajmanEtbNþÚlrbs;
vab:ueNÑaH EdlGaccat;TukfaFn;nwgkarBukpuyenH.
sarFatuKImIRtUv)aneRbIR)as;sMrab;RbyuT§RbqaMg nigPñak;garbMpøajepSg²Gac nwgEbgEck CabnþeTACa
oily, GMbilrlaykñúgTwk nigsarFatuxnicrlaykñúgGgÁFaturMlay. sarFaturkSakarBar oily cMbgKWfñaM
Creosote layeRbgeqAeQI nwgfñaM creosote layeRbg.
kareRbIR)as;GMbilrlaykñúgTwkFmμtaPaKeRcInKW Tg;EdgRkUm:at/ Tg;EdgRkUm:at GaesNat

nigGaesnIt/ pøúyGrRkUmepNulGaesNat/ sgá½sIRkUma: tkørIRDic/ nigsarFatuepSg²eTotEdlCa erOy²
RtUv)anlk;eRkameQμaHepSg². sarFatuxniC rlaykñúgGgÁFaturMlayCacMbgmanepNul kørIRDic
dUcCabg;takørepNul nigTg;EdgNab;etNat. sarFaturkSarkarBarGacRtUv)aneRbIeday
viFIepSg²rYmbBa©ÚlTaMglab edayCk;
nigRClk;sMrab;karlabGtibrmaeKtMrUv[eRbIkMlaMgedIm,I[ TwkfñaMRCabcUlkñúgsésreQI)aneRCA. eBlxøH butt
of pole nig EpñkxøHeTotRtUv)aneKdak;kñúg creosote b¤sUluysüúgGMbilEdldaMBuHekþA
ehIybnÞab;BITwkkñúgeQI)anERbkøayeTACacMhayrYcehIy eKRtUvRbjab;
epÞreTAFugRtCak;Edlmandak;sarFaturkSakarBardUcKña. enAeBlcMhaykkCaejIs va)anbegáItsuBaØkas
PaKxøH EdlGaceGaysarFaturkSarkarBarGacRCabcUlkñúgépÞsac;eQI)aneRCAlμm. karGnuvtþn_eday
sm<aFRtUv)anEckecjCaBIr KW full-cell nig emply-cell. sMrab;kaGnuvtþn_ eday full-cell PaKxøHénsuBaØkas
RtUv)andak;[bWtykecjnUvbrimaNxül;PaKeRcInenAkñúg ekasikaeQIenAkñúgFug Pressure-treating CadMbUg.
bnÞab;mkeTIbeKdak;sarFaturkSarkarBarcUl edayminbMEbksuBaØakasEdlekIteLIgedaysMBaFenAkñúg
sUluysüúgekþA. enAeBlEdlkarGnuvtþn_ cb;sBVRKb;eKsnñidæanfaekasikanimYy² RtUv)anbMeBjedaysarFatu
rkSakarBarRtUv)anbUmeRkamsMBaFeTAb:Hnwg EpñkxageRkayénm:asuInsgát;edaysMBaFxül;eTAkñúgsac;eQI.
PaBTb;sát;karbMpøajénsarFaturkSakarBarGaRs½yelIkarGnuvtþn_. sMrab;lkçxNÐ teredo-infestation,
karGnuvt nUv creosote eday full –cell RtUv)anbgðajeGayeRbIR)as;sMrab;kar karBarBYkstVbMpøajenH eday

eRbI 16 eTA 20 lb kñúg 1foot KIbéneQI. sMrab;lkçxNÐ½BukpuyFmμta nigFn;nwgstVkeNþór nig
sarFatubMpøajepSgeTotEdlmanFmμCatiRsedogKña viFI empty –cell GacRtUv)aneRbIedIm,ITb;sáat;
edaysarFatuGMbilRtUv)aneRbIedayGMbils¶ÜtRbEhsBI 1½ eTA 3 1b sMrab;eQI 1foot KIb.
sarFatuxniCrlayedayGgÁFaturMlay dUcCab:g;takørepNul tamFmμtaRtUv)aneKeRbI sMrab;GnuvtþelI
EpñkxøHénTVa nigbg¥ÜcedIm,IcUlrYmy:agxøaMgkñúgkarts‘UnwgkarBukpuy.
CaTUeTAvaRtUv)anGnuvtþedaysamBaØedayRClk;EpñkénduMeQIeTAkñúgl,aysUluysüúg rYcehIyTuk
va[s¶Üt. enAeBlEdlGgÁFaturMlayxniChYtGs; vabnSl;nUvsarFaturkSakarBarTwkmin eGayrlay (Water
insoluble preservative) BIxageRkaysac;eQI.
sarFatuxnicTaMgenHk¾RtUv)aneRbIR)as;sMrab;karGnuvtþn_sarFaturkSakarBarTUeTAEdrrYmman ssrrbg
nigeRKagbgÁMeQI. GMbilrlayTwk nigsarFatusßabtükmμxniCrlayedayGgÁFaturMlay eFVIeGayeQIs¥at
nigGaclab)an. CaTUeTAeQIEdlmansarFatu creosote minGnuBaØati[labBIelIeT ebIeTaHCaEpñkxøHGaceGay
labedayfñaMBN’GaluymIj:aÚmesþIg² EdlmanKuNPaBx<s;CageK (top quality aluminum flake pigment
paint) k¾eday.
CaTUeTAsMrab;RbRBitþkmμRbqaMgePøIgGKÁIP½ymankareRbIR)as;GMbilEdlman Gam:UjÚ:m nig pUsVat

Edlm:UNUGam:Uj:ÚmpUsVat nigEIGam:Uj:ÚmpUsat RtUv)aneRbIR)as;y:agTUlMTUlay. sMrab;kar Tb;sát;eday
eRbIGMbils¶ÜtBI 3 eTA 5lb sMrab;eQI 1foot KIb eQIminGacRTaMRTnwgkarqabeqHeday xøÜnvaeT ehIyBnøW
RBal²eRkayeBlRBHGaTitülic enAeBlEdlykePøIgecjKWry³eBlxøI. RbRBwtþkmμcMeBaHépÞeQICaeRcIn
k¾RtUv)aneRbIEdr PaKeRcInKWGaRs½yeTAnwgkarbegáIténRsTab;BBuH]sμ½n EdlminkMerIk (inert- gas bubble)
BIelIépÞeQIkñúgeBlvtþmanénGNþaePøIgb¤RbPBkMedA. RsTab;BBuH]sμ½nenHedIrtYrCaGuIsULg;GKÁIP½ysMrab;
eQIenABIeRkamva nigBnüWtkarraleqH.
1>6 kavnig sarFatus¥itsMrab;eQI Glues and adhesives for wood
bc©úb,nñsarFatus¥iteRcInRbePTGacrk)ansMrab;eRbIR)as;CamYyeQI GaRs½yelIkarGnuvtþn_cug eRkay.
sarFatus¥itBImun rYmmankavstV (animal glue), casein glue nigRbePTepSg²énkav bEnø (vegetable glue)
EdlsBVéf¶sENþkes,ógmansarsMxan;CageK. kavstVpþl; nUvPaBrwg PaBtwggayRsYleFVImuxtMN
EdleTaHCay:agNavaminFn;nwgsMeNImeT. Casein layCamYynwgTwk RtCak;edayrUbmnþRtwmRtUv
vapþl;nUvmuxtMNrkavEdlFn;nwgsMeNImx<s; EdleKminGacehAvafa RsTab;karBarTwk (Waterproof) eT.

kavbEnøenAeBls¶ÜtmanPaBFn;l¥ b:uEnþminFn;nwgsMeNImeT. sBVéf¶kavEdlmanPaBFn;x<s; (high-strength)
TUeTA)anmkBIkarsMeyaKC½reQI Edlman phenol formaldehyde nig expoxy Edlmansar³sMMxan;CageK.
epNul resorcinol nig melamine pþl;vanUvmux tMNkavEdlkarBarRCabTwk)ansBVnig
minGacbMEbkecjBIKña)an enAeBlGnuvtþénkardut [BuH)any:agRtwmRtUv. Urea formaldehyde
pþl;nUvmuxtMNekAEdlFn;eTAnwgsMeNImy:agx<s; eTaH bICaminl¥CagdUcCabIRbePTepSgeTot. epNul
nigemLamIn tMrUvGnuvtþTaMgkMedA nigsMBaFedIm,I biTsarFatus¥it. eTaHCay:agNak¾eday Urea nig Resorcinol
GacmanrUbmnþlayCamYyTwkenAsItuNðPaBFmμta nigkkrwgedayKμan karGnuvtþn_kMedABIelI room temperative.
tamFmμtakug)øaek minRCabTwk (waterproof plywood) plitkñugkarsgát;ekþA (hot-plate presse)
CamYynwgsarFatus¥it phenolic b¤ melamine. Sorcinol minRtUveRbIenAkEnøgNaEdlb:HnwgkMedAdUcCa
dMeNIrkarpÁúMtMeLIg RbePTxøH nigkarplitbnÞHkþabiTCab;KñadUcCaem)atnava EdlRtUvEtmankar
FanaPaBRCabTwk KuNPaBGtibrima. Cr½eQI Epoxide pþl;nUvmuxtMNry:agrwg. sarFatus¥itmansarFatu
elastomeric dUcCaC½rFmμCati b¤C½rsMeyaK Gaccat;fñak;Ca Contact b¤ mastic. GñkBImunlabépÞEdlRtUvBak;Kña
TaMgsgxag nigTukeGayvas¶ÜtedayEpñk GnuBaØati[s¥itCab;Kñaeday Contact . Mastic mansPaB

xab;Nas;nigRtUveRbICamYysøabRBakMe)ar b¤ Putty knife. vaGacRtUveRbIedIm,IeFVIkMraleQIbøúk (wood- block
flooring) .
TwkfñaMC½r Polyviwyl acetate bMerIsMrab;eKalbMNgTUeTACasarFatus¥it sMrab;dMeNIrkarttM

eLIgTUeTAkEnøgEdlminRtUvkarPaBFn;énkMlaMg nigPaBFn;énkMedA b¤sMeNImGtibrima. TwkfñaMenH
manPaBs¥itRKb;RKan;edIm,IlabelIépÞ bnÞab;BIvaRtUv)ansgát;cUlKña ehIysarFatus¥itk¾RtUvTuk eGaykkrwg.
1>7 karplitkþakug)øaek nigkþabnÞHepSgeTot Plywood and fabricated wood board.
tamFmμtakug)øaekplitedaymanbnSMúénbnÞHeQIy:agesþIg (thin sheet b¤ venee) rYmnwgkav
eQICamYyKña. sésreQIRtUveKdak;[EkgRsTab;kþaCit²Kña. edIm,ITTYlnUvkug)øaekEdlesμIKa enaH
rYmmanmine)ar minrYj b¤rmYlRCulhYsehtueBk RsTab;bnÞHkþanimYy² RtUv)aneRCIserIsy:agyk citþTukdak;
nigtMerob[manépÞTaMgsgxagrbs;vaqøúHKñaedayeFobeTAnwgbøg;kNþal. RsTab;xageRkA b¤EpÞxagmuxRsbKña
eTAvijeTAmk nigCaRbePTeQIEdlmanlkçN³rYmmaDdUcKña. dUcKñaRtUveFVI eGaymansnÞHxNÐ½y;agRtwmRtUv.
Cavi)akkþakug)øaek manRsTab;CacMnYness y:agtic3RsTab;.
sarRbeyaCn_CaeKalkarN_rbs;kþakug)aøekBIelIeQIGar KWvamanlkçN³Fn;énkMlaMgesÞIrEtesμIKña
sMrab;beNþay nigTTWgFMCag PaBFn;én Checking xøaMgCag karkat;bnßyPaBrYm nigPaBrIk maDFMCag
nigFn;eTAnwg Spitting . meFüa)ayedIm,IeFVI[PaBFn;énkMlaMgrbs;kþakug)øaekesμIKa sMrab;TisedAepSg²
KW)anedaysarkarbegáInnUvPaBFn; nwgkMlaMgtamTisedARsbnwgsésreQI. ]TahrN_³ kþakug)øaekminsUvxøaMg
sMrab;TisedARsbnwgRsTab;muxrbs;vadUceQIGar sMrab;PaBRsb nwgséseQIeT.
b:uEnþkþaku)øaekRtUv )anKitfaxøaMgCagsMrab;TisedAEdknwgRsTab;épÞxagmux CageQI EdlEkgeTAnwgséseQI.
elIsBIenHeTot PaBFn;énkMlaMgpþac; énkþakug)øaeksMrab;bøg;EkgeTAnwg
bøg;énkþakug)øaekKWmantMélFMeRcInCagsMrab;eQIFmμta RsbeTAnwgséseQI. eTaHCay:agNak¾ eday
sMrab;TwsedARsbnwgbøg;énkþakug)øaek PaBFn;énkMlaMg kat;pþac;rbs;va
KWtUcCageQIFmμtaEdlRsbeTAnwgséseQI BIeRBaHsMrab;TisedAkat;pþac;edayrmUl ekIteLig
EtsMrab;kþakug)øaekEtb:ueNÑaH. ]TahrN_séseQIenAkñúgRbGb;kþabnÞHmYymanTMneTAelIkarrmUrCagkarrGil.
GaRs½y edaysarkþakug)øaek RtUv)aneRbIR)as;sMrab;kargarTUeTA b¤eKalbMNgtubEtglMGr kþabnÞHesþIg²
RtUv)ankat;edaykarCitCarebobbksMbkBIedImeQI CarebobeRcokCabnÞH² b¤sBVéf¶CakarkMrNas;tamrebob
Ga. karGarnigkareRcokpþl;nUvesriPaB nigPaBsÞat;CMnajl¥CageKtamrebobGar. karGarnigkareRcok
pþl;nUvesrIPaB nigPaBsÞat;CMnajl¥CageK kñúgkareRCIserIsséseQI. kareRcok CarebobbksMbkpþl;nUvmaD
nigkarplity:agelOnl¥CaeK BIeRBaHRKan;EteQImUlbgVilCuMvijkaMbitsMEb:tehIybnÞHkþaesþIg² RtUv)anbk
ecjCabnÞHeQIbnþy:agEvg. kþakug)øaekRtUv)ancat;fñak;sMrab;xagkñúg nigxageRkAGaRs½yedayRbePTén
sarFatus¥itEdlykmkeRbI. kug)øaekcMNat;fñak;sMrab; xagkñúg (interior-grade plywood) RtUvmankMrit
énPaBFn;énsMeNImKYrsm b:uEnþmincaM)ac;RtUvkarBar CMrabTwkeT. sMrab;cMNat;fñak;xageRkA (exterior-grade-
plywood) RtUvEtmanPaBkarBarCMrabTwk TaMgRsug nigmanlT§PaBTb;Tl;nwgkarBnøicTwk b¤GacTb;Tl;
nwglkçxN½ÐxageRkA)anyUr. sMrab;karcat;cMNat;bEnßmeTot kþakug)øaekRtUv)anEbgEckbnþCaeRcInRbePT

epSgeTot GaRs½yeTAnwgKuNPaBénépÞénRsTab;kþa. KuNPaBx<s;CageK KWmanépÞmçag b¤TaMgsagxagføac,as;
elIkElgsMrab; karbiTb:H yUr²mþg. KuNPaBTab;GnuBaØatiKuNvitþén Sound dUcCa knot nigsñamCaM
RsedogKñaEdl min)aneFVI[Gn;fyBIkareRbIR)as;TUeTAénkþakug)øaek b:uEnþGn;fyBIrUbragxageRkA begðIy
rbs;va.
Particle board:kMeTcbMENkeQI Gacm_rNa nig flake RtUv)ansgát;CamYysarFatus¥it (urea-

formaldehyde b¤ phenol-formaldehyde) edIm,IplitCa board (sheathing, underlayment, corestock)
EdlmanPaBFn;énkMlaMgÉksNæan nigPaBrYmmaDtUcsMrab;bøg;én board.

Hardboard kMeTcbMENkeQI ¬RtUv)aneFVIeGaypÞúMedaykardutcMhaysMBaFx<s; (high pressuree stream)
eTAkñúgséseQI¦ CamYynwg lignin RtUv)ansgát;edIm,IbegáItCa board Edlman dg;suIetepSg².

sarFatubEnßmRtUv)anbEnßmsMrab;Fn;eTAnwgGakasFatu niglkçN³epSgeTot.
2> karpliteQI timber nigkarksag timber fabrication and erection
kñúgGMLúgeBldMeNIrkarplitnigksag sMrab;sN M g;eQI plitpleQI KYrRtUv)anRKb;RKgnig
RKbdNþb;edIm,IkarBarkarxUcxat énépÞeQI nigkarRsUbbWtsMeNIm. kñúgGMLúgeBlRKb;RKg nig
sagsg;KYrecosvag overstress elIeRKOgbgÁúMnigmuxtMN. GñkRtYtBinitüRbkbedaysmtßPaBKYr RtYtBinitü
sMPar³ nigsñaéd.
2>1 karpliteRKagbgÁúMeQI Fabrication of structural timber
karplitKW rYmman karxYg karkat; karGar karkat;rwm dapping, routing, lanning, nigebImin dUecñaHeT
shaping framing nig finishing duMeQIRtUv)anGarb¤biTP¢ab;Kña rYmbBa©ÚlTaMg panel edIm,Idak;
vakñúgkEnøgBiessrbs;va kñúgeRKageQIbegðIyeGaysml¥. eTaHCakarpliteLIgenAkñúghag b¤ kardæank¾eday
k¾plitplRtUvEtbgðajnuvKuNPaBsñaédx<s;. Jig, pattern, template, shop b¤n½y
saksmepSgeTotRtUv)aneRbIsMrab;karpÁúMEdlsaMjauM nigeRcInEbby:agedIm,IFananUvPaBCak;lak; ÉksNæan
nigRtYtBinitünUvRKb;TMhM. RKb;karGnueRKaH sMrab;karkat;kar xñg nig Framing RtUvEt
GnuelamCamYynwgkarGnuvtþl¥ nig PaBGacGnuvtþ)antamkarbgðajbBa¢ak; nigkarRtYtBinitü. kñúg
eBlplitkarGnueRKaHminRtUvFMCagGVI EdlmankarbgðajkñúgbBa¢IxageRkamelIkElgEtkarplit enaHminsMxan;
nigmintMrUvnUvkarGnuvtþn_d¾\tex©aH. eTaHCay:agNak¾edaykargarBiess GactMrUvkar GnueRKaHenaHkan;EttUc.
TItaMgénkarbiTP¢ab; lacation of fastening

RbEvgcenøaH nigRKb;TItaMgbiTP¢ab;TaMgGs; kñúgmuxtMNKYrRtUvGnuelametAtamKMnUrkargar (shop

drawing) nig esovePAlMGitbec©keTs (specification) CamYy nigkarGnueRKaHGtibrma
RtUv )anGnuBaØati[ 61¼16 GuIn. dUcenaHehIy karpliteRKOgbgÁúMEdlRtUvpÁúMedaymuxtMN KYrRtUvP¢ab;
eGay)ansmRtwmRtUv.
TMhMrn§eLasuI Bolt hole sizes
karxYgrn§eLasuI enAxagkñúgRKb;eRKagbgÁMeQITaMgGs;enAeBl TukCatMNeRKagbgÁúMvaKYrman TMhM
1¼16GuIn FMCagGgát;p©iteLasuI ½ nigmanTMhM 1¼32GuIn FMCagsMrab;Ggát;p©iteLasuItUcCag enH.
RbeLaHkan;EtFMtMrUvsMrab;eLasuIepSgeTot dUcCaeLasuITMBk; nigEdktg;süúg (tension rod) .
rn§Rbehag nigcg¥Úr Holes and Groove
rn§RbehagsMrab;eLasuI Stress-carrying, connector niggroove connector daps RtUvEtrelag
nigRtg;sßitkñúgtMél 1/16in sMrab;CMerA 12GuIn. TTWgén Spite –ring connector groove KYrEtsßit kñúgtMél
0>02GuIn énmuxkat;rbs;rgVg; nigmintUcCagkMras;énmuxkat;rgVg;EdlsuIKña. rUbragrbs; cg¥ÚrrgVg;
RtUvEtGnuelamCaTUeTAeTAtamrUbragmuxkat;TTwgénrgVg;. ecjdMeNIrBI tMrUv karenHGacRtUv)an GnuBaØatienA
eBlmankarKaMRTedaykarBiesaFTinñn½y. m:asuInxUg nigm:asuInkat; epSgeTotGacRtUvkMNt;edIm,I
GacsMerc )annUvTMhMrUbragCMerAénrn§cg¥Úr dap .l.
beNþay length
eRKOgbgÁMGacRtUvkat;kñúgtMél 61¼16 GuIn énTMhMEdl)ancg¥úlbgðajfaeQImanRbEvg rhUtdl;

20ft nig 61¼16 GuInsMrab;RbEvg 20ft enAeBleQIenaHmanRbEvg 20ft. enAeBlEdl
TMhMbeNþaymin)anbBa¢ak;y:agc,as; b¤mankMhus tMélGnueRKaHenHGacRtUvbdiesF.
kat;cug End cut
elIkElgEtmankarbBa¢ak;y:agc,as; RKb;cugeQITaMgGs;RtUvEtkat;tMrwg[ecjragbYnRCug esμIkñúgtMél
1¼16 GuIn kñúg1 foot sMrab;CMerAnigTTwg. cugEdlmanrag4 RCugesμI b¤ragCMerlEdl RtUvTTYlbnÞúk sgát;KYr
RtUvkat;edIm,Ipþl;nUvkarb:Hy:agsMxan;sMrab;épÞEdlcb;sBVRKb;.
2>2 karsagsg;eQI timber erection

karsagsg; timber framing tMrUveGaymanCagEdlmanbTBiesaFn_ nig]bkrN_elIkdak; RKb;RKan;
edIm,IkarBarCIvit nigRTBüsm,tþi nigedIm,IFanafaeRKagbgÁúMRtUv)anpÁúMedayRtwmRtUvnig min xUcxatkñúgeBl
kMBugRbtibtþi.
ral;kardwkCBa¢ÚneQIKYrRtYtBinitü cMnYn nigPsþútagénkarxUcxat. munnwgkarsagsg;cab; epþIm
bøg;TMhMKYrRtUv)anepÞógpÞat;enAkardæan. PaBCak;lak;nig PaBRKb;RKan;én CnÞl;Tb;[maM (abutment), eCIgtag
(foundation), pier nigeLasuITMBk;KYrRtUvkMNt;. Cagsagsg;RtUvEtemIlfa RKb; TMr nigTMBk; KWmanRKb;cMnYn
GaceRbIR)as;)an nig Kμan]bsKÁ.

XøaMenAkardæan Job –site storage
enAeBleRKOgbgÁúMeQIRtUvrkSaTukenAkardæansMNg; vaKYrRtUvTukdak;kEnøgNavamin)an begáItmhnþray
dl;sMPar³d¾éT b¤eRKOgbgÁúMxøÜnvapÞal;. eRKOgbgÁúMTaMgGs;EdlRtUvrkSaTukenAkardæan RtUvTukdak;eGayputBIdI
Edlkl;edaybøúky:agRtwmRtUv. sMrab;karGnuvtþn_eRKOgbgÁúM b¤sMPar³cg Ca)ac;² KYrRtUvEjkecjBIKña
edaycMerokeQIEdlxül;Gaccl½tRKb;RCugTaMgGs;. BIxagelInigRKb;xagTaMgGs;én KMnreQIKYrRtUvRKbeday
kMralFn;nwg sMeNImEdlpþl;nUvkarkarBarBIsarFatukxVk; nigkMeTckMTI énkardæan. kareRbInUvpÞaMg polyethylene
føaminRtUv)anENnaMeT edaysarFatuEteRKOgbgÁúMeQIGaceLIgBN’s edaysarkMedARBHGaTitü. karvicx©b;
edayELkKYrRtUvvHTMluH b¤ecaHrn§enAxageRkamedIm,IbgðÚrTwkejIsecjEdlRbmUlenAkñúgkBa©b;. karEfrrkSa
CaBiessKYrRtUvykcitþTukdak; CamYynwgeRKOgbgÁúMdUcCa eQIbnÞHkþarbiTkav EdlRtUvdak;bgðajrUbragenAelIe
RKagbgÁúMEdlrYcral; ehIyeRKOgbgÁúMeQIbnÞHkþabiTkavén Primium nig Architectural Appearance
¬nigkñúgkrNIxøH Industrial Appearance ¦ CaFmμtaRtUvdwkCBa¢ÚnedaymankBa©b;karBarEdlCa RkdasFn;nwgTwk.
enAeBlRkdasenH min)anpþl;nUvPaBeBjeljBIkarb:HBal;CamYyTwk bTBiesaFn_)an bgðajfa
kBa©b;karBarKWmanPaBcaM)ac;Nas; edIm,IFananUvrUbragxageRkAd¾RtwmRtUvbnÞab;BIsagsg;rYc.
eTaHCaRtUv )aneRbIR)as; CaBiesssMrab;karBarkñúgkareFVIdMeNIrqøgkat;d¾eday RkdasenaHKYrenArkSakuMeGayxUc
GMLúgeBlrkSaTukkñúgkardæan. karykRkdasenaHecj kñúgGMLúgeBlsagsg; KWCaKMnitrbs;Gñk Kitbøg; rW
GñkCab;kic©snüa (contrator) . ]TahrN_RbsinebIRkdasepSgeTot RtUvykmkCMnYsminKYrrkSaenA
TItaMgrhUtdl;RKb;kBa©b;RtUv)anruHerI b¤RKb;RkdasTaMgGs;RtUv)anruHerIedIm,Ikat;bnßyPaB minesμIKñaénBN’esøk
EdlbNþalmkBIkarcaMBnøWRBHGaTitü.
enAkardæanedIm,IkarBarépÞBIkarxUcxat nigkarxUcxatdl;eRKOgbgÁMú karRbugRbytñ½xageRkam

KYrykcitþTukdak;³ elIkeRKOgbgÁM b¤ remoldak;elI dolly b¤rU:lUecjBIpøÚvLan. erIecjBILaneday édeday
forklift b¤eday crane. minRtUvEbn Tajb¤GUseRKOgbgÁúM .kñúgGMLúgeBlerIecjBILan eday]bkrN_elI
eRbIExSrkv:at;RkNat; b¤ExSs<ayepSgeTotEdlmineFVIeGayeQIxUc. pþl;bEnßm nUvbøúkkarBar

enACayéneRKOgbgÁM. karBarRbLak; PaBkxVk; sñameCIg karrlat; b¤karxUcxat eTA rUbragCay b¤RCugRsYc.
]bkrN_ Equipment
]bkrN_EdlmansmtßPaBRKb;RKan;kñúgkarelIkdak;TMnijd¾RtwmRtUv CamYynwgkarRtYtBinitü
sMrab;cl½t nigkardak;eRKOgbgÁúM KYrRtUveRbIsMrab;RKb;dMeNIrkar. vaKYrEtCaFmμCatisMrab;karFana suvtßiPaB
nigkardak;sMPar³y:agRsYl. Crane nig]bkrN_emkanicepSgeTotRtUvEtmankarRtYt BinitüRKb;RKan;fa Fñwm
ssr arche b¤sMPar³epSgeTot GacRtUv)andak;eTAkñúgTItaMgRbkbedayPaB Cak;lak;. ExS sling ExS rope
nig]bkrN_EdlRbkdedaysnþisuxminRtUveFVI[xUcsMPar³enAeBldak;eT. Cagsagsg;KYrkMNt;TMgn;nigcMnuc
tulüPaBén eRKOgbgÁúM munnwgcab;epþImelIk dUcenH]bkrN_ EdlRtwmRtUv nigviFIelIkGacRtUvykmkeRbIR)as;.
enAeBl truss eQIEdlmanElVgEvg RtUvelIkeGayQr edIm,IerobcMelIPaBxusKña én stress TaMgGs;BIkarKit
stress RtUvbgðaj.TMhMtMélnwgkarEcknUv Stress GaRs½y elIktþadUcCaTMgn;/ TMhM nigRbePT truss.
RbsinebImanGñkeFVIekþagd¾mansmtßPaB nigcat;Tuk ktþaTaMgenHsMrab;kMNt; etIRtUvBüÜrb:unμan nigkar

eFVIeGayrwg nigTItaMgrbs;va.
PaBGaceTAdl;)an Accessibility
TIFøaTMenrRKb;RKan;RtUvmanenAkardæansMrab;CaXøaMgTuksMPar³beNþaHGsnñ BIeBlsMPar³eTAdl;rhUt
dl;eBlykeTAsagsg;. ]bkrN_elIkdak;sMPar³KYrmanpøÚv\t]bsKÁBIXøaMgrkSaTMnij dl;cMnucsagsg;.
eTaHCasagsg;RtUvcat;EcgBIxagkñúgsMNg; b¤GacRtUv)aneFVIBIxageRkA
nigkMNt;nUvTItaMgRtUvkardMeNIrkar ]bkrN_. CMnajepSgeTot KYreFVIeGaykEnøgsagsg;s¥atrhUtdl;eRKOg
bgÁúMtMeLIg nigRtUv)anTl;eday CnÞl;beNþaHGasnñ b¤Tl;CaGcié®nþy_edayRbBn½§sMNg;.
karpÁúM nigkarpÁúMbnÞab;bnSM Assembly and subassemply
eTaHCaRtUveFVIehIyenAkñúghag b¤enAelIdI b¤kNþalvalenAkardæan karpÁúM nigkarpÁúMbnÞab; bnSM
KWGaRs½yelIRbBn½§ eRKagsMNg; nigTak;TgnwgkartCaeRcInRbePT. RtUvykcitþTukdak;CamYy nwgkarcab;KUr
eTAelIsMPar³EdleFVItamkarbBa¢aTij. karpÁúMRtUvEteFVI[RsbKñaCamYynwgbøg;kargar Edl)anTTYlkar

yl;RBm. karxYg b¤ dapping bEnßm dUcCakartMeLIgkartenAkardæan RtUv)aneFVI tamrebobdUckmμkr.
CaerOy² truss eQIF¶n;² RtUv)andwkCabMENk²b¤ bMEbkecjBIKñaTaMgGs;. vaRtUv)anpÁúMenA elIdI
enAkardæan munsagsg;. Arches CaTUeTAdwkCBa¢ÚnCaBak;kNþalGacRtUvpÁúMenAelIdI b¤kartGac eFVIbnÞab;BI arche
mçageTotenAnwgTIkEnøgEdr. enAeBl truss nig arch RtUv)anpÁúMrYcenAelIdIenAkardæan karpÁúMKYrmanbøúkkMrit
kMBs;esμIRTBIeRkamedIm,IeGaykartmuxtMN)ansmRsbRtwmRtUv nigFana nUvPaBtMNwgedayKμankarxUcxat.
muxtMNxagcugEdlRtUvsgát;RtUvdak;cUleTAkñúgTMreGayeBj nigelIkþarbnÞHsgát; kEnßgEdlRtUvtMeLIg.
munnwgsagsg; karpÁúMKYrRtUvRtYtBinitüsMrab;karbBa¢ak;RKb;TMhM RKb;ragekag nigPaBCak;
lak;éntMNEdkTMBk;. karsagsg;RtUverobcM nigRbRBitþtamviFIEdleGaysaksm nigrUbragxag
eRkAénmuxtMNCitl¥ nigtYreRKagbgÁúMTaMgmUlnigminRtUv)aneFVI[Gn;fy.
kargarpSa Field Welding
enAeBlmantMrUvkarkarpSar kargarenHKYrEtRtUveFVIedayCagpSar EdlmanCMnajnig RBmeRBog
CamYybøg;kargar nig esovePAlMGitbec©keTs.
karkat;nigkareFVIeGaysuIKña Cutting and Fitting
kartTaMgGs;KYrsaksmeTAtambøg;kargar nig esovePAlMGitbec©keTs nigKMnUrlMGitkargar shop
drwaing Edl)anyl;RBm. karkat; framing nigkarxYgTaMgGs;KYrRtUv)aneFVIedayRBmeRBogCamYy
karGnuvtþn_y:agl¥. enAkardæanxøH karkat; dapping b¤karsVankñúgRtUv)aneFVItamrebobdUckmμkr

CamYynwgGVIEdlTTYl)annUvkarcat;TukeBleRbIR)as;cugeRkaybg¥s; nigrUbragxageRkA.
karTl; Bracing
eRKOgbgÁúMRtUv)andak;edIm,Ipþl;nUvkarTb;xag nigTMrbBaÄr edIm,IFanafakarpÁúMEdlrYcral; ehIy
nwgbegáItnUveRKagbgÁúMEdlmanlMnwg.
CnÞl;enHGacbnøaytamry³beNþaynigtamry³TTwg .vaGacbegáItrYmKñaCacl½t kat;TTwg bBaÄr
Ggát;RTUg nigdUceRKOgbgÁúMEdlTb;nwgxül; rBa¢ÜydI karsagsg; karbegáInel,Ón karcab;RhVaMg nigkMlaMg
epSgeTot. ehIyvaGacCa knee brace, ExSkab , rod EdkTab (strut), ties, shores, diaphrags, frame rwg
nigsmasPaBEdlRsedogKñaepSgeTotkñúgbgÁM.
CnÞl;GacCabeNþaHGasnñ nigGcié®nþy_. CnÞl;Gcié®nþ tMrUvdUcCaEpñkTaMgRsugéneRKag sMNg;rYcral;

Edl)anbgðajenAelIbøg;sßabtükmμ b¤bøg;visVkmμ nigCaFmμtak¾RtUveyageTAtam esovePAlMGitbec©keTs .
CnÞl;sMNg;beNþaHGasnñ KWtMrUvedIm,IeFVI[manesßrPaB b¤eRbIkñúg kEnøgeRKogbgÁúMGcié®nþy_ kñúgGMLúgeBl
sagsg; rhUtdl;eBleRKOgbgÁúMGcié®nþy_epSgeTotEdlRtUv P¢ab;enAnwgkEnøg. CnÞl;enH KWCakarTTYl
xusRtUvrbs;Cagsagsg;EdlFmμtapÁt;pÁg; nigsagsg;va ehIy]bkrN_karBarRCug nig]bkrN_karBar
epSgeTotRtUv)antMeLIg edIm,IkarBareRKOgbgÁúMBIkar xUcxatedaykarTl;.
kñúgsMNg; truss eQICnÞl;beNþaHGasnñGacRtUveRbIedIm,ITl; trusse eGayRtg;enAeBlsag sg;
nigTb;vanwgkEnøgrhUtdl;eBl eRKagbgÁúMTI2 epSgeTot nigeRKagtMbUlRtUv)antMeLIg. Epñkén
CnÞl;beNþaHGasnñ PaKeRcInsMrab; truss RtuvTukenAnwgkEnøgeRBaHvaRtUv)anKitTukedIm,ITl;eRKag
sMNg;EdlrYcral;eGayts‘U nigkMlaMgxag. CaFmμtakarbenÞas cMeBaHTItaMgénkarcg nigkarTl;
sMng;beNþaHGasnñ edayminRKb;RKan; b¤minRtwmRtUv sMPar³sMNg;EdlmanbnÞúkelIs b¤PaBminsuI
cgVak;KñarvagCnÞl;sMNg;beNþaHGasnñ nigkMlaMgRKb;RKan;Edlpþl;BIxageRkAeTAelIva.
eRKagbgÁúMeQIRtUvEtrwg nigxøaMgEfmeTot. vaRtUvEt)ancgy:agRtwmRtUv b¤Tl;BIxagTaMgkñúg
GMLúgeBlsagsg; nigCaerogrhUtenAkñúgeRKag Edlsg;rYcral;. eQIbnÞHkþabiTCab;KñaEdlmanmuxkat;
ctuekaNEkgFM manTMnak;TMngPaBFn;énkMlaMxagx<s; nigFn;eTAnwg stess rmYl (torsional) kñúgGMLúgeBl
sagsg;.
eTaHCay:agNak¾eday Casagsg;minRtUvsnμt;Camunfa arch eQI FñwmeQI b¤ssreQIGac
dkCnÞl;ecjkñúgGMLúgebltMeLignigsagsg;. CaerOykarcg¥úlbgðajy:agc,as;tMrUvfa³
1> CnÞl;beNþaHGasnñKYrpþl;[edIm,ITb;eRKOgbgÁúM eGayenAnwgkEnøgrhUtTal;EteRKagbgÁúM
RtUv)anbBa©b;edaybribUN_.
2> CnÞl;beNþaHGasnñKYrpþl;[edIm,IrkSanUvPaBRtg;esμI nigkarBarkarrMkiléneRKOgbgÁúM
rhUtTal;EtkarbBa©b;CasßaBrnUvCBa¢aMg nigkMral.
3> Cagsagsg;KYrpþl;nUvCnÞl;beNþaHGasnñRKb;RKan; nigRbugRbytñ½ kñgú dak;bnÞúkRCulhYsehtu
enAelIEpñkNamYyéneRKagbgÁúMkñúgGMLúgeBlsagsg;. enAeBlEdlTMhMénkMlaMgTb;Edl KYrpþl;[edaykar
cgExSkab b¤CnÞl;minGackMNt;)anCak;lak;bTBiesaFn_TUeTA bgðajfaCnÞl; KW RKb;RKan;RbsinvapÁt;pÁg;
edIm,ITb;kMlaMgesμInwg 2° énkarpþl;kMlaMgesIs b¤kMlaMgsgát; flange én Fñwm. vamineRbIkMlaMgeRcIn
edIm,ITb;eGayeRKOgbgÁúMenAtamCYr b:uEnþenAeBlEdlvaecjBICYr enaH kMlaMgcaM)ac;edIm,ITajeGaycUlCYrvij

KWeRcInKYrsm.
CMBUkVI³
eRKagCBa¢aMgerob¬\dæ/ bøúk/ fμ¦ nigsMPar³
Masonry Structure and Material
3
1> esckþIepþIm Introduction
1>1 CBa¢aMgerob\dæ Masonry Wall
CBa¢aMgerob\dæ(Masonry)ekItmkkarpÁúMKñaénsMPar³minEmnelah³ minGacduteqHdUcCafμ \dæ
eRKagek,Óg bøúkebtug bøúkEkv bøúkmñagsila b¤\dæeqA (adobe brick) . duM\dæEdlpÁúMeLIgedaysMPar³
Edlerobrab;xagelI CaTUeTAmanRbEvgnigkMBs;cenøaH BI 4eTA 24 GuIg ehIymankMras;BI 4 eTA 12 GuIg.
duMnimYy²RtUv)anP¢ab;Kña eday)ayGr b¤sMPar³suIm:g;t_.
CBa¢aMgnig pÞaMgxNÐ½RtUv)ancat;fñak;Ca Load-bearing nig non-load-bearing. lkçN³énkarKitepSgKña
RtUvQrelIRbePTTaMgBIrenH.
1>2 niymn½yénCBa¢aMgerob\dæ Masonry Definition
xageRkamenHKW CacMENkFmμtaPaKeRcInEdleKrab;bBa©ÚleTAkñúgkargarsMNg;rab\dæ.
- Ashlar Masonry CBa¢aMgrab\dæEdlpÁúMedayduMctuekaNEdlCaTUeTAmanTMhMFMCag

\dænigmankarbiTCit )anl¥ RtUv)anGar RtUv)anerobcM b¤man)atkaer:. vaRtUv)anerobBIelI)ayGr.
- Bearing Wall: Load- bearing wall
- Bonder ( sUmemIl Header)
- \dæ³ duM\dæmanragctuekaNEkg mi nticCagsUlIt 75° eFVIBI\dædut fμPaCn_ b¤l,ayTaMgBIr.
- Buttress: ssr\dæEdlCaEpñkTaMgRsugénCBa¢aMg ehIybnßykMras;taMgBIeRkamrhUtdl;elI EdlTaMg
enaHminmankMras;esþIgCagCBa¢aMgeT. vaRtUv)aneKeRbIsMrab;pþl;nUvPaBnwgfál; EpñkxagénCBa¢aMg.

- Ceramic Veneer: dutedaykMedAxøaMg/ non- load- bearing sMNg;dI\dæEdllabfñaM[relag minlab
rabesμIb¤mank,ac;rcna.
- Chase KWCa Recess bnþbnÞab;enAkñúgCBa¢aMgsMrab;bMBg;Twk bMBg;lU.
- ssr³ KWCaEpñkrgnUvkMlaMgsgát; EdlmanTTwgmin[FMCag4dg énkMras;nigmanbeNþayFMCag3dg

én TMhMxagEdltUcCageK.
- bøúkebtug³ duM\dæEdleFVIedaym:asuIn EdlmanbnSMénsuIm:gt_Br½ELn fμbMEbk nigTwk.
- Coping: k,alénCBa¢aMg/ ssrRKwH/ bMBg;EpSg b¤ssrbYnRCug edIm,IkarBarCMrabTwkeTAkñúgCBa¢aMg\dæ
xageRkam.
- Corbel: karlanecjduM\dæbnþbnÞab;ecjBIépÞCBa¢aMgedIm,IbegáInkMras;rbs;va b¤edIm,IbegáItdUcCaeFñIr.
- Course: duM\dæEdlrabP¢ab;Cabnþ)anmYyCYredk.
- Cross- sectional area: épÞmuxkat;suT§ (net cross- sectional area) KWCapldkrvagépÞmuxkat;TaMgmUl
(gross cross-sectional area) nigépÞRbehagb¤ Cellular Space. épÞmuxkat;TaMgmUlrbs;RbehagRtUv)an
kMNt;eTAxageRkAénRbehagRtUv)ankMNt;eTAxageRkAénRbhag b:uEnþépÞmuxkat;éncg¥ÚrminRtUv)andk
edIm,I)anépÞmuxkat;eT.
- Eccentricity: cMgay normal rvagGkS½énTIRbCuMTMgn; nigkMlaMgpÁÜbEdlRsbeTAnwgGkS½enaH.
- Effective Height: kMBs;EdleKsnμtsMrab;KNnasmamaRt Slenderness
- Effective Thickness: kMras;EdleKsnμt;sMrab;KNnasmamaRt Slenderness
- Grout: Cal,ayénsuIm:g;t_fμbMEbkm:t; nigTwkRKb;RKan;sMrab;plitnUvl,aysMrab;cak;EdlKμanPaB

pøas;bþÚr nigminbMEbkFatupSM.

- Grout Cement: CBa¢aMgerob\dæEdltMNxagkñúgbMeBjedaykatcak; Grout cUleTAkñúgenaHenAeBlEdl

kargarrIkcMerIn.
- Header(bonder): duM\dæ b¤duM\dæebtugepSgeTotEdlrabcugCBa¢aMgExVgKña edIm,I)an bond two wythes
- Height of wall: cMgaybBaÄrBI)atRKwHCBa¢aMgdl;cugCBa¢aMgb¤ enAcenøaHTMr.
- duM\dæRbehag³ duM\dæEdlmanépÞmuxkat;suT§ RsbeTAnwg bearing surface tUcCag 75% épÞmuxkat;TaMg

mUlvas;kñúgbøg;dUcKña.
- TMrxag³ dUcCa Cross Wall, ssr Pilaster, Buttresses, kMralxN½Ð/ dMbUl nigFñwm Spandrel EdlmanPaB
Fn;nwgkMlaMgRKb;RKan; nigmanPaBlMnwgEdlFn;nwgkMlaMgbMElgedk EdlGaccat;TukCaTMrxag.
- Load- bearing wall: CBa¢aMgEdlRTnUvkMlaMgQr nigrYmTaMgTMgn;xøÜngrbs;vapÞal;.
- Masonry: karsagsg; b¤bnSMénduM\dæEdlP¢ab;KñaBImYy eTAmYyday)ayGr b¤suIm:g;t_.
- )ayGr (Mortar): KWCal,ay)øasÞikénsuIm:g;t_ fμbMEbk nigTwk.

- Partition: CBa¢aMg non-bearing wall EpñkxagkñúgénmYyCan; b¤mankMBs;xøI.
- Pier: KWCassrénCBa¢aMgdac;edayÉg. CBa¢aMg bearing wall EdlmanrabenAEpñkxagnUv\dæ RtUvcat;Tuk
fa Pier enAeBlEdlTMhMedkvas;EkgnwgkMras;minFMCag4dgénkMras;.
- Pilaster: ssrerob\dæEdlCaEpñkmYyénCBa¢aMg b:uEnRkas;CagCBa¢aMg ehIymankMras;esμIKñataMgBIKl;
dl;cug. vaedIrtYCaFñwmbBaÄr/ ssr b¤TaMgBIrEtmþg.

- Prism: KWCabnSMrvag\dæ nig)ayGrkñúgeKalbMNgBiesaFn_ rkPaBFn;énkMlaMgRtYtBinitüKuNPaB
sMPar³ nigTwkéd. kMBs;Gb,brimaén Prisms KW 12 GuIgehIysmamaRt Slenderness KYrenAcenøaH 2

nig 5.
- Coursed rubble: KWCakarrabfμEdlmaneRKImeGaymanépÞelIesÞIrEtrabesμI s¥itCab;Kñal¥ nigcenøaH
bBaÄrbnþbnÞab;KñaeGaymanépÞrabesμI.
- Random Rubble: KWCakarrabfμEdlmanrageRKIm s¥itCab;Kñal¥ EtcenøaHbBaÄrminbnþCab;KñaeT b:uEnþesÞIr
EtmanépÞrabesμI.
- Rough or Ordinary rubble: karerobfμEdlmanragminc,as;las; b:uEnþs¥itl¥.
- smamaRt Slenderness: KWCasmamaRtén effective high eTAnwg effective thickness

- duM\dæsUlIt Solid Masonry Unit: duM\dæEdlmanépÞmuxkat; suT§RsbeTAnwgépÞ bearing surface 75% b¤

eRcInCaenHeFobeTAnwgépÞmuxkat;TaMgmUlvas;bøg;EtmYy.
- CBa¢aMg\dæsUlIt³ CBa¢aMgEdlpÁúMedayduM\dæsUlItrabbnþbnÞab;KñaEdlmanmuxtMNrvagKñaeday)ayGr b¤
Grout.
- Stretcher: duM\dæEdlrabtambeNþayedk nigRsbeTAnwgCBa¢aMg.
- Veneer: karP¢ab;y:agCab;nUv Wythe eTAnwgCBa¢aMg b:uEnþeKmin)ancat;TuksMrab;EckrMElkbnÞúk b¤bEnßm
PaBFn;eTAvaeT.
- Virtual Eccentricity: GkS½bnÞúkpÁÜbén Eccentricity tMrUvsMrab;begáItnUvsmIkarsmaRtén Stress axial
nig bending EdlbegáItedaybnÞúk axial nigbnÞúk transverse.

- CBa¢aMg Wall: sMNg;bBaÄ b¤esÞIrEtbBaÄrEdlmanbeNþayEvgCagkMras;3dg sMrab;biT)aMgTIlMhr b¤
Tb;dI b¤pÞúksMPar³.
- Bearing Wall: CBa¢aMgEdlRTbnÞúkbBaÄrrYmTaMgTMgn;xøÜnvapÞal;.
- Curtain Wall: CBa¢aMg non-bearing wall xageRkA.
- Faced Wall: CBa¢aMgEdlmanépÞxagmuxnig xagxñgrabedaysMPar³epSgKña nigs¥itCab;Kñaedaykarsgát;
nUvRbtikmμFmμtaeRkambnÞúk.
- CBa¢aMgRbehag³ CBa¢aMg\dæEdlrabedaymanlMhrxagkñúgCBa¢aMgenAcenøaH Wythe xagkñúgnig xageRkA
- Cavity Wall: RtUv)ansg;BIedayduM\dæ b¤cak;ebtug b¤edaybnSMénsMPar³TaMgBIrEdlrabedaymanxül;
lMhrkñúgCBa¢aMg EdlmanbMeBjedayGuIsULg; nig Wythes xagkñúg nigxageRkARtUvcgP¢ab;Kñaeday

EdkcMNg.
- Non bearing wall: CBa¢aMgEdlminRTnUvkMlaMgbBaÄreRkABITMgn;xøÜnvapÞal;.
- Party Wall: CBa¢aMgenAxagkñúgdIlUt_ eRbIsMrab;CacMNgénGaKarBIr.;
- Shear Wall: CBa¢aMgEdlFn;nwgkMlaMgedkEdlpþl;[bøg;énCBa¢aMg.
- Spandrel Wall: CBa¢aMg Curtain Wall xageRkAénFñwmkMralxN½ÐxageRkAenAtamkMritkMBs;enAsMNg;
GaKareRcInCan;. eKGacKitcab;BIk,alénbg¥ÜcxageRkamdl;)aténbg¥ÜcxagelI.
- Veneer Wall: CBa¢aMgEdlmanmux nigxñgénCBa¢aMgP¢ab;edaysMPar³epSg b:uEnþmins¥itdUcRbtikmμFmμta
eRkambnÞúkeT.
- Wythes: kMras;énduM\dænimYy² EdlrabbnþbnÞab;)anCaEpñkbBaÄrénCBa¢aMg.
rUb 6-1 CBa¢aMg\dæxageRkA
2> KuNPaBénsMPar³sMrab;CBa¢aMgrab\dæ Quality of Material for Masonry

\dæEdleRbIR)as;rYcmþgehIyKYr
ykmkeRbIR)as;vijedaykarRbugRbytñ½x<s;bMput. ]bkrN_\dæEdl )anmkBIkarkMeTcsMNg;cas;²
Edlsg;BI\dæsUlItnigdutedaykMedAxøaMg EdleRbIsMrab;CBa¢aMgxageRkA nigduM Salmon
RtUv)aneGayykmkeRbIvij. BIeRBaHBN’epSgKña Edl)anBIsMNg;edIm nig\dæEdl)an

eRCIserIsRtUvbiT )aMgCamYynwg)ayGr. maneRKaHfñak;c,as;las;Edlyk\dæ Salmon RtUv)aneGayykmk
eRbIsMrab;CBa¢aMgxageRkA nwgGacEbky:aggay. eKmin)anENnaM[yk\dæEdlrabbMBg;EpSgmkeRbIvijeT

eRBaHduM\dæTaMgenaHs‘b;eTAedayCatieRbg b¤ERmgePøIg.
karKitnUvsMNg;\dæ load-bearing KYrQrelIeKalkarN_ rational engineering analysis CMnYs[tMrUvkar
EdlsMGagelIkarBiesaFn_sMrab;CBa¢aMgEdlmankMras;Gb,brma nigmankMBs;GtibrmaEdlmankñúgkUdsMNg;.
CaTUeTAtMrUvkarTaMgenaHykmkeRbIR)as;y:agx¢Hx¢aysMrab;eFVIsMNg; bearing wall sMrab;GaKarEdlmankMBs;
x<s;Cag3 eTA 5Can; nigelIkTwkcitþeGayeRbIR)as;nUvvIFIénepSgeTot ¬Edkb¤ebtugeRKamq¥wg¦. cab;taMgBIqñaM
1965 sMNg;\dævisVkmμkMBs; 10Can; b¤x<s;CagenH)anKitedayQrelIeKalkarN_ Rational Structural
analysis RtUv)ansagsg;enAshrdæGaemric. sMNg;enHRtUv)anykKMrUtamsMNg; Load-bearing brick CaeRcIn
EdlmankMBs;eRcInCag 10Can;Edl)ansagsg;kñúgGMLúg 2TsvtSn_munenAGwr:ub.

2>1 tMrUvkarTUeTAsMrab;karKitCalkçN³bTdæan General Requirement of Design
Standard
kñúgkarRtYtBinitükargarb¤sñaéd sßabtükr b¤visVkrRtUvkarbTdæansMrab;BinitübBa¢ak;. CaTUeTARbsinebI
sMNg; b¤kargarsñaédenHmanP¢ab;mkCamYynUvkic©snüa nigesovePAlMGitkargar. karRtYtBinitüCajwkjab;
RtUv )aneFVIeLIgedayGñkRtYtBinitü EdlGacRtYtBinitüCaeRcIndMNak;kalénsMNg; nigRtYtBinitüemIlkar
Gnuvtþn_ kargarRbRBwtþeTA)anRtwmRtUv.
enAeBlEdlkarRtYtBinitüedayvisVkr b¤sßabtükrminRtUv)anpþl;eGayenaH bTdæanRtUv)ankat;bnßy
nUv allowable stresses niglT§PaBRTRTg;bnÞúk (capacities for load) . CBa¢aMg Engineer brick bearing- wall min
tMrUv[manbec©keTsfμIsMrab;viPaK nigKiteTb:uEnþRKan;Et GnuvtþnUveKalkarN_visVkmμedayRKan;EteRbIkarviPaK
nigkarKitRbB½n§eRKagd¾éT. viFIénkarviPaKKW GaRs½yeTAnwgPaBsaMjauMénsMNg; rYmman kMBs; RTg;RTay TItaMg
CBa¢aMg nigrn§RbelaHkñúgCBa¢aMg. eTaHCay:agNak¾edaykarGPirkSkarsnμt (conservation assumption)
xøHRtUv )anykmkeRbIR)as;y:aglMGitRtwmRtUvedIm,IKaMRTnUvkarviPaK
nigkarKitenaHGacpþl;lT§plnUvdMeNaHRsay y:aggayRsYl nigCaTIKab;citþrbs;sMNg; Bearing-wall
PaKeRcInrhUtdl;kMBs;12Can;. karviPaKrwtEt hμt;ct;sMrab;eRKag bearing-wall
sMrab;kMBs;xagelIenHGacRtUv)antMrUv[rkSTuknUvkarsnSMsMécsMrab;RbePT sMNg;enH.

2>2 sMPar³sMrab;sMNg;rab\dæ Materials for Masonry Construction

PaBFn;énkMlaMg¬sgát;/ kat;pþac; nigkat;TTwg¦ énsMNg;\dæRtUv)anCH\T§iBledaylkçN³én\dæ
nig )ayGrEdleKykmkrab. duM\dæmanPaBFn;énkMlaMgsgát;FMCag.
sUm,IEt)ayGrk¾manPaBFn;énkMlaMgsgát; FMEdr sMrab;sMNg;rab\dævamanPaBFn;FMeTAnwgkMlaMgpþac;
nigkMlaMgTTwg. sMrab;sMNgrab\dævamanPaBFn;FM eTAnwgkMlaMgkat;pþac; nigkMlaMgTTwg. sMrab;mUlehtuenH
vamantMrUvkarsMrab;karKity:agCak;lak;nig minman EdnkMNt;sMrab;sMPar³EdleRbIR)s;kñúgsMNg;visVkmμ\dæ.
3> sMNg;rab\dæ Construction of masonry
PaBFn;énkMlaMgsgát;sMrab;sMNg;rab\dæKW GaRs½yeTAnwgPaBbuinRbsBVd¾eqñIménsñaédnig PaBeBjelj
kñúgkarrabduM\dænimYy². PaBFn;énkMlaMgTajKWCatYnaTIénPaBs¥itrbs;)ayGrénduMnimYy² nigépÞénPaBs¥it
¬kMriténPaBeBjeljénkarbMeBjmuxtMN¦. dUcenHsMrab;bBa¢ak;kargarrab\dæ vamansar³sMxan;kñúgkar
rab\dæ[eBj duM\dænimYy²RtUvduMsgát;eGay)anl¥ nigRKb;muxtMNRtUvbMeBjeday)ayGreGay)ansBVedIm,I
kat;bnßykarRCabTwkcUlénTwkeTAkñúgCBa¢aMg\dæ.
CaBiesskñúgkarbMeBjmuxtMN head joint eKRtUvdak;)ayGr[)anRkas;BIelIxagcugmçagénduM\dæ nigduM
nImYy²KYrRtUvrujcuHeTAmuxtMN)at EdleFVIdUcenHedIm,I[)ayGrRbecotecjtamxagelI nigtamxagénmux
tMN head joint .)ayGrKYrRKbBIxagelI RKab;xagTaMgGs;énduM\dæmunnwgvaRtUv)andak;Ca header. karRbwg
ERbgkñúgkarbMeBjmuxtMN Head joint edayCHcak;)ayGrEdlsMbUredayTwk
b¤edaybgðÚrTwkkMe)arminTTYl )aneCaKC½ykñúgkareFVI[muxtMNminRCabTwk. karbMeBjmuxtMNedayEpñk
edaykar):atb¤ dak;RbLak; “Buttering” b¤ “Spotting”
elICaybBaÄrénduM\dæeday)ayGEdl)anBIkarkat;ecjnUv)ayGrEdllayecj
BIxagmuxtMNr)atKWvamin)anpþl;lT§pleT nigKYrRtUvhamXat;. sMrab;kEnøgNaEdltMrUv[karbiT (Closure)
rn§RbelaHKYrRtUv)anbMeBjeday)ayGr eFVIdUecñHedIm,IeGaykarsUkbBa©Úl closure
edaymanlanecjnUvkMe)ar )ayGrTaMgxag nigbBaÄr.

CaTUeTAmuxtMN)ayGrRtUvmanlMdab;kMritBI 1¼4 eTA 3¼4 GuIn.

rUb 6-2 RbePTénmuxtMN\dæ
]bkrN_sMrab;bMeBjmuxtMN KWGacCYydl;karFn;nwgRCabTwk RbsinebIdMeNIrRbRBwtþeTA)anRtwmRtUv.

b:uEnþ vaminEmnCavtßúsMrab;bMeBjmuxtMNreGaymuxtMNreGay)aneBjelj b¤CameFüa)aysMrab;edaHRsay
sMrab;karbMeBjmuxtMNEdlmineBjelj. Concave Joint RtUv)anENnaM[eRbI. eRbInUv raked
b¤muxtMNrepSgeTotEdlpþl;nUvépÞTwkedkKYrRtUvecosvag. kMe)ar)ayGrKYrminRtUvrwgeBkeT
kñúgeBleRbIR)as; ]bkrN_enH b¤karbgðab;k¾RtUvmanTaMgminRtUvmansPaBraveBk b¤duM\dæGackMerIk
nigduMnimYy²minRtUvkMerIkbnÞab; BIkardak;CYbKñadMbUgCamYy)ayGr.
RbsinebIduM\dæecjxusCYrvaKYrRtUverIecj )ayGrk¾RtUvcUkecjehIy)ayGr
ravfμIRtUv)aneRbIsMrab;karerobeLIgvij. épÞxñgsMrab; Wythes xageRkAKYrRtUvbUk b¤ parged munnwgduM\dæ backup
RtUv)anrab. RbsinebI backup erobmunenaH backup xagmuxKYrRtUv parged .)ayGrKYrdUcKñanwg)ayGrEdleRbI
sMrab;rab\dæ nigKYrmankMras;BI ¼ eTA ⅜ GuIn.
GaRtaénkarbWtRsUbTwkedayduM\dænimYy² enAeBlEdlkMBugrab KWmansarsMxan;Nas;kñúgkarkMNt;
PaBFn; nwgkMlaMgnig PaBFn;nwgkarRCabTwkénmuxtMN)ayGr. GRtaenHGacRtUv)ankat;bnßyedaykarepSIm
duM\dæmunnwgmkrab. duM\dæEdlmankarbWt TwkCamFümGaccaM)ac;RtUvRtaMkñúgTwkRKb;eBl. sMrab;duM\dæEdl
mankarbWtTwkx<s;GactMrUvTwkTaMgRsug sMrab; eBlxøHmunnwgduMenaH :karbWtTwk : (Suction) RtUv)ankat;bnßy
dl;kMritTabEdleKRtUvkar. sMrab;CBa¢aMg\dæEdl Fn;nwgkarRCabTwk (Water-resistant masonry) GRtaénkarbWt
TwkminKYreGayelIsBI 0>35/ 0>5 nig 0>7 oz erog KñasMrab;sMNg;CBa¢aMg\dæTaMgGs; b¤épÞmuxFmμtaEdlman
kMras; 4/8 nig 12 GuIn.
brimaNsMeNImEdl\dæRtUvkarsMrab;RtYtRtaGRtaénkarbWtTwkRtwmRtUv enAeBlerob\dæKYrRtUvdwg b¤
kMNt;edaykarvas;EvgEdleFVIeLIgmunnwg\dæRtUv)anykmkrabCaCBa¢aMg. sMrab;\dæEdlmankarbWtTwkCa
mFümGactMrUv[epSImTwkCajwkjab;enAkñúgKMnr sMrab;\dæepSgeTotGacRtUvkarBnøwckñúgTwkTaMgRsugry³eBl
mYyem:agb¤eRcInCagenH. enAeBlEdlviFIBnøickñúgTwkcMNayGs;eRcInCagkar)aj;TwkelIKMnr b:uEnþvaFanaRKb;
\dæTaMgGs;Eq¥tTwkl¥CagenAeBlykvaecjBIkñúgTwk. ry³eBld¾éTeTotqøas;KñaxøI²
GacRtUvkarmunnwg\dæRtUv )anrab b:uEnþeBlxøH\dæRtUvmanenABIelI CnÞa kñúglkçx½NÐsmRsbsMrab;rab.
\dæenABIelICnÞaKYrRtUvRtYtBinitü nigEqklkç½x½NÐsMeNImCaeRcIndgkñúgmYy éf¶.
CaTUeTAviFIénkarvaynPaBrbs;\dæminmanCH\T§iBl GVIF¶n;F¶r dl;PaB minRCabTwkénCBa¢aMgeT. xSac;Edl
rsat;RtUve)asecj b¤mü:ageTotRtUverIecjBIduM\dæEdlmanxSac; ENnhab;.
)ayGrEdlykmkeRbIsMrab;kMritx<s; (above-grade) xagmux\dæEdlFn;nwgTwk
nigRKb;CBa¢aMg\dæTaMgGs; KYrEtesImEdlGacykmkeRbI)anedayCagkMe)ar. brimaNTwkenAkñúg)ayGrmin
RtUveGayticCag 75° nig Edll¥bMput 80°b¤elIsBIenH. sMrab;karrab\dæEdlmanbrimaN bWtTwk
y:ageRcInenH )ayGrEdlman brimaNbWtTwky:ageRcInenaH )ayGrEdlmanbrimaNTwk 80° b¤eRcInCagenH
GacRtUveRbIedayKμankarhUr TwkkMe)ar “Bleeding” y:ageRcInenAmuxtMN nigGaceFVIeGay\dæGENþt “floating”
eT.
)ayGrEdll¥\tex©aHGacRtUv)anedaykarlayCamYysuIm:g;Br½ELn nigkMe)arGuIRdatkmμ (hydrated
line) layedaymansmamaRt 1³1³6 KwtCamaDedaymansuIm:gt_/ kMe)ar nigxSac;RtsuHesImerogKña. kMe)ar
GuIRdatkmμKYrmanlkçN³)øasÞicx<s;.
taMgBIkarRCabénsMeNImtam)atuPUt Capillary tamry³ebtugnig kMe)arKWCasar³sMxan;dUctUcmk Ca
BiesssMrab;CBa¢aMg above-grade kMe)ar)ayGrminRtUvmankarminRCabTwkTaMgRsugeT. eTaHbICay:agNak¾
eday RbsinebIcaM)ac; kMe)ar)ayGrminRCabTwk GacRtUveRbIy:agsMxan;enAkñúgkargarxøHenAExSkMrit (grade line)
edIm,Ikat;bnßykarekIneLIgén)atuPUt capillary énsMeNImBIdIcUleTAkñúgCBa¢aMg\dæ. )ayGrKYrEtCaRbePTEdl
minRtUvrwgelOneBkenAelIkþaRkal elIkElgEtkar)at;sMeNImedaykarhYt.
)ayGrKYrRtUveFVIkarRcbUkCaerOy²
RbsinebIcaM)ac;edIm,IrkSaPaBesImminpøas;bþÚrdUcEdlGaceFVIeTA )ansMrab;CagkMe)arykeTAeRbIR)as;.
enAeBlEdlsItuNðPaBxüs;TabCag 808 F )ayGrKYreRbIR)as; b¤ e)aHecal kñúgrvag 3em:agknøH
bnÞab;BIlayrYc sMrab;sItuNðPaBxül;esμIx<s;Ca 808 F kMe)ar)ayGrEdlmin )anebIKYrRtUvcak;ecalbnÞab;BI
2em:agknøH.

3>1 sMNg;CBa¢aMgrab\dækñúgGakasFatuRtCak; Cold weather construction of

masonry walls
CBa¢aMgrab\dæKYrRtUv)ankarBarTb;Tl; nwgeRKaHfñak;edaykarkkTwkkk. xageRkamenHKWkarRbugRby½tñ
BiessEdlKYrykcitþTukdak;³ sMPar³EdlRtUveRbIKYrrkSa[s¶Üt. kMBUlénCBa¢aMgTaMgGs;EdlKμanGVIB½T§CuMvij b¤
KμanGVIbiT)aMgKYrRtUvRKbenAeBlQb;eFVIkar. kMraleRKabkarBarKYrbnøaycuHeRkamy:agtic 2ft.
sMPar³EdlkkRtUveFVIeGayvarlaysinmunnwgykmkeRbI. duM\dæRtUvkMedAy:agtic 408F . sItuNðPaB
rbs;)ayGrKYrsißtenAcenøaH 40 eTA 120F ehIykMe)arminRtUvdak;enAkEnøgEdlkkeT. RbsinebIcaM)ac;
CBa¢aMgKYrRtUvkarBaredaykMedAnigedaykMral)aMgxül; (windbreak) y:agtic48em:ageRbIkMe)ar)ayGr
Edllay eday suIm:gt_ Edlqab;Fn;nwgkMlaMgy:agx<s; (high-early strength cement) GacnwgmanRbeyaCn_
y:agxøaMgsMrab;sMNg;\dækñúg GakasFatuRtCak;.
3>2 cgP¢ab;rvag Wythes sMrab;CBa¢aMg\dæ Bond between wythes in Masonry
wall
enAeBlEdl header RtUv)aneRbIsMrab;P¢ab;xagmux nigxagxñgsMrab;CBa¢aMgrab\dæsUlItnig faced wall
dUcbgðajkñúgrUb 6-3 mi nRtUeGaytUcCag 4°énépÞCBa¢aMgénmuxnimYy²énCBa¢aMgEdlpSMeday header EdlKYr
RtUvBnøany:agtic 4GuIn eTAkñúgEpñkxagxñg. Header TaMgenHminRtUvsßitenAq¶ayBIKñaelIsBI 24GuIn eTTaMgtam
TisedAedk nigTisedAQr ¬rUb 6-3¬a¦ ¬b¦¦. sMrab;CBa¢aMgEdlman bonder EtmYymin)anBnøantamCBa¢aMg
eT. Header tamRCugQmKñaenaHKYrRCYsmuxKña 4GuIn b¤KYrRtUvRKbeday bonder epSgeTotEdlKgmuxKñaCamYy
header xageRkamy:agtic 4GuIn.
RbsinebIEdkcMNg¬rUb6-3 e nig 6-4¦ RtUv)aneRbIkargarcgP¢ab;vaKYrEtFn;nwgeRcHsuI..

sMrab;cgP¢ab;xagmux nigxagxñgénCBa¢aMg\dæsUlIt nig faced wall vaKYrEtRtUv)andak;Edk cMNg1sMrab;ral;épÞ
CBa¢aMg 4 ft knøH. EdkcMNgKYrdak;tamrebobd¾éTeTotqøas;Kña cMgayGtibrmaénEdknimYy²tam TisedAQr
2
minRtUv[elIsBI 18GuIn nigtamTisedAedkminRtUv[elIsBI 36GuIneT. sMrab;CBa¢aMgEdlpÁúMeday \dæRbehag

kMras;BIr b¤eRcIn Stretcher courses KYrRtUvcgP¢ab;edayviFImYykñúgcMeNamviFIxageRkam³ sMrab;cenøaH
kMBs;QreRcInCag 34GuIn KYrmankarrabRCYsmuxKñaduMxageRkmay:agtic4Guin ¬rUb 6-3c¦. b¤sMrab;cenøaH
kMBs;FMCag 17GuIn KYrRtUvrabRCYsmuxduMxageRkamy:agtic kMras; 50° ¬rUb 6-3d¦. b¤y:agticRtUvP¢ab; eday
cMNg1 ral;épÞCBa¢aMg 4ft ½. EdkRtUvdak;tamrebobqøas;Kña cMgayGtibrmasMrab;EdknimYy² tamTisedA
2

QrKYrEtmantMél 18GuIn nigtamTisedAedkmantMél 36GuIn. karRKbeday)ayGreBjKYrRtUvpþl;[TaMg

muxtMNedknigQr enAxagcugnigCayépÞ shell énduM\dæRbehag.
sMrab; ashlar masonry karP¢ab;fμKYrRtUvBRgayCaÉksNæanBIépÞCBa¢aMgTaMgmUlnig begáIty:agtic10°
énépÞRklaénépÞrab.
rUb6-3 RbePTénsMNg;rab\dæduM
rUb 6-4 RbePTEdkcMNgsMrab;CBa¢aMgerob\dæ

sMrab; rubble stone masonry EdlmankMras;rhUtdl; 24GuIn karrabP¢ab;fμKYrEtmanKMlatGtibrma

3ft TaMgTisedAQr nigTisedAedk. sMrab;CBa¢aMgRkas;CagenH KYrEtmankarrabfμmYyy:agticral;épÞCBa¢aM 6ft 2
TaMgsgxag. sMrab;biTP¢ab;Epñkxagmux ashlar PaKryénkarbiTP©ab;fμRtUv)anKitBIépÞRklaénCBa¢aMgEdlRtUv

expose. y:agtic10°énépÞRklaenHKYrpÁúMedaykarBRgayy:agÉksNæanénkarbiTP¢ab;fμ edaybEnßm 4GuIn b¤
eRcIneTAkñúg backup . RKb;karbiTP¢ab;fμ nigenAeBlrabqøas;KñaminRtUv)aneday bond courses RKb;fμTaMgGs;KYr

RtUv)anf<k;y:agCab;eTAnwg back upCamYynwgTMBk;EdkeRcHGt;suI.
TaMgenHRtUvmanépÞmuxkat;Gb,brma 3¼13 31 GuIn. vaRtUvmanTMBk;mYysMrab;fμmYynigy:agticTMBk;
BIrsMrab;fμEdlmanRbEvgEvgCag 2ft b¤manépÞRklaFMCag 2ft b¤manépÞRklaFMCag 3 ft . fμEdlmanmuxFM²KYr
2
many:agticEdkTMBk;mYysMrab;épÞRkla 4ft b:uEnþminRtUvmanTMBk;ticCag2eT. Cavity-wall wythes KYrRtUvbiT

2
P¢ab;KñaCamYynwgEdkEdlmanGgát;p©it 3¼16GuIn b¤EdkcMNgEdlmanlkçN³rwgdUcmun bgáb;enAkñúgtMNedk.

vaKYrmanEdkcMNgy:agticmYysMrab;ral;CBa¢aMgEdlmanépÞRkla 4ft knøH. EdkcMNgKYrRtUvdak;kñúglkçN³
2
qøas; cMgayGtibrmarvagEdknimYy² minRtUvelIBI 18GuIn sMrab;TisedAQr nig 36GuIn sMrab;TisedAedk Edl

bt;CaragctuekaN KYrRtUveRbICamYy nigduM\dæRbehagedayrabkñúgTisedAQ. sMrab;CBa¢aMgd¾éTeTot cugénEdk
KYrRtUvbt;eGay)anmuM 90 edIm,Ipþl;nUvTMBk;y:agticRbEvg 2GuIn. karbEnßmcMnYnEdkcMNgKYrRtUv)anpþl;[enA
º
RKbRbehagTaMgGs;. EdkTaMgenaHKYrmanKMlatBIKñamin[elIsBI 3ft BT½§CuMvijbrimaRtnig cMgay12GuInBIrn§

Rbehag.
enAeBlEdlCBa¢aMg bearing wall BIrkat;ExVgKña ehIy course RtUvrabeLIgtMNalKñakEnøgExVgKñaRtUvcg
P¢ab;edayrabCa true bond y:agtic50°énduMénkEnøgExVgKña. enAeBlEdl course RtUvrabeLIgedaydac;eday
ELkBIKña CBa¢aMgEdlRtUvExVgKYrrabTukCaKnøak; b¤Cabøúky:ageTotTat;edayXøatecj (off set) Gtibrma 8GuIn.
muxtMNKYrRtUvdak;EdkTMBk;Edlmanmuxkat;Gb,brimaBI ¼eTA1 in ½ Edlmancugbt;y:agtic2GuIn b¤RtUvdak;
cross pin edIm,IbegáItCaTMBk;. EdkTMBk;TaMgenaHRtUvmanRbEvgy:agtic 2ft nigmanKMlatBIKñamin[elIsBI4ft .
3>3 rab\dæeday grout grout masonry
sMNg;énCBa¢aMgRtUvkar Wythes Ca\dæb¤ bøúkebtugsUlItBIr b¤eRcInRsedogKñaeTAnwgCBa¢aMgEdl)an

bgðajkñúgrUb 6-3a EdlGacBenøÓnkargar)anedaykarcak; grout cenøaH wythes sgxagedIm,IbMeBjmuxtMN
xagkñúg. sMrab; wythes CaTUeTAkUdsMNg;GaKartMrUv[srsrGkSr M b¤ S sMrab;bgðaj)ayGrEdlmanlay
suIm:gt_B½rELn kMe)ar nigFμbMEbk. dUcKñaenaeBlrab\dæ eKtMrUv[duM\dæeFVIBIdI\dædut nigduMxSac;kMe)ar (sand-line

unit) KYrmanGRtabWtTwk minRtUvelIsBI 0.025 oz /in ral;ry³eBl 1mn sMrab;karBiesaFn_bTdæanénbMNWt.
2
RKb;duMEdlrabCa Wythes TaMgsgxagRtUvrabedaymanmuxtMNeBjeljk,al nig)at (head and bed joint) .

Low-lift Grouting
KMlatbBaÄrrvag Wythes EdlRtUvbMeBjeday grout RtUvmanTTwgy:agtic ¾ in masonry header min
KYrRbeyaleTAkñúgTIlMhreT. Wythes xageRkAmYyRtUverob[)ankMBs;18 GuIn grout RtUv)ancak;bMeBj.
Wythes xageRkAmçageTotRtUv)ankMNt;eGaymankMBs;rhUtdl;6dgénKMlat grout b:uEnþminRtUvelIs 8GuIn
munnwg grout cak;bBa©Úl. dUcenHsMrab;RbePTsMNg;enH grout RtUv)ancak;CacMnYnelIk (lift) EdlminelIsBI

8GuIn.GroutKYrRtUv)aneFVI[eTACaPk;CamYynwgdMbggrout Pøam² bnÞab;BIvaRtUv)ancak;bBa©Úl. RbsinebIkargar
RtUvbBaÄb;sMrab;ry³eBl1em:ag b¤eRcInCagenH sMNg;muxtMNedkKYrRtUv)anbegáItedaytMeLIg RKb; Wythes
[mankMritkMBs;esμIKña nigcak; grout edayTuk1GuInBIeRkamkMBUl. Grout smRsbsMrab;RbePTsMNg;enHpSM
eLIgedaymansuIm:g;t_Br½ELnmYyPaK 0>1PaKénkMe)arGuIRdatkmμ (hydrated lime) b¤emSAkMe)ar (lime putty)
nig 2¼ eTA3PaKénxSac;.
High-lift Grouting
CaerOy² RbePTsMNg;enHRtUveRbIsMrab;kEnøgEdlmandak;EdkBRgwgenAcenøaHKMlatbBaÄrén
Wythes ]TahrN_sMrab;TIRbehagénCBa¢aMgdUckñúgrUb 6-3e. Grout RtUv)ancak;CabnþbnÞab;sMrab; lift
EdlmankMBs;rhUt dl; 6ft nigbeNþayrhUtdl; 30ft kñúgKMlatbBaÄr. ¬r)aMgbBaÄrb¤TMnb;

eFVIBI\dæsUlItGacRtUvrabenAkñúgKMlat Grout edIm,IRtYtBinitükarhUrtamTisedAedkrbs; Grout ¦. kUdsMNg;
GactMrUv[ral; lift RtUvEtbMeBjcb;sBV RKb;kñúgGMLúgeBl1éf¶. Grout RtUv)anbMENnedayeFVI[eTACaPk;
b¤rMBa½remkanic enAeBlEdlcarcak;va nig RtUvbMENneLIgvijenAeBlEdlsMeNImelIslb;RtUv)anRsUbbWtb:uE
nþmunnwg Plasticity RtUv)an)at;bg;. Grout smRsbsMrab;TIlMhrEdlmanTTwg 2GuIn b¤FMCagenH pSMeLIgeday
suIm:g;t_Br½ELnmYyPaK kMe)arGuIRdatkmμ b¤em:SAkMe)ar 0>1 PaK xSac; 2eTA3PaK nigRKYsminRtUvelIsBI 2PaK
KitCamaD.

rUb 6-5 CBa¢aMg\dæEdlcak; Grout

sMrab;sMNg;CBa¢aMg Wyth KYrRtUvrkSakMritkMBs;eGayesμIKña. minRtUvrab Wyth eGaymankMBs;xusKña
eRcInCag 16GuIneT. CBa¢aMg\dæKYrRtUvEfTaMTwkry³eBly:agtic 3éf¶edIm,ITTYlPaBFn;énkMlaMg munnwgcak;
Grout bBa©Úl. KMlat grout RtUvmanTTwgy:agtic2GuIn RbsinebIEdkBRgwgedkRtUv)anykmkdak;eRbIR)as;enaH
vaKYrmanTTwgRKb;RKan;sMrab;pþl;[EdkenAkñúgTIlMhr (Clearance) ¼ GuIn b:uEnþminRtUvmanTTwgtUcCag3GuIneT.

karsMGatRtUveFVIeLIgerogral;eBlcak;. kareFVIenHedayminrab;bBa©ÚlRKb;duM\dæén course
sMrab;)atCBa¢aMg EdlRtUvcak;eT. munnwg Grout RtUv)ancak; KMlatkMe)ar)ayGrEdlelIs )ayGrm:t;

nigsMPar³déTepSgeTot KYrRtUvykecjBIcenøaHKMlat grout enaH. TwkEdl)aj;edaysMBaF x<s;GacRtUv
eRbIsMrab;eKalbMNgenH.
bnÞab;BIkarRtYtBinitü b:uEnþmunnwgcak; Grout bBa©Úlrn§RbehagEdlsMGatRtUvbiTcukedayduM\dærYcKYrRtUv
Tl;Tb; nwgsMBaFén Grout .EdllYsKYrRtUvs‘kenAkñúgmuxtMNr)ayGr cenøaH course nig span kat;KMlat
grout nImYy²edImI,cgP¢ab; Wythes ¬rUb 6-5¦. EdlKYrRtUvpÁúMCaragctuekaNEdlman TTwg4GuIn
nigbeNþay2GuIn tUcCagcMgayrvagépÞxageRkATaMgsgxagén Wythes EdlRtUvcgP¢ab;. TMhMEdk lYs

KYrkuM[tUcCagelx N 9. KMlaténEdkcMNgKYrminRtUvelIsBI 24GuIn kñúgTisedAedk. sMrab;CBa¢aMgrab
o
\dætamrebob running-bond ¬rUb 6-3g¦ KMlatTwsedAbBaÄrminRtUvelIsBI 16GuIneT nigsMrab;rebob stack

bond ¬rUb 6-3 K¦ minRtUvelIsBI 12 GuIn.
3>4 lkç½xN½ÐTMrsMrab;CBa¢aMg Support Conditions for Wall

TMrRtUv)aneFVIsMrab;EcknUvbnÞúkcMcMnucy:agsuvtßiPaBeTAelICBa¢aMrab\dæ b¤ piers .eRKOgbgÁúMEdlrgnUv
bnÞúky:agF¶n;RtUvmanbnÞHTMrEdk enABIeRkamxagcugénTMr edIm,IEckbnÞúkeTAeGayCBa¢aMrab\dæeGayman
allowable bearing stresses. TMrEdkKYrmanRbEvgy:attic3GuIg. sMrab;bgÁúMEdlrgnUvbnÞúkRsalKYrRTeday
pÞal;eTAnwgCBa¢aMgRbsinebI bearing stress sMrab;CBa¢aMgrab\dæ sßitenAkñúgEdnkMNt;EdlGnueRKaH nigRbEvgén

TMrKW 3GuIgb¤FMCagenH. CBa¢aMgrab\dæKYrminRtUv)anRTedaysMNg;eQIeT.
3>5 Corbeling
kEnøgEdlCBa¢aMgerob\dæsUlItkMras; 12 GuIg b¤Rkas;CagenHRtUvkarbegáInkMras;BIxagelIkMritkMBs;
Edl)anbgðaj karbegáInkMras;KYreFVIeLIgCabeNþIredaymanEkgRt. sMrab;viFIenH course RtUv)anRbeyalecj
BIépÞCBa¢aMgCabnþbnÞab;Kña dUcmanbgðajkñúgrUb 6-3f.
karRbeyal corbel tamTisedaedkGtibrmaecjBIépÞénCBa¢aMg KYrEtkuMeGayelIs ⅓ énkMras;CBa¢aMg
eRKagbgÁMTMr. kñúgkrNIxøH karRbeyal course xøHénCBa¢aMgrab\dæKYrminelIsBI 1GuIn. CaTUeTAbMBg;EpSgKYrkuM
eFVI Corbel [FMCag 6GuIn vas;BIépÞénCBa¢aMg. eTaHCay:agNak¾eday enACan;TI2énGaKarsñak;enAEdlman2
Can; corbeling énbMBg;EpSgenAkñúgCBa¢aMgbiTCitxageRkAGacesμInwgkMras;CBa¢aMg.
3>6 RbelaHRbehag/ Chases nig rescesses sMrab;CBa¢aMgerob\dæ

CBa¢aMgerob\dæEdlsßitenABIxagelIRbelaHRbehagKYrRtUv)anRTeday Arches b¤LaMgtU (lintel) Edl
manEdk b¤bgÁM\dæEdlmandak;EdkBRgwg Edlcugsgxagrbs;vaRtUvRTedayCBa¢aMgy:agtic4 GuIg. fμb¤ sMNg;
LaMgtUKμanEdkminRtUv)an[eRbIeT elIkElgEtmankarbEnßmbRgÁb;enAxagkñúgénCBa¢aMedayLaMgtUceRKagEdk
sMNg; arches smRsb b¤LaMgtUBRgwgedayEdrsMrab;RTnUvsMNg; masonry backing . LaMgtU (lintel) KYrEtrwg
RKb;RKan;edIm,IRTnUvbnÞúkEdlsgát;elIedaymanPaBdab deflection tUcCag 1¼72 énRbEvgElVgva (Clear
Span) .sMrab;CBa¢aMebtugrabesμI EdkBRgwgEdltMerobRsbKña eTAnwgkMras;énCBa¢aMgKYrEtdak;kuM[tUcCag 1GIun
BIelI nig 2GuInBIxageRkamRbelaHRbehag. vaRtUvbnøayy:agtic 24GuInBIxageRkamRbelaHRbehag. vaRtUv

bnøayy:agtic 24GuInéncugmçag²énRbehag b¤smmUleTAnwgkarbegáItedayTMBk;. TMhMEdlKYrykmkeRbIKW
eRbIelx No: 5 sMrab;CBa¢aMgEdlmankMras; 6GuIn. sMrab;sMNg;epSgeTotEdlCalMenAdæanTab² CBa¢aMg\dæmin
KYrman chases b¤ recesses eRCACag ⅓ énkMras;CBa¢aMg b¤EvgCag 4ft tamTisedAedkb¤k¾RbeyaltamTisedk.
Chases nig Recesses énCBa¢aMg\dæxagxñgKYrmanRbEvgy:agtic 8GuIn nigcenøaH Chases b¤ Recesses EdlenACit
KñanigeménRbehag. Chases nig Recesses KYrminRtUvkat;sMrab;CBa¢aMgduM\dæRbehag (Wall of hollow masonry

unit) b¤CBa¢aMgRbehag (hollow wall) b:uEnþGacRtUv)ansagsg;. vaminKYrGnuBaØatiCamYynwgtMrUvkarépÞRklaTaMg
mUlénmuxCBa¢aMgsMrab;Can;xøH.
sMrab;lMenAdæanEdlmankMBs;minx<s;Cag2Can; chases bBaÄrGacsg;kñúgTMhM 8GuIn sMrab;CBa¢aMgRbsin
ebI chase manCMeraminFMCag 4Ginu nigmanépÞtUcCa 4 ft épÞRklaCBa¢aMg. eTaHCay:agNa recesses enABIeRkam
2
bg¥ÜcGacbnøayBIkMralxNÐ½ eTAdl; sill nigGacTTWgénRbehagBIxagelI. CBa¢aMgrab\dæBIxagelI chases b¤

recesses EdlmanTMhMTTwgFMCag 12 GuIgKYrRtUvRTedayLaMgtU.
Recesses GacRtUv left eTAkñúgCBa¢aMgsMrab;pøÚvCeNþIrnig CeNþIrynþb:uEnþCBa¢aMgKYrminRtUvkat;bnßykMras;
eGaytUcCag 12GuIn elIkElgEtEdkBRgwgRtUv)anyl;RBmedayviFIxøH. Recesses sMrab;eFñIrdak;esovePA nig

eKalbMNgRsedogKñaenHGacmanCBa¢aMg\dæenAxagxñgy:agtic 8GuIn. vaRtUvmanTTwgticCa 18GuIn nigKYrman
arched enABIelI b¤maneRbILaMgtUdak;KgBIelI.
RbsinebIPaBFn;énkMlaMgénCBa¢aMmin)ancuHexSay bMBg;Twk b¤bMBg;lUGacRtUvdak;eGayqøgtamTisedA

edk b¤bBaÄrtamry³ sleeve enAkñúgCBa¢aMg. Ety:agNak¾eday Sleeve KYrminRtUvdak;[CitCag3Ggát;p©itBI
GkS½eTA GkS½.
3>7 Flashing enAkñúgCBa¢aMgrab\dæ

Flashing KYrRtUveRbIedIm,IbEgVrTwkEdlRCabcUleTAkñúgépÞxagkñúgénCBa¢aMgeGaymkxageRkAsMNg;vij.
GaRs½yehtuenH Flashing KYrRtUvtMeLIgenAxagkñúgCBa¢aMgedayépÞedk dUcCadMbUl/ parapet nigkMralxN½Ð
GaRs½yeTAnwgRbePTénsMNg;. enAnwgmuMéneFñI RbehagdUcCa TVar nigbg¥Üc ¬rUb 6-6 a nig b ¦nigeCIgén
CBa¢aMgBIelIRKwHbnþic ¬rUb 6-6 c nig e¦ flashing KYrbnøaytammuxtMNr\dæeTAmuxxageRkAénCBa¢aMgCakEnøg
EdlvaRtUvbt;cuHedIm,IbegáItCa drip .
rUb6-6 Flashing sMrab;CBa¢aMgrab\dæ
eTaHCay:agNa flashing enAkñúgmuxtMNrCBa¢aMg\dæKYrbeBa©ósTwkEdlxøHmann½yfapþl;nUvkarbgðÚr

TwkecjmkxageRkA. edayehtuenH flashing KYrRtUveRbIsMrab;P¢ab;KñaCamYy Weep Holes EdlKYrRtUvbegáItenA
kñúg hede joint Pøam² BIelI flashing ¬rUb 6-6d¦ enAeBlEdl Weep hole RtUv)aneFVI[Rbehag KMlatKYreGay
elIsBI 24GuIn GkS½eTAelIGkS½. RbsinebIRbeqHénsURtEkv b¤ExSnILúg ExSkUtug b¤sMPar³RsedogKñaenH
RtUv )andak;cUleTAkñúgrn§Rbehag KMlatKYrkuMeGayelIsBI 16 GuIn BIGkS½eTAGkS½. sMPar³eRbICa flashing
rYmman bnÞHTg;Edg sMBt;b‘ÍTIm )øasÞic b¤CabnSMénsMPar³d¾éTeTot. bnSMénsMPar³TaMgenHrYmmandUcCa cold-
formed steel nig)øasÞic b¤labfñaMb‘ÍTIm Gacplit)anCa flashing EdlmantMélTab.

4> TMrxagsMrab;CBa¢aMgrab\dænig FaturYmpSMepSg²

Lateral support for masonry wall and other elements
4>1 TMrxagsMrab;CBa¢aMgrab\dæ lateral support for masonry wall

sMrab; Unreinforced solid b¤ Grout masonry bearing wall pleFobénkMBs; unsupported nigkMras;Edl
tUcbMput b¤pleFobénRbEvg unsupported nigkMras;EdltUcbMputminRtUveGayelIsBI20. sMrab; hollow wall
b¤ Wall of hllow masonry unite pleFobKYrmantMél 18 b¤ticCagenH. sMrab; cavity stole wall pleFobmin
RtUvelIs 14.
kñúgkarKNnapleFobénRbEvg unsupported nigkMras;sMrab; cavity wall GñkGacykkMras;CBa¢aMgBI
plbUkénkMras;tUcbMputén Wythes xagkñúgnigxageRkA. sMrab;CBa¢aMgEdlpÁúMBIRbePTepSgKña b¤duM\dæepSgKña
b¤ )ayGr pleFobKYrminRtUvelIBItMélEdlGnueRKaHdl;bnSMEdlexSayCageK. Veneers minRtUv)anKitCaEpñk
CBa¢aMgkñúgkarKitkMras;EdlFn; nigkMlaMgb¤PaBmanlMnwgeT. sMrab; nonbearing, unreinfored exterior wall pl
eFobkMras;KYrkuMeGayelIsBI20. sMrab; unreinforec partition pleFobKYrmantMél36 b¤ticCagenH.
cantiliver wall nigCBa¢aMg\dæ enAkEnøgEdlmankMlaMgxül;xøag M minKYrsg;kñúgkMBs;x<s;Cag10dg énkMras;rbs;
vaeT elIkElgEtmanCnÞl;RKb;RKan; b¤karKitEdlmankaryl;Rsb BIeKalkarN_visVkmμ. karcak;bMeBjvij
KYrkuMcak;b:HnwgRKwHCBa¢aMg elIkElgEtvaRtUv)anTl;edIm,ITb;Tl;nwgsMBaFtamTisedAEdk. kñúgkarkMNt;RbEvg
unsupported énCBa¢aMg/ CBa¢aMgExVgKñamanRsab; pier b¤ buttresses GacRtUv)anKitCaTMrxagRbsinebIbgÁMTaMgenH
rabs¥it)anl¥ b¤f<k;eTAnwgCBa¢aMg nigmanP¢ab;edayExSkabbMElgkMlaMgEkgeTAnwgbøg;énCBa¢aMg b¤eTAkñúgdI.

kñúgkarkMNt;kMBs; unsupported kMralxNÐ½ dMbUlGaccat;TukCaTMrxag RbsinebIvaGacRTaMRT eTAnwgkMlaMgxag
y:agtic 2001b/ ehIyvaGacbMElgkMlaMgxagenHeTAdI. cugénrnUtkMral b¤FñwmTMrBICBa¢aMg\dæ GacP¢ab;eTA
1 in ft
nwgCBa¢aMgedaysuvtßiPaB ¬rUb 6-7¦. cugrnUtf<k;xagkñúgKYrRtUvdak;KgKñanwg e)aHP¢ab;edayEdkeKalFM²

smmUl edIm,IbegáItCacMNgbnþbnÞab;kat;sMNg;. enAeBlEdlTMrxagRtUv)anpþl;[rnUtRsbnwgCBa¢aMg TMBk;
RtUv)andak;mineGayelIsBI 6ft BIKñanigpÁúMy:agticrnUt 3 EdlRtUv)anTajqøgy:agtwgenATMBk;.

rUb 6-7 kardak;TMBk;rnUteTAnwg bearing wall

kMBs; unsupported én pier KYrkuMeGayelIsBI10dg énTMhMtUcCageK. eTaHCay:agNak¾edayenAeBl
EdlsMNg;ek,Og\dæ b¤duMebtugRbehagRtUv)aneRbIsMrab;EjkecjBI pier edIm,IRTFñwm b¤rt kMBs; unsupported
minKYrmantMélelIs 4dg énTMhMEdlmantMéltUcCageK elIkElgEt lMhrénRbehagRtUv)anbMeBjy:ag
ENnedayebtug b¤)ayGr.
TMBk;sMrab; Masonry facing Anchors for masonry facing
TMrEkgeTAnwgbøg;xøÜnvaGacRtUvpþl;[eday Wythes CBa¢aMg\dæxageRkAeRBaHvaCa veneer (non-load-

beaing) b¤CBa¢aMgRbehagén Wythes xageRkAedayf<k;vaeTAnwgsMNg;EdlGacpþl;nUvtMrUvkarTMrxag. eday
ehtuenH masonry veneer GacRtUvcgP¢ab; masonry bonder b¤EdkcMNgeTAnwg back up masonry wall Edlva
pþl;nUvTMrxag b¤ Veneer GacRtUvf<k;edaypÞal;eTAnwgeRKagsMNg;. kareRbIR)as;TMBk;P¢ab;CBa¢aMg\dæeTA
nwgeRKag sMNg;mandUcxageRkam.

rUb 6-8 TMBk;sMrab;eRbIenAcenøaHCBa¢aMg\dæ nigeRKagsMNg;

TMBk;eRcInRbePT)anbgðajkñúgrUb 6-8. vaKYrEtFn;nwgeRcHsuI. dUcKñavaKYrEtGacFn;nwgkMlaMgTajnig
sgát;EdlbegáItedaykMlaMgEkgeTAnwgCBa¢aMg. TMBk;KYrenAEtmanPaBbt;EbnRKb;RKan;edIm,If<k;rvagCBa¢aMg nig
eRKag. vaKYrEtGaceFVIclnatamTisedAedk nigQredaymanPaBepSgKñad¾tUc RsbeTAnwgbøg;énCBa¢aMg. TMBk;
KYrRtUvbgáb;cugmçageTAkñúg)ayGrénmuxtMN xag)atnigbnøayrhUtesÞIEtdl;épÞxagmuxénCBa¢aMg. cugmçageTot
KYrRtUvP¢ab;y:agsuvtßiPaB eTAnwgeRKagedaypþl;[TMrxag. kareRCIserIsRbePTTMBk;ykmkeRbIGaRs½ynwg
sMNg;EdlCBa¢aMgRtUveRbITMBk;. rUb6-8a bgðajnUvEdkcMNgGgáaj;sMrab;P¢ab;CBa¢aMg\dæeTAelIemeQI (stud) .
EdkcMNgxagelIKYrRtUve)aHP¢ab;eTAnwgemIeQI(stud) edayEdkeKaleRcHGt;suI EdlduMbBa©ÚleTAkñúgkMraleday
Bnøicy:agtic 1 ½in eTAkñúg Stud.

rUb6-9 kardak;TMBk;Cab;nWgeRKag
EdkcMNgKYrmankMras;y:agtic 22ga TTwg ⅞ in nigmanRbEvg 6 in .TMBk;Edl)anbgðajkñúgrUb6-8b
nig c GacRtUveRbIsMrab;P¢ab;CBa¢aMg\dæCamYynigEdkssr (metal stud) .TMhMEdkénTMBk;y:agtic 9ga. TMBk;
EdlbgðajkñúgrUb 6-8d KWsmRsbsMrab;cgP¢ab;rvagCBa¢aMg\dæeTAnwgeRKagEdk dUcbgðajkñúgrUb 6-9b .kar
dak;TMBk; devetail sMrab;f<k;CBa¢aMg\dæcUleTAkñúgrgVH devetail éneRKagebtu)anbgðajkñúgrUb 6-8 e nig f . kar
Gnuvtþn_énRbePTTMBk;bgðajkñúgrUb 6-8 e )anbgðajkñúgrUb 6-9c nig d. TMhMlYssMrab;TMBk;enHKYrmanTMhMtUc
bMput 6ga nigKYrRkalkñúgTTwgy:agtUc4 GuIn sMrab;bgáb;y:agtic 2GuIn cUleTAkñúgmuxtMN)atsMrab;CBa¢aMg.
RbePTEdksMEb:t¬rUb6-8f ¦ KYrmankMras;Gb,brima 16ga nigTTwg 7/8GuIn. cugmçagEdlbgáb;kñúgmuxtMNr)at
KYrbt;eLIgelIy:agtic ¼ GuIn.
4>2 bMBg;EpSg nigeCIgRkandMedApÞH Chimneys and fireplaces
tMrUvkarGb,brimasMrab;bMBg;EpSgGacnwgTTYlBIkUdsMNg;kñúgtMbn; (local building code) b¤kUdKMrUsMNg;

(model building code) xøH. Casegçb bMBg;EpSgKYrBnøÚty:agtic 3ft BIelIcMnucx<s;bMput kEnøgEdlvaqøgkat;
dMbUlénsMNg; nigy:agtic 3ft x<s;CagkMBUldMbUlEdlmankMBs; 10 ft. ¬sMrab;bMBg;EpSgsMrab;eRKOgbrikça

RbePTeragcRk EdlbeBa©ajnUvsItuNðPaBcenøaH 1400 nig 2008F kMBs;Gb,brimaBIelIdMbUlebIk b¤EpñkxøH
énsMNg;EdlmankMBs; 25ft KYrmankMBs; 10ft . sMrab;beBa©jnUvsItuNðPaBx<s;Cag 20008 F kMBs;Gb,brima
BIelIEpñkxøHénsMNg;KYrEtmankMBs; 20ft. bMBg;EpSgKYrRtUv)anksagTIduM\dæsUlIt b¤ebtugGaem nigRtUvdwk
eday firebrick b¤ fire-clay tile. sMrab;sMNg;lMenAdæankMras;CBa¢aMgbMBg;epSgRbEhl 4 in. sMrab;sMNg;
epSgeTot kMras;énbMBg;EpSgsMrab;eRKOgbrikçadMedAy:agticman kMras; 8GuIn sMrab;CBa¢aMg\dæTaMgGs;. kMras;
rubble stone mantMélGb,brima 12GuIn. rn§Rbehage)assMGat EdlbMBak;edayTVarEdk
KYrRtUvpþl;[ sMrab;)aténbMBg;EpSgnimYy². enAeBlEdlbMBg;EpSgrYmbBa©ÚlKñaeday bMBg;BIr b¤eRcInenaHvaKYr
RtUv)an sg;CBa¢aMgxNÐ½EdlmankMras;y:agtic4GuIn. kñúgtMbn;EdlmanrMBa¢ÜydIkEnøg EdleRKaHfñak;
GacekIteLIg bMBg;EpSgKYrCasMNg;rab\dæBRgwgedayEdk (reinforced masonry) . vaKYrRtUvf<k; eTAnwgkMral
nigBidanFMCag 6ft BIxagelIdI (grade) nigeTAdMbUl.
eCIgRkankMedApÞHKYrmanxñgnig xagénCBa¢aMg\dæsUlIt b¤ebtuGaem minRtUvmankMras;ticCag8GuIn.
RTnab;xagkñúgeCIgRkankMedApÞHKYrmankMras;y:agtic2GuIn b¤sMPar³Edlyl;RBmepSgeTot
KYrRtUv)anpþl;[ elIkElgEtkMras;12 GuIn. eCIgRkanxagelIKYrBRgIky:agtic 20GuIn BIxageRkA chimney
breast nigminRtUvtUc Cag12GuIn énxagnImYy²énRbehageCIgRkankMedApÞHtambeNþayrvagbBg;EpSg
CamYyrnUtFñwmb¤rt nig sMPar³EdlGacduteqHKYrRtUvbBaÄb;kareqHedaybMeBjCamYysMPar³minGacduteqH.

kréneCIgRkankMedApÞHKYrkuMeGaytUcCag 4GuIn nigRbesIrbMput 8GuIn BIelIkMBUlénrn§RbehageCIgRkan
kMedApÞH.
snÞHbiTebIkxül;eFVIBIEdk ¬12ga b¤Rkas;CagenH¦ BRgIkeBjTMhwgénRbelaHeCIgcRgáankMedApÞHKYrdak;
enAkñúgkreCIgRkan.bMBg;EpSgKYrmanépÞRklaRbsiT§PaBesμInwg 112 eTA 1¼10 énépÞRklaRbelaH eCIgRkan.

4>3 karpþl;nUvTMhMEdlpøas;bþÚr Provision for dimensional changes

kñúgkarKit nigkarsagsg;CBa¢aMgerob\dæ karGnueRKaHKYrRtUv)aneFVIsMrab;TMnak;TMngclnaénCBa¢aMg\dæ
nig sMNg;Cab;Kña (contiguous construction) .RbsinebIkargarenHmin)aneFVIeT enaHsñameRbHEdlminKYr
eGayemIl b¤EdlKYr[xül; b¤sMNg;)ak;EbkKWCalT§pl. enAGtItkal eRKaHfñak;xagelI)anekIteLIgenA
elICBa¢aMgrab\dæedaysar³
1> Restraint pþl;eGayeday contiguous construction edIm,IbþÚrTMhMenAkñúgCBa¢aMg\dæ. karpøas;bþÚrenaH
GacbegáItedaykarpøas;bþÚrsItuNðPaB b¤edaykarbWtTwkBICBa¢aMg\dæbnÞab;BIsagsg;.
2> Restraint pþl;[edayclnaénCBa¢aMg\dæ b¤bþÚrTMhMenAkñúg contiguous b¤ bonded construction dUcCa
eRKagebtug b¤ backup wall .karpøas;bþÚrenHGacbegáItedaykarrYjedaykars¶Üt elastic deformation ¬karxUc
RTRTayedaykaryWt¦ eRkambnÞúkb¤ creep énebtugbnÞab;BIkarsagsg;.
edIm,IecosvagnUvral; Restrait enHeKcaM)ac;RtUvEtTukRbelaH Expansion joint CamYynwgRbelaH
d¾RtwmRtUv enAcenøaHd¾smrmü nigbMEbk bond cenøaHCBa¢aMgnigsMNg;EdlRtUv Restrain EdlTak;Tgnwgclna
¬rUb 6-10¦.

rUb 6-10 muxkat;bgajBItMNrmuxrIk

Vertical expansion joint KYrRtUvtMeLIgenAkñúgCBa¢aMg\dæedIm,IGnuBaØatidl;clnatamTisedAedkénCBa¢aMg
rab\dæ nig horizontal expansion joint edIm,IGnuBaØatidl;clnatamTisedAQr. edaymanGvtþmanénBt’man

bBa¢ak;BIkMedAniglkçN³ bWtTwkTMhMPaBlUt (Unit Strain) Gacsnμtyk 0007in/in sMrab;CBa¢aMg\dæenAeBl
EdlclnaRtUv)andak;kMNt; ]TahrN_edayP¢ab;eTAnwgRKwHebtug. dUcenHsMrab;KMlatén expansion joint
rbs; CBa¢aMg\dæRtg;RbEvg 60ft eKtMrUv[muxtMNrmanTTwg 2 x 60 x 12 x 0.0007 b¤RbEhl1GuIn. CaTUeTA
KMlat vertical expansion joint KYrsßitenAcenøaH 50ft nig 100ft nigmuxtMNKYrRtUvdak;kuMeGayelIsBI 30ft BI
kEnøgkat;KñaénCBa¢aMg. TTwgtMrUvsMrab; expansion joint k¾GaRs½yeTAnwgkarGnueRKaHPaBlUtGtibrmaén
sealant eRbIsMrab;karkñúgRbelaHenaH. RbsinebITMhMénmuxtMN RtUv)anRtYtRtaedaylkçN³ elastic én sealant
KMlaténmuxtMNKYrRtUv)anEktMrUvedIm,IkMNt;TMhMmuxtMNedIm,Idak;nUv elasticity én sealant . Sealant KYrRtUvdak;

enAxagmuxCBa¢aMgxageRkAedays‘kcUlkñúgmuxtMNkñúgCMerAy:agtic ⅛ GuIn b:uEnþminRtUveRCACag 1½ énTTwgmux

tMN. CMerAenHGacRtUvRtYtBinitüedaysMPar³ backup Edls‘kcUlkñúgmuxtMNrmunnwg sealant RtUv)ans‘k nig
Edlvamins¥itCab;CamYy Sealant. sMrab;Epñkxagmux\dæ horizontal expansion joint KYrRtUv)ans‘kedaypÞal;BI
eRkamLaMgtU edkEdlRTedayeRKagebtug ¬rUb6-10g¦. muxtMNRtUv)anKitTMhMedayykkarrIkedaysnμt
énCBa¢aMg\dæBIeRkam LaMgtUbUknwg karrYmedaysnμténeRKagebtugedaybegáIteLIgeday drying shrinkage
bnÞúksgát; nig creep. edayGvtþmanénBt’manbBa¢ak;BIlkçN³énsMPar³EdlRtUvykmkeRbI Tak;Tgnwgclna
bBaÄr (vertical movement) EdleKsnμt 0.0014in/in .dUcenHkEnøgEdl\dælMGrmuxEdlRTedayeFñIEdk (stell
shelf angle) ]TahrN_ KMlat 15 ft bBaÄrBIKñaRtUvmanRbelaH 15. x 12 x 3 x 0.0014 b¤RbEhl ¼ GuIn.
dUcsMrab;muxtMNrbBaÄr sealant nigsMPar³ backup KYrRtUvdak;sMrab; horizontal expansion joint . Slip

joint KYRtUvpþl;[sMrab;kEnøgEdlmankarpøas;bþÚrPøam² sMrab;CBa¢aMg. ]TahrN_TMhMekIteLIgenAkarbiTP¢ab;
Panel b¤rYmbBa©ÚlrvagRbehagénCBa¢aMg\dæ dUcCa RbelaHbg¥Üc nigTVa. Bond KYrRtUvkarBaredaykars‘kbnÞH
EdkRkdassMNg; (Building Paper) b¤sMPar³epSgeTotEdlGnuBaØati[rGilenAeBlEdlclnakMedAekIteLIg.

dUcKñaedIm,IGnuBaØtidl;clntamTisedAedk slip plane RtUv)aneKdak;enAeBlkMBugcak;ebtug (Cast-in-
place) enAcenøaHkMralx½NÐebtug b¤tMbUlCamYynwg masonry bearing wall EdlRTva ¬rUb6-5a ¦. TMBk;Edl
Gacbt;Ebn)anEdlGnuBaØatidl;rGil GacRtUvtMeLIgenAcenøaHkMral nigCBa¢aMgedIm,IRbkarnUv uplift .eTaHCa

y:agNa TMBk;TaMgenHminKYrRtUvtMeLIgenACitRCugénkMral EdlmanRbEvg 1¼10énRbEvgkMral. mUlehtuKW
RKb;RCugTaMgenaHnwgekageLIgelIenAeBlEdl)atuPUtrYmmaD (Shrinkage) ekIteLIg kñúgkrNIenHkardak;TMBk;
Gacpþl;[CBa¢aMgnUvkMlaMgTaj nigsñameRbH. GñkKYreFVIkarRbugRbyt½ñCaBiess kñúgkarpþl;clnaTMnak;TMng
(Relative movement) enAeBlEdlCBa¢aMgpÁúMedaysMPar³epSgKña. CakarRbesIreKKYrbMEbkvay:agtic ½ GuIn
nigdak;muxtMNredayEdkcMNg flexible ¬rUb6-10b nig d ¦. CaBiesssarPaBxusKñaénclnakMedA (termal

movement) rbs;sMPar³ bond KYrRtUv)anRbkarenAcenøaHCBa¢aMg\dæ nigRKwHCBa¢aMgebtugCab;Kña BIxageRkamGVI
EdlRbQmnwgGakasFatu ¬rUb 6-5b¦. TMBk;EdlGacbt;Ebn)an (flexible anchor) KYrRtUv)andak;enAcenøaH

CBa¢aMgnigRKwH edIm,IGnuBaØatinUvkarrGiltamTisedAedk edayminTan;RbkarnUv uplift .dUcKñaeCIgtamKYrRtUv)an
eFVIeGaymanPaBrwgmaMRKb;RKan;edIm,IRbkarnUvPaBdundab (deflection) EdlGaceFVIeGayCBa¢aMgxagelIvaeRbH.
elIsBIenH sMrab;eKalbMNgdUcKña CBa¢aMgGacRtUv)anKitCaFñwmeRCA b¤ Vierendeel masonry trusses.
(Vierendeel truss minmanbgÁúMrUbsNæanragRtIekaNEtÉgdUcCa truss FmμtaeT dUcenHehIybgÁMenaHKW RbQm

nwgbnSMrvagkMlaMgtamGkS½ axial force and bending moment . Truss TaMgenHRtUv)anbegáItedayCBa¢aMgman

RbehagsMrab;bg¥ÜcnigTVar. ) .
enAeBlEdl bearing –wall construction RtUv)aneRbIsMrab;sMNg;enaH clna differential énTMrenACit
KñaénbgÁMeRKagedkKYrrkSa eGaymanKMlattUc. sMrab;mUlehtuenH bearing wall
énsMPar³mindUcKñaKYrminRtUv )aneRbIbgÁMsMNg;EtmYyeT
edaysarEtmanlkçN³rUbmindUcKñaEdlbgánUvkarxUcRTg;RTayk¾mindUcKña. ]TahrN_ CBa¢aMg load-bearing
brick b¤CBa¢aMgebtugKYrRtUv)aneRbIenAkñg
ú eRKagsMNg;EtTaMgBIrminGnuBaØtieT.
4>4 CYsCulmuxtMNlicTwk Repair of leaky joint
karlicedaysarTwkePøógsac (Wind-driven rain) cUltammuxtMNénCBa¢aMg\dæRCabTwkenaHeyIgGac
bBaÄb;)aneday Repointing b¤ Grouting muxtMNr. CaTUeTAeKRtUveFVIkarCYsCulRKb;muxtMNTaMgGs; TaMgedk
nigbBaÄr sMrab;xagmuxCBa¢aMg. dMeNIrkar “tuckpointing” EdlmanEtmuxtMNrEdlmankMhusCak;Esþgbnþic
GacnwgminRKb;RKan;nig mankarFanafamuxtMNEdlCYsCulrYc nwgminlicTwkeT. Repointing KWCakardab;ecj
nigdak;cUlvij nUv)ayGreTARKb;muxtMNeGay)anCMerARbEhl 5/8in. bnÞab;BI)ayGrcas;RtUv)anerIecj FUlI
nigsarFatukxVk;KYRtUvlagecjBICBa¢aMgehIyduM\dæKYrRtUvepSImedayTwkrhUtdl;CitEq¥tTwk.
enAeBlEdlCBa¢aMg\dæenAEtmanCatisMeNImEtminmaneXIjTwksBVsac;lμmedIm,IGac[kardak;cUl
kEnøgmansPaBENnhab;l¥ ehIyeyIgKYrTukeGayvaecal 1 b¤BIrem:ag edIm,IeGayvaeFVIRbtikmμGuIRtakmμmun
munnwgykeTAeRbI.
kareFVIRbtikmμmun (Pre-hydration) )ann½yfa rkSalMnwgén plasticity
nigPaBRsYleFVIkargarrbs;kMe)ar )ayGr nigkat;bnßynUvPaBrYmmaD (Shrinkage)
én)ayGrbnÞab;BIykvaeTAbiTmuxtMN.
bnÞab;BI Repointing )ayGrKYrRtUvrkSadusCUtedayRsTab;y:agesþIgén Grout BIelImuxtMNkñúgCBa¢aMg
\dæ. Grout rYmmansarFatupSMEdlmanmaDesμIKña rvagsuIm:g;t_Br½ELnnigxSac;m:t;EdlErgqøgkat;kéRBa©gelx
N 30. CBa¢aMg\dæKYrsßitkñúgsßanPaBesImenAeBlEdleKbiT Grout . Grout KYrEtCaERkmxab;nigEtKYrlab
o
cUleTAkñúgtMNedayCk;eramnwg CaBiesseTAkñúgkEnøgCYbKñaénduM\dænigkMe)ar)ayGr. TMhMTTwgmuxtMNEdl

eyIgemIleXIj emIleTAdUcCarIkFMCagmunbnþic edaykarRblak; Grout eTAelIduM\dæenaHenAkEnøgeGb:ugesIm
munnwg grout eLIgrwg. GñkKYRbugRby½tñkuMCUtsMGat Grout BIcenøaHCayénduM\dænigmuxtMN)ayGr.
RbsinebIduM\dæenaH mann½yPaBKeRKIm enaHkarRbLak;RtUv)anRtYtRtaedaykareRbIbnÞHEdlesþIg (template)

b¤edaykarbiTduM\dæ CamYynwgbg;s¥itbiT.
PaBs¥itén Grout eTAnwgmuxtMNsMrab;muxtMNr “cut” b¤ “flush” mankarRbesIrCagsMrab;muxtMNEdl
eFVIeday]bkrN_. RbsinebImuxtMNenHRtUveFVIeday]bkrN_dUcenHykl¥eKkuMTan;Gal grout varhUtTal;Et
bnÞat;BIhalxül;RKb;RKan;edIm,IsMGatecjnUvsñamsuIm:g;t_épÞmuxtMNredayeRbIxSac;RKYs.
karCYsCulmuxtMNredaylab grout RtUv)ansakl,g enAkEnøgkagaredIm,I emIlnUvRbsiT§PaBrbs;vaBI CBa¢aMg
\dælicTwk. karCYsCulrebob grout minmanGayudUckar CYsCuleday Repointing eTb:uEnþvacMNayluy
Gs;ticCa Reporting EmnETn. tMélkñúgkarCYsCulTaMg Grouting b¤ Reporting sMrab;CBa¢aMg\dæRbEhl
CaelIseRcInCag tMélbEnßmsMrab;kmμkrnigemkarRtuvkarkñúg karksagCBa¢aMgminRCabTwk.
4>5 tMrUvkarkMras;CBa¢aMg\dæ Masonry Thickness Requirement

kMras;CBa¢aMgenAcenøaHTMrxagKYrkuMERbRbYl. enAeBlEdleKcaM)ac;pøas;bþÚrkMras;cenøaH kMritkMBs;kMral
x½NÐ edIm,I)antMrUvkarkMras;Gb,brima kMras;Rkas;CagKYrRTnUvkMritkMBs;kMralbnÞab;. enAeBlEdlCBa¢aMg
Masonry hollow unit b¤ Bonded hollow )ankat;bnßykMras; course én\dæsUlIt KYrEtdak;[cMkNþalCBa¢aMgBI
xageRkam nigCBa¢aMgEdlEsþgCagBIxagelI b¤k¾duM\dæBIess b¤sMNg;BiessKYrRtUv)aneRbIsMrab;bMElgbnÞúkrvag

CB¢aMgEdlmankMras;epSgKña.
elIkElgEtCBa¢aMgEdleFVIedaymanEdkBRgwgEdlKittameKalkarN_visVkmμ TMhMCBa¢aMg\dæRtUvRtYt
BinitütamkarkMNt;xageRkam³
- Bearing Wall: KYrEtmankMras;y:agtic 12 in sMrab;kMBs; 35ft. kMras;RtUv)anbegáIneLIg 4in ral;kar
kMBs;bnþKña 35ft mþgb¤ fraction éncMgayEdlvas;BIcugkMBUlénCBa¢aMgcuHeRkam. CBa¢aMg rough b¤ random b¤
coursed rubble stone wall KYrmankMras;Rkas;CagenH 4in b:uEnþKμankrNINatUcCag 16in eT. eTaHCay:agNa
sMrab;CBa¢aMgepSgBI rubble stone krNIelIkElgxageRkamenHRtUv)aneRbIsMrab; Masonry bearing wall.

- Stiffened Wall: enAeBl Solid masonry bearing wall RtUv)anP¢ab;eTAnwg masonry cross wall b¤
reinforced- concrete floor kñúgcMgayminFMCag 12ft vaGacRtUv)ansagsg;kñúgkMras; 12in sMrab;kMBs; 70ft b:uEnþ
KYrEtBRgIk 4in sMrab;ral;karbnþ 70ft b¤ fraction éncMgayenH.

- Top-story wall: Top-story bearing wall énsMNg;GaKarEdlmankMBs;minx<s;Cag 35ft eKKYrsg;vakñúg

kMras; 8in . b:uEnþCBa¢aMgenHKYrkuM[mankMBs;x<s;Cag 12ft nigminKYrrgnUvkarbukecjxagBIsMNg;tMbUleT.
- Residential wall: enAkñúgsMNg;lMenAdæanEdlmankMBs;rhUtdl; 3Can; CBa¢aMgKYrmankMras;8GuIn
¬RbsinebIkMBs;minx<s;Cag 35ft ¦ RbsinminrgnUvkarcak;ecjxagBIsMNg;tMbUl. CBa¢aMgxagelIsMrab;pÞH1Can;

b¤yanþdæanÉkCn1Can; GacmankMras;6GuInRbsinebIkMBs; 9ft b¤TabCagenH b¤RbsinebIkMBs;BIkMBUlehagCag
minelIsBI 15ft.
- Penthouses nig Roof Structure: masonry wall EdlmankMBs;rhUtdl; 12ft BIxagelIkMritkMBs;dMbUl
CeNþIrnigbgáan;édEdlbiTCit bnÞb;ma:suIn Shaft b¤ Penthouse GacmankMras;8GuIn. eKmincaM)ac;rab;bBa©ÚlTaMg

karkMNt;kMBs;sMrab;karCYbKñaéntMrUvkarkMras;sMrab;CBa¢aMgBIxageRkam.
- Plain Concrete nig Grouted Brick Wall: kMras;CBa¢aMgTaMgenHGacmankMras; 2GuIntUcCagkMras;
Gb,brmasMRrab;tMrUvkarmUldæan. b:uEnþCaTUeTAkMras;rbs;vaminRtUvtUcCag8 GuIn ehIyminRtUvtUcCag 6GuIn

sMrab;sMNg;lMenAdæan1Can; b¤yanþdæan.
- Hollow wall: Cavity b¤ masonry bonded hollow wall minRtUvmankMBs;x<s;Cag 35ft eT. CaTUeTA
Cavity wall EdlmankMras; 10in RtUv)ankMNt;[mankMBs;Et 25ft b:ueNÑaHBIelITMr. xagmuxnigxagxñg én
Cavity Wall RtUvmankMras;y:agtic 4GuIn nig cavity minRtUvmanTTwgtUcCag 2GuIn b¤eRcInCag3GuIneT.
- Faced Wall: TaMgkMBs;én faced ¬smasFatu¦ Wall TaMgcMgaycenøaHTMrxagminRtUvelIBIGVIEdlerob
rab;BIxagedImsMrab;RbePT masonry EdlbegáItxagmuxnig xagxñg. kMras;Cak;Esþg ¬minEmnFmμta¦ énsMPar³

EdleRbIsMrab;épÞxagmux minRtUvtUcCag2GuIn nigKμankrNItUcCag ⅛ énkMBs;rbs;va.
- Non bearing Wall: CaTUeTA Parapet Wall KYrmankMras;y;agtic 8GuIn nigkMBs;minRtUvelIs3dgén
kMras;. eTaHCay:agNa kMras;GactUcCa8GuIn RbsinebI parapet enHmanEdkBRgwgedIm,IRTaMRTnUv)atuPUtrBa¢Üy

EpndI nigkMlaMgxül;y:agmanRbsiT§iPaB. Non bearing masonry xageRkAGacmankMras; 4GuIn tUcCagkMras;
Gb,brimaén bearing wall. eTaHCay:agNa kMras;rbs;vaminRtUvtUcCag8GuInEtelIkElgEtkEnøgNaEdl
GnuBaØati[eRbI bearing wall kMras; 6in non bearing wall k¾GaceRbI)anEdr. Non bearing masonry partition
RtUv)anRTxagenAcMgaymin[FMCag 36dgkMras;Cak;Esþgén partition rYmbBa©ÚlTaMgkMras;kMe)arbUk.
RbsinebITMrxagGaRs½ynigBidan kMralxN½Ð b¤dMbUl kMBUlén partition KYrmanTMBk;RKb;RKan;sMrab;
bMElgbnÞúk. karf<k;enHGacTTYl)aneCaKC½yedayTMBk;Edk b¤edaykardak;KnøWHenAkMBUlén partition eTAnwg
kargarputk,al.BidanBüÜrGaccat;TukCaTMrxag)anRbsinebIBIdan nigTMBk;manlT§PaBnwgkMlaMgedk
énCBa¢aMg )an 2001b/in. ft.

(Service Loads) : Department of Civil Engineering

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(Service Loads) : Department of Civil Engineering

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Department of Civil Engineering NPIC

2>4 karBiesaFn_enAnwgkardæan Field testing ..........................................21

2>1 fμbMEbkTMgn;Fmμta Normal –weigth aggregates....................................42

6>4 RKwH Foundation .............................................................61

1>2 CMnYyénkarKItbøg; nigeyag Design Aids and References........................66

1>5 sarFatubMpøaj nig sarFaturkSakarBar Destroyer and preservative....................90

3>4 lkç½xN½ÐTMrsMrab;CBa¢aMg Support Conditions for Wall ............................115

Lateral support for masonry wall and other elements .................................118

Construction General -6-

- bnÞúkERbRbYl (Dynamic Loads) ³ ERbRbYleTAtameBlevla. varYmbBa©ÚlTaMg Repeat and Impact

- Repeated Loads KWCakMlaMgEdlRtUveKykmkGnuvtþeRcIndgehIyvaGacbNþaleGayTMhM énkMlaMg

Construction General -7-

- Live Loads ³ rYmbBa©ÚlGñksñak;;enA sMPar³sMNg; sMPar³eRbIR)as; rWTMgn;epSgeTotenAkñúg GaKar

Construction General -8-

Loads) nig emKuNsuvtßiPaB. emKuNsuvtßiPaBepSg² RtUv)aneKykeRbICamYynwgbnÞúkedayeyagelIPaBmin

Construction General -9-

Building Codes CaFmμtaGnuBaØatieGayeRbIemKuNtUc eBlEdlkar):an;sμanénkarekIteLIg énbnÞúkFM

sMebImrYmKñaenHmankMrittUc tYy:agdUcCa³ karrYmbBa©ÚlKñarvag Dead Load Gtibrma Liveload nigGtibrmarbs;

sMrab;kMralx½NÐenATIRbCuMsaFarN³sMrab; Liveload EdlelIsBI 100psf nigsMrab;bnÞúkéncMNtrfynþ

énbnÞúkedayKμaneFVIeGayeRbH rWxUcRTRTg;F¶n;F¶rdl;GaKar. edIm,Icg¥úlbgðajnUvcMnYnkMNt;énbnÞúkGtibrma

énkMlaMgEdl sßitenAcMNucNamYyénbøg;/ ΣH = 0 ΣV = 0 nig ΣM = 0 .

smIkarTaMgbIxagelIenHRtUv)aneKeRbIedIm,IKNnaGBaØti3 enAkñúg nonconcurrent coplanar force

2>2 Unit Stress and Strain

Unit stress EdlzitenAcMnucNamYyénmuxkat; KWCatMélkMNt;énpleFobrvagkMlaMgkñúgelIépÞtUcNamYy nig

RklaépÞEdlvaRtUveKyktUceTA². CYnkalkñúgkarKNnaeRKOgbgÁúM Unit stress GacminEmnCacMnuccMbgEdleK

enAeBlEdlbnÞúkdak;dUcenH Unit strain KWefr kñugEpñkmYyéneRKOgbgÁúMvaGacRtUveKKNnaedayEck

enAeBlEdleRKOgbgÁúMmYyRtUvrgnUvbnÞúk ehIy Unit stress minelIsBI Proportional Limit eRKOgbgÁúMnig

ekIneLIg b¤fycuHbnþicbnþÜcén Stress . dUcenHsMPar³sMNg;bgðajnUvPaByWtrbs;va. sMrab;sMPar³sMNg;

2>4 Constant Unit Stress

bnÞúkTaMgenHRtUveKbgðajenAkñúgrUb Figure 11 . sMrab;kMlaMgTaj nig sgát;cMG½kS eyIgyképÞmuxkat;EdlEkg

2>5 Poisson’s Ratio

1>2 visVkmμRKwH (Foundation Engineering)

mUldæanRKwHmYyeTotén Foundation Engineering KWTak;TgeTAnwgkarKNna Parameter dUcCaliT§PaB

8> karkt;RtaTuky:aglMGiténsßanPaBBIr b¤fμI niglkçN³TwkeRkamdIEdlenAkñúgtMbn;EdlGacman

TaMgEpnTIPUmisa®sþcas;nig fIμ Gacpþl;nUvBt’mand¾mantMélGMBIkardæansagsg;. EpnTIPUmisa®sþCa

kardæandUcCavtþmanéndI)ak; RcaMg)ak; RbePTénTMrg;dI ¬]TahrN_pñÚkxSac;¦ (alluvial fans) dIl,ab;kMNk én

. edayeRbobeFobrUbPaBBIelIGakascas; nig fμIPUKBðviTUGacsegátpgEdrnUvkarpøas;bþÚr

kñúgry³eBleTogTat;NamYy TnÞwmnigeBlenaHEdr dIEdlsßitenAelI Flight auger rWenAkñúg bucket auger RtUveK

rWxYgRsTab;dIenAeRkamTwk. auger KWCa]bkrN_sMrab;xYgEdlCaTUeTARtUveKeRbIsMrab;xYgdI rWfμ.

GnuBaØatieGayeyIgyksMNak;dIxageRkam)an. Hollow-stem flight auger KwdUcCaRbGb;sMrab;sMNak;dI

kMeTcdIekItmkBIkarkab; mYl nigbukrbs;EdkxYg (drill bit) EdlkMTicdI b¤fμeTACabMENktUc². Casing RtUveK

Rotary Coring KWCa]bkrN_xYgmYyRbePTEdleKeRbIfamBlrgVilénEdkxYgeGaydUcCaclnarbs;

fμrwgedIm,IEsVgyl;BIRsTab;dIxageRkam b¤edIm,IkarxYgGNþÚg. EdkxYgeFVIkardUcCadgjjÜreLIg ehIycuHedIm,I

Trenches manragEvg nigceg¥ótCaFmμtakayeday backhoe b¤ bulldozer.

tarag 6>4 bgðajBIkareRbIR)as; smtßPaBnig TMhMkMNt;rbs; test pits nig trenches.

eRbIedIm,ITTYlnUvsMNakKMrU undisturbed éndIpgEdr. dMeNIrenHmanCIkkaydIBIxag b¤)atén Test pit b¤ trench

CIky:agelOnnUv trench EdlGacbnÞab;mkRtUv)aneRbIedIm,IRtYtBinitü nigBiesaFn_dIenAnwgkEnøg. sMrab;kar

dMeNIrkarénkarxYgKYrminRtUv)aneRbIsMrab; karBiesaFn_eTeRBaHvanwgnaMmknUvkarsnñidæan xuscMeBaHlkçxNÐ

3> Undisturbed sample: eKTTYlsÁal;faKμansMNakKMrUdINaEdlGacykecjBIdIedaysßan-

• kareFVIeGaykeRkIk b¤karb:HTgÁicénbMBg;sMNakKMrU kñúgGMLúgeBldwkCBa¢ÚneTAkan;bnÞb;BiesaFn_.

ral;skmμPaBEdl)anerobrab;xagelIGackat;bnßyRbsiT§iPaB Stress karkat;bnßysMrab;PaBs¥itén

rab;xagelI)anbgðajBIlkçN³énsßanPaBenAnwgkEnøg RbesIrCaglT§plBiesaFn_cMeBaHsMNakKMrUdI disturbed

RtUvEtmanGgát;p©itxagkñúg (D1) = 3.81cm(1.5in) nigGgát;p©itxageRkA (D ) = 5.08 cm(2in). ]bkrN_sMNak

KMrU SPT RtUv)ansgát;cUleTAkñúgdIxSac;edaykarTMlak;duMjjYrTMgn; 63.5kg(1401b) BIkMBs;

KñaéneBlbc©úb,nñrvagénkarvas;Evg. karvas;Evg SPT tMél N GacRtUv)anCH\T§iBledayktþaénkarBiesaFn_

karmYlGtibrmatMrUvsMrab;bgVil Vane nigkarkat;pþac;dI\dæRtUv)anrab;.

VaneGacRtUv)anpþl;PaBFn;énkarpþac;edayKμankarpþac;edayKμankarbgðÚrTwkx<s;xøaMg RbsinebI Vane

sMrab;dIEdlrIkmaD ¬dI silt b¤dI\dæ¦ EdlGacrIkb¤ rYmmaDnwgeFVIeGayRKwHmanclnaehIy eFVIeGayeRKagsMNg;

3>1 RKwHrak; Shallow Foundation

rUbTI 2-1 eCIgtag

- karedaleLIgeday hydrostatic. enAeBlRKwHnwgRtUvRbQmnwgkarehIbeLIgeday hydrostatic Edl

sésrEdkBYrEdleRsabeday)øasÞiky:agRkas;. eRsam)øasÞikkarBarsésrBYurBIkarb:HBal;CamYynwgebtug nig

enAbrimaRtFñwmQmedIm,IGac[ sésrBYrTTYl stress BIxagcugmçag.