Answers - To - Study - Combined - 1 Biology

● Answers to Study questions
Living organisms: variety and common features Part 1
Study question page 6

Statement Plants Animals Process
synthesise sugars and give  photosynthesis
out waste oxygen
release energy from sugars   respiration
and use oxygen
grow faster on one side  response / phototropism
when exposed to light from
one side
eat other living organisms  heterotrophic nutrition
as food
get rid of waste  excretion
nitrogenous material from
the breakdown of protein
molecules
produce more organisms   reproduction
that are the same or similar
to themselves
use muscles to run and  movement / locomotion
jump
get larger and change   growth
during life
Section 1
Edexcel International GCSE Biology © 2017 Erica Larkcom and Roger Delpech
Study questions page 10

1 Here are some suggestions for your examples, but there are many others you may include.
Plants:
Oak tree – formed dense woodlands in the UK after the last ice age. Valuable source of timber for
building frames for houses, furniture, as well as building ships in the era before steel. Trees form a
key part of the temperate woodland ecosystem.
Wheat – cultivated as a crop. Wheat grains are ground into flour, which is used to make foods such
as pasta and bread. This is probably the most widespread crop in the world, in terms of total area
cultivated.
Foxglove – a source of an important drug (digitalin) for treating certain types of heart disease.
Animals:
Goats – one of the first animals to be domesticated by humans. They provide milk, meat, hair and
skin for human use.
Horse – an animal that can be used to pull ploughs and carts, to carry materials from place to place.
They can also be used as vehicles for war, carrying soldiers and materials across large distances.
Dog – first animal to become domesticated, forming strong bonds with humans. They have been
selectively bred for a various forms of work, giving rise to breeds as different as the Great Dane and
the Chihuahua.
Fungi:
Mycoprotein – a mould originally isolated from soil, grown in aseptic culture to be processed into a
meat substitute called Quorn. This meat substitute is rich in fibre and low in saturated fats, so
provides a healthy alternative to meat in a balanced diet
Mycorrhiza – a wide variety of soil moulds, which form a mutualistic association with plant roots.
The fungal threads radiate out from the plant roots into the soil. Here they decompose dead organic
matter and help pass the mineral ions back to the plants. The plants provide sugars for the fungus,
so you can see how the benefits are mutual.
Potato blight – a pathogen of potato plants that can cause the destruction of the crop. A widespread
epidemic occurred in Ireland in the nineteenth century, and caused a famine that led to many people
emigrating from Ireland to the USA and elsewhere.
Protoctists:
Kelp – the largest seaweed (alga) in the world, growing in large underwater forests off the Pacific
coast of North and South America. Forms the basis of an important coastal ecosystem, and also
used for the production of chemicals such as alginate.
Diatoms – the most abundant group of species that form the phytoplankton, in seawater and
freshwater. They have a beautiful complex cell wall made from silica, which helps to prevent them
settling to the bottom of the oceans.
Leishmania – a single-celled parasite that causes leishmaniasis. The parasite is transmitted to
humans by sandfly bites, leading to a chronic disease, often with skin sores. It is widespread around
tropical parts of the world.
Bacteria:
Escherichia coli – found in large numbers in the colon of humans, normally living in harmony with
Section 1
humans. Some forms (such as E. coli O104:H4) are dangerous and can cause serious illness. E. coli
is a favourite organism used by biological researchers and, therefore, possibly the most studied
microorganism in the world.
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria Rhizobium leguminosarum – found in the root nodules of plants of the pea
family. Here they help convert nitrogen gas in the soil air into useful ammonia compounds. They
share these with the plant in return for a supply of sugar. This allows the plant to grow in regions
where the nitrate supplies in the soil are limited.
TB bacterum Mycobacterium tuberculosis – the pathogen responsible for a global epidemic of
tuberculosis, a chronic disease that gradually damages the lungs. Crowded and insanitary living
conditions help the spread of this disease in towns and cities. This pathogen is evolving resistance
to many antibiotics.
Viruses:
Bacteriophages – these viruses attack bacteria, injecting their genetic material into the bacterial cell.
They have been used in gene technology as a way of adding foreign genes to bacteria, creating
genetically modified (GM) bacteria with novel properties.
Myxoma virus – this causes myxomatosis, a disease of rabbits (a small mammal). The disease has
led to them being used as a biological control agent. The viruses are deliberately introduced to parts
of the world where rabbit populations have grown too large. As a consequence the rabbit population
falls.
Poliovirus – this causes the disease poliomyelitis, which results in paralysis and death of humans,
particularly the young. The disease has almost been eradicated globally as a result of an
international vaccination campaign.
Viruses exist and can reproduce only inside another living cell but do not carry some of the other
characteristics of living organisms, so they are sometimes regarded as non-living things.
2 No suggestions are given. You are provided with cross-references to follow through and help you
make the connections.
Section 1

1 a) First try to make your own drawing, then see Figure 1.1 on page 12 in the Student’s Book
b) Plant cells:
Palisade mesophyll cell (see Figure 1.5 on page 14 in the Student’s Book)
• thin cell wall allows efficient gas exchange, and lets light through
• numerous chloroplasts collect lots of light and carry out photosynthesis
• large central vacuole, pushes chloroplasts towards sides of cell where they collect light
• contains a nucleus which helps maintain control.
Root hair cell (see Figure 3.21 on page 105 in the Student’s Book)
• large root hair projecting from the cell into the soil, provides a larger surface area for
absorption of soil water by osmosis
• contains a nucleus which helps maintain control.
Guard cell (see Figure 3.3 on page 87 in the Student’s Book)
• forms a pair surrounding a stomatal pore
• cell wall becomes distorted by changing between flaccid (at night) and turgid (daytime)
• stomatal pore opens during the day and closes during the night
• contains a nucleus which helps maintain control
• contains chloroplasts.
Phloem cell
• connected to its neighbours by sieve plates – with pores in the cell wall that allow materials
such as sugar and amino acids to travel easily from one cell to the next
• forms continuous networks of cells carrying food to different parts of the plant, particularly
from the leaves to the rest of the plant
• contains a nucleus that helps to maintain control.
Xylem cell (see Figure 3.24 on page 106 in the Student’s Book)
• cells have cell walls thickened and strengthened by lignin, which provides support to the
plant. The cell contents, including the nucleus, have been destroyed
• cell walls have broken down between one xylem cell and its neighbouring xylem cells above
and below, allowing efficient movement of water from one to the next
• forms continuous networks of cells carrying water up the plant, mainly from the roots to the
leaves – as part of the transpiration stream
• dead cells, with no cytoplasm, nucleus, etc.
Animal cells:
Red blood cell (see Figure 3.34 on page 112 in the Student’s Book)
• biconcave disc shape provides a large surface area to volume ratio for efficient gas exchange
• cytoplasm full of haemoglobin, which binds and releases oxygen molecules
• lacks a nucleus, providing more space for haemoglobin.
White blood cell (see Figure 3.34 on page 112 in the Student’s Book)
• different types (e.g. phagocytes and lymphocytes) help protect the body from pathogens
• flexible shape allows phagocytes to engulf pathogenic microbes. It also allows the cell to
Section 1
move around the body, in or out of the blood

• lymphocytes produce antibodies
• nucleus allows cell division after a white cell has recognised a pathogen
• the clone of cells that results provides an ‘army’ of cells, which will immediately destroy the
same type of pathogen if it enters the body on another occasion – this provides immunity.
Nerve cell (see Figure 4.11 on page 157 in the Student’s Book)
• cell has long extensions (axons and dendrites), which carry nerve impulses over large
distances between different parts of the nervous system
• nerve impulses travel quickly, as a series of brief electrical events in these cells. This is how
information is passed from one nerve cell to another in the central nervous system. After
comparing the information, a response is coordinated
• eventually nerve cells in the central nervous system pass impulses to the muscles and glands
of the body, which results in a response to a stimulus
Cells lining the trachea (see Figure 3.8 on page 93 in the Student’s Book)
• cells are ciliated – they are covered in a series of tiny beating hairs
• the cilia are covered by a layer of mucus and their beating action moves the mucus slowly
upwards towards the throat
• the mucus layer traps particles that have been inhaled, and the particles are removed from
the breathing system by the action of the cilia – the mucus is eventually swallowed and
passes down the alimentary canal
Cells with microvilli (small intestine – see Figure 2.17 on page 67 in the Student’s Book)
• nutrients in digested food pass across these cells, to be absorbed into the bloodstream
• microvilli increase the surface area in contact with the products of digestion, helping the
absorption process to be more efficient
• some absorption is by diffusion, some requires active transport
Sperm cell (see Figure 5.22 on page 194 in the Student’s Book)
• tiny overall size helps to overcome resistance to movement on its journey towards the egg
• swollen head of the cell contains a haploid set of chromosomes inside the nucleus
• packet of enzymes on top of the head digests a way through the jelly layer surrounding the
egg cell
• lashing tail, which helps to propel the cell onwards during its journey towards the egg.
Section 1

1 a) i) atom, molecule, macromolecule, organelle, cell
ii) carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
iii) nitrogen and sulfur
b) i) amino acids
ii) Collagen – a protein that glues an animal cell to its neighbours.
Haemoglobin – a protein found in red blood cells that combines with oxygen.
Amylase – a digestive enzyme secreted by cells of the mouth and the pancreas.
c) i) cellulose, starch, glycogen

ii) Cellulose forms the tough cell wall surrounding each plant cell.
Starch granules store energy for respiration and are found in the cytoplasm of plant cells.
Glycogen granules store energy for respiration and are found in the cytoplasm of animal cells.
2 a) Break up the food sample by cutting / slicing / grinding the food into small fragments. Mix the
fragments with distilled water to create a solution containing dissolved food molecules. Use a few
cm3 of this solution for the food tests.
b)
Molecule Reagent Colour at Final Heating Time for result
start (and colour – if required
negative result (yes / no)
result) positive
Starch Iodine Yellow Blue / black No Instant reaction
solution
Protein Biuret Blue Violet / No 30 seconds
Reagent purple
glucose Benedict’s Blue Orange /red Boiling 5 minutes boiling
Reagent water
bath
Fats Ethanol clear cloudy No 30 seconds
3 a) A biological catalyst is a protein (enzyme) that helps a chemical reaction to occur inside living
organisms. Enzymes help to speed up these metabolic reactions. Catalysts are unchanged by their
participation in the process of catalysis.
b) Differences between enzymes and non-biological catalysts:

• Enzymes are composed of protein, whereas other catalysts might be made of a variety of
substances, including metals.
• Each type of enzyme catalyses a specific reaction, whereas other catalysts catalyse a range
of different reactions.
• The shape of an enzyme is critical to its function, whereas the shape of other catalysts might
Section 1
not matter.
• Most enzymes work at temperatures between 20°C and 40°C, whereas other catalysts can
work at much higher temperatures.
Similarities between enzymes and non-biological catalysts:

• Both speed up reactions that might not otherwise occur (or occur only very slowly).
• Both are unchanged by the process of catalysis.
Section 1

1
Feature Block A Block B Block C
3
a) Volume in cm (V) 8 8 8
2
b) Surface area in cm (SA) 24 34 40
c) SA to V ratio 3 4.25 5
Block C has the largest surface area in relation to its volume.
d) e.g. lungs (alveoli inside lungs), leaves
2 Particles in a fluid (liquid or gas), such as those of the red dye added to water, move around
randomly, bumping into one another. These random movements and collisions are the result of the
kinetic energy the particles gain from the temperature of their surroundings. This leads to a
spreading out of the particles, by diffusion, until they are eventually evenly distributed in the fluid.
The higher the temperature, the greater the speed of movement of the particles and the more rapidly
they diffuse.
3 a) i) From the start, particles move both ways across the barrier, as their movement is random.
ii) There is a higher concentration of particles on side A than on side B, so more particles are likely
to move from A to B, than from B to A.
iii) When the number of particles either side of the barrier is equal, movement does not stop, but an
equal number passes across the barrier in each direction.
iv) If molecules were swept away from side B, then the concentration of particles on side B would
always be less than side A, so particles would continue to diffuse from side A to side B.
b) Plant leaves exchange gases between the atmosphere and the air spaces inside their leaves by
diffusion. Large numbers of tiny stomata cover the lower epidermis of the leaf surface and these
help make the process more efficient. When mesophyll cells inside the leaf carry out photosynthesis
they continually use up the carbon dioxide in the leaf air spaces, so more carbon dioxide diffuses
into the leaf from the atmosphere.
In the alveoli of the lungs, oxygen diffuses from the alveolar air spaces into the capillaries that
surround them. This is picked up by the red blood cells, which are then taken away in the blood
circulation. As more red cells move into the alveolar capillary they still have little oxygen, so more
oxygen diffuses across the wall of the alveolus into the blood. Carbon dioxide follows the opposite
route, diffusing out of the blood into the alveolar air space.
Section 1
Nutrition and respiration Part 1

1 a) Tube B had no light. The respiration of the leaf cells continued to produce carbon dioxide, and
no carbon dioxide was used in photosynthesis. Hence the carbon dioxide concentration in the tube
continued to rise, turning the indicator yellow.
b) Tube A had bright light. The photosynthesis of the leaf cells used up carbon dioxide in the tube,
as well as any carbon dioxide produced by respiration. Hence the carbon dioxide concentration in
the tube fell, turning the indicator orange/red (or purple).
c)
• False – for comparable results, leaves should be selected from the same tree (and certainly
from the same species).
• False – the experiment was finding out about the effect of light (or darkness) so this not a
control. A suitable control might be to use a piece of inert material, about the same size as
the leaf.
• False – respiration occurs all the time in plant cells.
• True – light is required for photosynthesis.
2 a) Mean values (to 1 decimal place): 2.3; 0.3; 0.4; 1.2; 1.1; 0.1
b) nitrate
c) i) Seeds are likely to be the same age, variety and processed together.
ii) All the plants should be exposed to the same light intensity and temperature.
d) The seed has a store of nutrients, including mineral ions, that provides the seedling with
resources to grow during the first few days.
e) Phosphate ions are important in the production of DNA and RNA, as well as in cell membranes
and a deficiency in these ions will result in poor root growth and discoloured leaves.
Potassium ions have many important functions (e.g. helping enzymes to work, and in protein
synthesis). If potassium is deficient, there will be poor growth of fruit and/or flowers and leaves
often appear brown and scorched.
f) Nitrogen-fixing bacteria convert nitrogen to nitrogen compounds that plants use to make amino
acids. Some nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in soil, while others live in nodules in the roots of
leguminous plants (e.g. pea and clover). Another source of nitrates is provided by nitrifying
bacteria, which convert the ammonia released by the decomposition of proteins into nitrites and
nitrates.
Section 2

1 a) Saliva – contains amylase – digests starch to maltose in the mouth.
Gastric juice – contains proteases/pepsin – digest proteins to peptides in the stomach.
Pancreatic juice works in the small intestine and contains:
• proteases/trypsin – digest peptides and proteins to amino acids
• amylase – digests starch to maltose
• lipase – digests lipids to glycerol and fatty acids.
Intestinal juice works in the small intestine and contains:
• maltase – digests maltose to glucose
• proteases/peptidases – digest peptides and proteins to amino acids.
b) Bile, produced by the liver and stored until needed by the gall bladder. Bile helps to break large
lipid droplets into smaller ones (emulsification). Emulsification helps the lipase enzymes in
breaking down lipids.
• Bile also neutralises the acidity of the material passed from the stomach to the small
intestine.
• Hydrochloric acid in the stomach provides the optimum pH for the protease enzyme pepsin.
It also kills any microbes that have been ingested in the food.
c) Mechanical breakdown of food begins in the mouth, as the teeth break lumps of food into smaller
fragments during chewing. The tongue helps to move the food into position for chewing. The
tongue then mixes the chewed food with saliva to create slippery pellets (boli) that are swallowed
and passed along the gullet (oesophagus) by a wave of contraction (peristalsis) to the stomach. The
muscular walls of the stomach churn up the pellets into a soupy liquid (chyme), helping the access
of digestive enzymes to the food fragments. At intervals, portions of the stomach contents are
released into the small intestine, where much of the chemical digestion takes place. The contents of
the small intestine are moved along by peristaltic waves of contraction, on a journey that finishes at
the anus (for undigested food).
2 For you, the student, to write your own story (but make sure the biology is correct).
Section 2

Statement Aerobic Anaerobic
respiration respiration
Animals and plants carry out the process  
The process results in the formation of ATP  
The process results in the formation of carbon dioxide by yeast  
The process results in the production of heat  
The process results in the production of lactic acid in animals 
The process requires oxygen to be available 
The process involves the formation of ethanol in plants 
The process can only be used for a temporary time in animals 
Section 2
Movement of substances in living organisms Part 1

1 a)
Statement or description Word(s)
This process goes on in all living cells in the leaf all the time respiration
These structures allow gases to pass into and out of the leaf, but stomata
they are closed at night
This gas is given out in bright light from cells containing oxygen
chloroplasts
This process takes place in cells containing chloroplasts and photosynthesis
produces oxygen
This gas is used when plants make sugars carbon dioxide
This gas is given out in the process that releases energy from carbon dioxide
sugars
b) Stomata (singular: stoma) are pores mainly on the underside of leaves. Stomata are surrounded
by a pair of guard cells. During the day, at high light intensities, the guard cells take in water,
become turgid and have a bent shape – this means that there is a gap between them allowing gas
exchange. During the night, the cells become flaccid. Their cell walls press together, shutting the
stoma.
c) Gas exchange surfaces often have a large surface area and are thin and moist.
Root hair cells have extensions which provide a large surface area in contact with the soil water.
This means water is absorbed by osmosis, but also oxygen can diffuse into the root from the air
spaces of the soil.
Each mesophyll cell in a leaf is surrounded by air, has a thin, moist cell wall.
d) There is no net diffusion of gases into or out of a leaf at low light intensity (such as dawn and
dusk), when the stomata are open, but there is only enough light to support an amount of
photosynthesis that just equals the amount of respiration going on in the leaf cells.
e) i) With lots of carbon dioxide the indicator is yellow, and when there is very little carbon
dioxide, the indicator is red or purple.
ii) In the dark the pondweed only respires, producing carbon dioxide, so the indicator is yellow. In
the light the pondweed carries out photosynthesis and takes up more carbon dioxide than produced
from respiration, so the carbon dioxide levels would fall and the hydrogencarbonate indicator
becomes red or purple.
Section 3

1 a) Respiration – the release of energy from glucose and other energy-rich compounds inside cells.
This provides the energy required for biological processes.
Breathing – the movement of air into and out of the lungs, as a result of pressure differences
between the air inside the lungs and the air outside the body.
Gas exchange (in humans) – the diffusion of gases between the blood in the capillaries surrounding
the alveoli of the lungs and the air inside each alveolus.
b) Check your description and, for diagrams, look at Figure 3.10 on page 95 and Figure 3.12 on
page 97 in the Student’s Book
2 Alveoli features:
Numerous tiny sacs – provide a much greater surface area for gas exchange than a few large sacs.
Thin wall separating the air in the alveolus and the alveolar capillaries – reduces the distance for
diffusion of gases to a minimum.
Layer of moisture (surfactant lining) on thin wall – prevents drying out of walls, and enables gases
to dissolve in and out of solution, to and from the air in the alveolus.
Many capillaries carrying blood cells – absorbed gases are transported away and this maintains a
diffusion gradient (difference in concentration), promoting diffusion.
Section 3

1 A a) Both are thin and flat, which gives them a large surface area relative to their volume, and a
short distance between their body surface and their interior – this helps materials to diffuse in and
out.
b) The leaf takes in oxygen for respiration and carbon dioxide (during the day) for photosynthesis.
c) The leaf gives out oxygen as a waste product of photosynthesis (during the day) and carbon
dioxide as a waste product of respiration.
d) The flatworm takes in oxygen, for respiration.
e) The flatworm gives out carbon dioxide, as a waste product of respiration.
B The tiny single-celled organism Chlorella absorbs carbon dioxide by direct diffusion through its
cell surface and water by osmosis, as it has a large surface area in relation to its volume.
The oak tree leaves receive carbon dioxide by diffusion through the stomata, into the air spaces of
the leaf. The carbon dioxide then diffuses to each individual mesophyll cell to be used in
photosynthesis. The oak tree leaves get their water from the soil, in the xylem tubes. Transpiration
pull, capillarity and cohesion help draw water up to the leaves.
C a) Both pea plants and humans require an energy source such as glucose for respiration. If the
process is aerobic, then both produce carbon dioxide and water as waste products.
If respiration has to be anaerobic, humans produce lactic acid as a waste product, and peas produce
ethanol and carbon dioxide as waste products.
b) In humans, the glucose for respiration is carried from stores in the liver or from the small
intestine, in the bloodstream, to the respiring tissues. The blood also carries oxygen needed for
respiration from the lungs to the tissues.
In a pea plant, sugars are carried (as sucrose) in the phloem. This may come from leaves where
photosynthesis occurs, or from storage organs. In pea seeds, the glucose for respiration is carried
from stores in the cotyledons (seed leaves), in the phloem vessels, to the respiring tissues. The
oxygen required for respiration diffuses through the air spaces of the plant tissues, from the stomata
on the leaf surface to where respiration is taking place. When the plant is carrying out
photosynthesis, oxygen may be obtained directly from cells (in the leaf) where photosynthesis takes
place.
Section 3

1
Route (box 1) Process (box 2)
1 (soil to) root hair cell osmosis
2 cell to cell in root osmosis
3 xylem tubes in root and stem root pressure, transpiration pull, capillarity,
cohesion
4 xylem tubes in veins of leaf transpiration pull, capillarity, cohesion
5 mesophyll cells in leaf osmosis
6 air space in leaf diffusion
7 stomata diffusion
8 atmosphere outside leaf diffusion
Section 3

1
Component Description Function
Antibodies proteins dissolved in plasma stick to foreign materials and help
destroy them
Lymphocyte cell with large central nucleus When activated, these cells secrete
antibodies (that help fight disease)
Phagocyte cell with lobed nucleus These cells engulf and digest foreign
materials
Platelets cell fragments with no nucleus These help to form blood clots, helping
prevent blood loss from a damaged
blood vessel
Fibrinogen proteins dissolved in plasma These are converted to fibrin. This
forms a mesh and helps trap red blood
cells and form a clot
Red blood cell cell packed with haemoglobin and These cells carry oxygen, bound to the
lacking a nucleus haemoglobin inside the cells, then help
carry the oxygen from the lungs to the
other tissues of the body
2
Vaccine injected into the bloodstream
(The vaccine is a pathogen that has been made harmless)
↓
Specific lymphocytes recognise the vaccine (the ‘antigen’)
and bind to it. The lymphocytes become activated
↓
Activated lymphocytes start to divide by mitosis. They
secrete lots of antibody molecules
↓
Thousands of specific lymphocytes are produced into the
bloodstream. These are able to recognise the antigens.
Millions of antibodies that stick to the antigens are
secreted into the bloodstream
↓
The new lymphocytes and antibodies circulate in the
blood. They form an ‘army’ that immediately recognises
and destroys any similar (living and dangerous)
pathogenic microbes entering the blood
↓
This process provides immunity to the microbe that was
used to make the vaccine
Section 3

1 a)
weight lifting  200 m run  judo basketball
ANAEROBIC------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------AEROBIC
football  1000 m run skiing tennis Frisbee  hill walking
b) e.g. 200 m run – the heart rate is very high during the race, but slowly returns to resting rate
afterwards.
Football – the heart rate fluctuates a lot during the game, but returns quickly to resting rate
afterwards.
Hill walking – the heart rate is steady and high during the walk, but quickly returns to resting rate
afterwards.
2
Property Blood vessel
Lowest carbon dioxide concentration pulmonary vein
Lowest oxygen concentration pulmonary artery
Highest absorbed nutrients hepatic portal vein
concentration
Blood at highest pressure aorta
Blood at lowest pressure vena cava
Section 3
Coordination and control Part 1

1
Molecule or ion Movement into or out of the plant
mineral ions (salts) into Some mineral ions enter by diffusion (down a concentration
root gradient). Other mineral ions move into the root cells by active
transport (against a concentration gradient)
water into root Water passes in by osmosis into the root cells. (The presence of
high concentrations of mineral ions means the water
concentration inside the cells is less than that outside)
water vapour out of leaf The air spaces of the leaf are saturated (100% humidity) with
by transpiration water vapour that has evaporated from the surfaces of the
mesophyll cells. The atmosphere outside the leaf has a lower
humidity, so water diffuses from the stomata of the leaf into the
surrounding air
carbon dioxide from During the times when less photosynthesis is occurring, the
respiration out of leaf respiring mesophyll cells release carbon dioxide into the air
spaces. This diffuses out of the stomata into the atmosphere,
where the carbon dioxide concentration is lower
carbon dioxide into a leaf In the day (when light), carbon dioxide diffuses into the leaf
and used in photosynthesis through the stomata. Mesophyll cells can take in carbon dioxide
for photosynthesis, so the concentration of carbon dioxide in the
air spaces becomes lower than that in the air outside the leaf
oxygen from During the times when photosynthesis is occurring, the
photosynthesis out of the mesophyll cells release waste oxygen into the air spaces. This
leaf diffuses out of the stomata into the atmosphere, where the
oxygen concentration is lower
Section 4

1
• ADH: hormone released from the pituitary gland of the brain when water content of the
blood is falling below normal. ADH causes less water to be released as urine
• aorta: largest blood vessel of the body. Carries blood from heart to other large arteries such
as the renal artery
• bladder: an elastic muscular sac that stores urine made by the kidneys until it is released
from the body
• Bowman’s capsule: part of the nephron where ultrafiltration takes place. This is where lots
of water and other dissolved substances (glomerular filtrate) are collected from the
glomerular capillaries
• distal tube: a region of the nephron (kidney tubule) where mineral ions and some water are
reabsorbed into the blood
• egestion: the removal of undigested materials from the large intestine, as faeces, through the
anus
• excretion: the removal of metabolic wastes from the body
• glomerulus: a small knot of capillaries pressed up against the Bowman’s capsule. From
these capillaries glomerular filtrate is forced into the capsule
• glomerular filtrate: a solution of water and dissolved substances, lost from the glomerular
capillaries
• homeostasis: the process by which the body maintains control over its internal environment
and keeps it within narrow limits
• kidney tubule: the functional unit of the kidney, which processes the waste materials of the
blood into urine. Also known as a nephron
• loop of Henlé: a region of the nephron (kidney tubule) where water is reabsorbed into the
blood
• metabolic reaction: any chemical reaction, catalysed by enzymes, inside the living cell
• nephron: another word for a kidney tubule
• osmoregulation: the process by which the water content of the blood is regulated and kept
under control
• proximal tubule: region of nephron close to the Bowman’s capsule where all the sugar in
the glomerular filtrate is reabsorbed into the bloodstream, along with some mineral ions
• renal artery: the blood vessel carrying blood to the kidney from the aorta
• renal vein: the blood vessel carrying blood to the vena cava away from the kidney
• ultrafiltration: the process where water and small dissolved molecules in the blood are
filtered off under pressure to form glomerular filtrate
• urea: a nitrogenous waste product formed in the liver that is excreted in the urine
• ureter: the structure (tube) that carries urine from the kidneys to the bladder
• urethra: the structure (tube) that carries urine from the bladder outside the body
• uterus: the place where an embryo develops into a baby in a woman
Section 4
• vena cava: the blood vessel carrying blood to the heart from veins in the body (such as the
renal vein)

1
• homeostasis – the maintenance of a constant internal environment in the body, and keeping
it within narrow limits
• osmoregulation – the control of water and salt (ion) concentration in the body fluids
• vasoconstriction – a reduction in the internal diameter of a blood vessel, reducing the flow
of blood through it
• vasodilation – an increase in the internal diameter of a blood vessel, allowing an increase in
the flow of blood through the vessel
2 The process of respiration in cells releases energy from glucose, and produces the heat that warms
the body. The higher the rate of respiration (metabolic rate), the greater the heat generated. When
we are cold, the shivering of our muscles involves extra respiration in the muscle cells, and this
generates extra heat. The same thing occurs when we exercise.
3 If the body temperature falls too much, enzyme activity is lower. If the temperature rises too
much, enzymes work faster, but they may also become denatured because they no longer fit their
substrates – stopping activity entirely.
4 The water of the sweat secreted onto the skin surface evaporates by the warmth of the skin,
becoming water vapour in the air. The removal of this warmth from our skin cools us down.
5 Blood that travels in capillaries near the skin surface radiates some of the heat to the air next to
the skin. When the body is hot, arterioles near the skin surface dilate so more blood flows through
the capillaries. This allows more heat to be radiated away from the body surface. When the body is
cold, arterioles near the skin surface constrict so less blood flows through the capillaries. Blood is
diverted away from the skin so that less heat is lost from the skin surface.
6 Warm air is always moving by convection from the head to the air, and a hat reduces this flow,
trapping warm air near the hair. Hands are at the ends of the arms, and as extremities are more
prone to heat loss than the central parts of the body, so gloves insulate the fingers, trapping warm
air around them. Socks trap warm air around the feet and toes, providing some insulation from the
cold ground.
7 The moisture in the wet clothes evaporates into water vapour in the air, using the warmth of the
skin as a source of energy – thus cooling the body too much.
Section 4

1 a) i) Shoots are positively phototropic and negatively geotropic. The positive phototropic response
enables them to grow towards the light and receive more light for photosynthesis.
ii) Roots are negatively phototropic and positively geotropic. These responses enable them to grow
into the soil to anchor the plant, and obtain water and mineral ions.
b) i) The cells on the dark side of the shoot grow larger than the cells on the light side. As a result
the shoot appears to bend, though in fact it is a growth response.
ii) This response occurs in the region of cell expansion a little behind the tip.
iii) Auxin promotes the growth and expansion of shoot cells, and more auxin is present on the dark
side of the shoot than the light side. This results in more growth on the dark side compared with the
light side.
c) e.g.
Stimulus Plant responses Human responses
light Detected by cells in the tip of the Detected by cells in the retina of the
shoot. eye.
Auxin (a plant growth regulator) Nerve impulses (electrical events) pass
passes slowly to cells in region of messages quickly along optic nerve to
cell expansion. brain.
The response takes several minutes. This takes only fractions of a second.
The response involves the A response might involve muscles
differences in the growth of cells in being moved in order to say, allow a
different regions of the shoot hand to catch a ball
Section 4

1
Response Stimulus Where stimulus How the body responds
detected (muscle or gland)
blood sugar level blood sugar level pancreas cells The pancreas cells secrete
reduced too high monitor the blood the hormone insulin,
sugar (glucose) level which stimulates the liver
to take up glucose from
the blood
fight or flight physical threat to eyes/ brain The adrenal glands
response body secrete the hormone
adrenaline, which causes
many changes in the body
pupil reflex too much light retina The circular muscles of
the iris contract, reducing
the size of the pupil
eyes focus on movement of object retina Ciliary muscles relax,
nearby object allowing the lens to
become more convex
withdrawal of part painful heat skin sensory cells muscle moves the hand
of limb (e.g. hand) away quickly from the
heat source
2
Hormone Where and when produced Effect(s) in the body
ADH Produced by pituitary gland of Reduces the volume of water leaving the
brain, when blood water content kidneys in the urine, restoring the water
falls below normal content of the blood to normal
adrenaline Produced from adrenal glands in Speeds heart rate, dilates blood vessels
times of stress and raises sugar level of blood
insulin Produced by the pancreas when Stimulates the cells of the liver and
sugar levels of blood rise above muscles to take up glucose and store it
normal as glycogen. This restores the sugar level
to normal
oestrogen Produced by the ovary during the Stimulates the repair of the uterine
first half of the menstrual cycle lining, as well as development of the
female secondary sexual characters
progesterone Produced by the ovary during the Stimulates the further growth of the
second half of the menstrual cycle uterine lining
testosterone Produced by the testes Stimulates the development of the male
secondary sexual characters
Section 4
FSH Produced by the brain / pituitary Stimulates the development of the

gland follicle / egg development in the ovary
LH Produced by the brain / pituitary Stimulates ovulation / the release of the
gland mature egg from the ovary

Section 4
Reproduction and inheritance Part 1

1 DNA is a nucleic acid. It is the genetic material of all living organisms (a few viruses have RNA).
It forms chromosomes inside cells. Genes are arranged along the length of the DNA molecule. The
sequence of bases provides the code for proteins that direct what the cell does. RNA carries this
information from the nucleus to the cytoplasm.
2 a) Male gametes are found inside the pollen grains, produced in the anthers of the flower.
Female gametes are found inside ovules, located in the ovary of the flower.
b) Male gametes are produced inside the testes of the male, and then stored in the vas deferens
leading from each testis to the prostate gland.
Female gametes are produced in the ovary, before being transported to the uterus along the oviduct.
3 Examples are E. coli (bacteria), Amoeba (protoctists), yeast (fungi), Chlorella (an alga, which is a
protoctist).
4 Haploid is the term used to describe a cell, such as the gamete of a human or flowering plant,
which contains only one set of chromosomes (n).
Diploid is the term used to describe most body cells of a human or flowering plant, which contain
two sets of each type of chromosome (2n).
5
Mitosis Meiosis
Nuclear division produces two Nuclear division produces four
cells from a parent cell. If the haploid cells from a parent
parent cell was diploid, the diploid cell
daughter cells are also diploid
Each daughter cell is Each daughter cell is genetically
genetically identical different and has half the
number of chromosomes as the
parent cell
Used for growth and repair in Used for gamete production
the life cycle
6 a) i) In a flowering plant the male gamete (haploid nucleus) is transferred to the stigma of a flower
in a pollen grain (pollination). Pollination may be helped by wind, insects or other methods. From
here, the gamete is carried inside the pollen tube, which grows towards the ovary of the flower.
Here the male gamete reaches the egg cell (female gamete) inside an ovule.
ii) In a human the male gametes (sperm cells) are released from the tip of the penis into the vagina.
From here they swim up into the uterus and oviduct, following a chemical trail, until they meet an
egg in the oviduct.
Section 5
b) i) In the ovule, inside the ovary of the flower

ii) Near the top of the oviduct
7 Asexual reproduction is simpler and faster than sexual reproduction. It only requires one parent. It
produces offspring that are genetically identical to each other and to the parent. A disadvantage is
that, if the offspring are susceptible to a disease, they might all be killed by it. An advantage is that,
if suited to the environment, the individuals of the species are more likely to be successful.
Sexual reproduction ensures that the offspring are different from their parents and from each other.
This genetic variation is important in the process of evolutionary change, as a result of natural
selection, and may help the population adapt to the changing environment. Sexual reproduction is
complex, time consuming and requires two parents.
Many flowering plants and some animal species use both methods of reproduction.
Section 5

1 Here are some suggestions for examples, but you can think of others that are important to you.
a) Lilies – many species in the wild but also cultivated in parks and gardens. Noted for their brightly
coloured flowers.
Roses – seen in parks and gardens. Their large, bright flowers (often red or pink) and sweet scent
catch our attention.
Cherry tree blossom – seen on cherry trees before their leaves emerge in the spring, in orchards,
parks or gardens.
Orchids – often produced by specialists and for special occasions. Many species are found in the
wild. They have complex and showy flowers, many of which are linked with special mechanisms
for pollination by insects.
b) i) Peanuts, maize (sweetcorn), rice, peas, wheat (as flour)

ii) Peanuts – contain lipids and proteins
Maize (sweetcorn) – contains starch and protein
Rice – mainly starch, but brown rice retains certain vitamins
Peas – contain starch and protein
Wheat – contains starch and some protein
iii) The stored food in the seed provides nutrients for the growing embryo in the early stages of
development, before the leaves form. The region where the nutrients are stored is called the
cotyledon.
c) i) Apples, oranges, bananas, grapes, strawberries

ii) In apples, the ‘pips’ are the seeds. Oranges and grapes may have seeds (the pips) but some are
seedless varieties without seeds. Bananas do not have seeds (not in the commercial varieties sold as
fruit). Strawberries have seeds contained in the small ‘pips’ on the outside of the red strawberry
‘fruit’. The red and juicy fleshy part of a strawberry that is so enjoyable to eat is a swollen
receptacle (see Figure 5.13 on page 184).
Section 5
2 a)
Embryo uses foods

stored in cotyledons
Seed germinates
as resource until
leaves form
The wall of the ovary

becomes a fruit, Photosynthesis in
which helps to leaves provides food
disperse the seed for growth of plant
some distance from to maturity
the parent plant
Fertilised egg cell

develops into an
embryo plant, and Mature plant
the ovule around the produces flowers
embryo develops
into a seed
Pollen grains
germinate to Pollen is transferred
produce pollen tube, from anther of one
which carries male flower to the stigma
gamete to egg cell in of another
ovule, inside ovary (pollination)
(fertilisation)
*The egg and pollen nucleus are haploid, and the fertilised egg and all other structures of the mature
plant, are diploid (as shown in Figure 5.3(b)).
b) The fruit provides a mechanism, which ensures that the seed(s) is dispersed away from the parent
plant. Pea-pods dry and split, to throw the seeds away from the pea plant. Poppy heads shake about
in the wind, throwing their tiny seeds away from the parent plant. Dandelion seeds float in the air.
Juicy fruits are eaten by birds and the seeds dropped elsewhere.
c) Plants can naturally propagate using mechanisms such as runners (stems that grow along the soil
surface, setting down roots and growing new shoots at regular intervals). Plants can be artificially
propagated by cuttings; these are then planted in fresh soil and grow to become independent plants.
Section 5

1
Statement oestrogen progesterone FSH LH
stimulates production of 
follicle cells and growth of
an ovum in the ovary
produced by the pituitary 
gland during the first half of
the menstrual cycle
produced in the follicle cells 
in the ovary
promotes the development of 
new lining inside uterus
produced by the pituitary 
gland reaching a peak on
day 14 of the menstrual
cycle
stimulates the growth of the  
uterus lining
level falls if fertilisation   
does not occur
produced in the placenta  
during pregnancy
prepares the mother’s body 
for the birth of the baby
causes secondary sexual 
characteristics
Section 5

1
Definition or description Term
Thread-like structures in the nucleus. Made up of DNA that chromosomes
carries the genetic information of the organism
A molecule with a double-helix shape, consisting of two DNA
strands of nucleotides held together by pairs of bases. It
carries the genetic information in coded form for all the
characters in the organism
A pair of chromosomes that are the same shape and size, homologous chromosomes
and carry genes for the same characters in the individual.
One of each pair came from each parent
A cell containing one set of chromosomes (n) haploid
A cell containing two sets of chromosomes (2n) diploid
A region along a length of the DNA of a chromosome that gene
contains the information to control a certain characteristic
An alternative form of a gene – occurs at the same position allele
(locus) on the chromosome and controls the same
characteristic but in different ways
2 a) adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C) and thymine (T)

They pair as follows:
A–T
G–C
b) Try to draw your own (simple) diagram, then see Figure 5.28 in the Student’s Book.
3 a) Three DNA bases code for one amino acid. Examples: AGG, CTG.
b) RNA contains Adenine (A), Uracil (U), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C).
c) AGG pairs with UCC on RNA; and CTG pairs with GAC on RNA.
d) tRNA AGG pairs with UCC on mRNA; and tRNA CUG pairs with GCA on mRNA.
e) Transcription is represented by writing the sequence of bases in the DNA molecule into the
equivalent sequence in the mRNA molecule (part c).
f) Translation occurs on ribosomes in the cytoplasm. A chain of amino acids is linked together to
form a protein. The precise sequence (of amino acids) is determined by the sequence of bases in the
mRNA molecule. The amino acids to be joined together are brought, in the correct order, by tRNA
Section 5
molecules.
g) The precise sequence of amino acid in a particular protein is determined by the sequence of bases
in the codons of the mRNA produced during transcription of the gene for that protein found on a
chromosome in the nucleus of the cell. The gene is a sequence of bases in the DNA that ultimately
specifies the mRNA sequence.
Section 5
1
Definition or description Term
The genetic make-up of an individual with respect to the alleles genotype
it carries for a particular character
The ‘appearance’ of an individual with respect to the phenotype
characters it shows – not necessarily visible but the expression
of the alleles it carries (its genotype)
The character for this allele always shows up in the phenotype, dominant
even though the alternative allele may be present in the
genotype
The character for this allele shows up in the phenotype only if recessive
the other allele is the same. It does not show in the phenotype if
the other allele is different
If the two alleles in the genotype are different, both make a codominant
contribution to the phenotype
The alleles at one particular locus (position on a chromosome) homozygous
are identical on both chromosomes of a homologous pair
The alleles at one particular locus (position on a chromosome) heterozygous
are different on the two chromosomes of a homologous pair
The two sex chromosomes that are found in female body cells XX
The two sex chromosomes that are found in male body cells XY
Nuclear division that produces two cells that are genetically mitosis
identical with the same number of chromosomes as the parent
cell
Nuclear division that produces four cells that are genetically meiosis
different with half the number of chromosomes as the parent
cell
2 a) i) 4 = Dd, 5 = Dd, 6 = Dd, 7 = dd

ii) Person 2 is unaffected so must be homozygous recessive (dd). But Person 1 produced Person 7,
who must be dd. So Person 1 cannot be homozygous DD, as this would not produce the child with
dd. So Person 1 must be heterozygous Dd (as told in the question). This answer explains why some
children (4, 5 and 6) are affected, with genotype Dd.
b) i) 9 = dd, 10 = Dd, 11 = dd, 12 = dd, 13 = dd

ii) There is no possibility of 7 and 8 having a child with polydactyly. Both must have the genotype
dd so neither has a D allele to pass on to their children. If they had one, they would have shown the
characteristic, because it is a dominant allele.
Section 5

1 a) long trunk, large tusks, large ears, body shape
b) The mammoth is larger and hairier than the elephant, and its tusks are larger and more curved.
2 a)
• Adults produce more offspring than can possibly survive (a struggle for survival).
• Numbers in plant and animal populations remain fairly constant.
• There will be competition between offspring as to which individuals survive to breed.
• Individuals vary in their features.
• Individuals with features that mean they are better adapted to their environment are more
likely to survive than those less well adapted.
• Better adapted individuals are more likely to pass their characteristics to their offspring.
• As the environment changes over time, the characteristics of successive generations change
in response, as a result of natural selection.
b) One possibility might be: If the world became gradually warmer, the mammoths with the largest
and hairiest bodies might have suffered from overheating, and the smaller, less hairy mammoths
might have been better adapted – so gradually their offspring produce populations that are more like
the elephants.
c) Hunting by early humans – the mammals would have been good targets.
Competition from other, better adapted mammals, for food and resources.
Being killed by fierce predators.
An epidemic of disease
Section 5
Ecology and the environment Part 1

1 a)
Definition Term (word)
All the living organisms together with the non-living ecosystem
components found in a certain area
The different species (of plants, animals and community
microorganisms) living together in the same place and
interacting with each other
A group of individuals of the same species (plant, animal population
or microorganism) living in the same place at a certain
time
The place where an organism lives habitat
b)
Definition Term (word)
The range and variety of organisms within an ecosystem biodiversity
or a specific habitat
The place where an organism lives habitat
Organisms that make their own food (complex autotroph
molecules) using simple molecules and energy from the
sun
Organisms that eat plant materials herbivore
The position occupied by an organism in a food chain, trophic level
showing its feeding relationships with other organisms
2 Work out your own instructions and remember to write in your own words and include a diagram,
table and other points listed. Then check on pages 241–243 of the Student’s Book.
3 Work out your own instructions and remember to write in your own words and include a diagram,
table and other points listed. Then check on pages 241–243 of the Student’s Book.
Section 6

1 a) e.g. living plants → caterpillar → ground beetle
b) i) living plant
ii) the sun
iii) caterpillar, ground beetle are both consumers.
2 a) e.g. living plants → caterpillar → centipede → wood mouse → tawny owl
b) e.g. Living plants are producers and all the rest are consumers.
c) The arrows show how energy is passed from one trophic level to the next.
3 The fox feeds at more than one trophic level. (There are several other examples.)
4 a) See Figure 6.9 on page 251 (wide base, narrower top level).
b) See Figure 6.10 on page 251 (narrow base, wide second level, then narrower to the top level).
5 The scientists would have to remove every living thing from a measured area of the habitat, then
classify them into trophic levels according to their feeding habits. Then the scientists would need to
measure the total mass of material (as dry mass). Organisms that feed at more than one trophic level
create one problem. It is also difficult to make sure that all the material is collected. Results may
vary at different seasons of the year. Animals (including birds) may move away from the area and
visit only for feeding.
6 The sun is the ultimate source of energy and it is fixed as chemical energy in producers during
photosynthesis. Only a small fraction of the trapped energy is passed from one trophic level to the
next, due to losses from respiration, inefficient digestion, excretion. Make a list of other ways that
energy may be lost.
7 As more than 90% of the energy is lost at each step in a food chain, very little energy is available
for organisms more than five steps from the producers.
Section 6

1 Carbon cycle
a) When photosynthesis occurs in a mesophyll cell of a leaf, carbon dioxide in the air diffuses in
through the stomata and is made into glucose, which is then incorporated into other components.
The leaf is eaten by an animal, which digests the mesophyll cell and releases the sugar (glucose),
which becomes used for respiration in the animal cell, releasing energy.
b) Carbon dioxide is released by the cells of the animal during respiration. The carbon dioxide
diffuses into the breathing system of the animal, and then passes out into the air again.
c) The carbon in all the organic materials (lipids, proteins and carbohydrates) of the animal’s body
is taken up by decomposers such as bacteria and fungi. These respire the organic materials,
eventually releasing the carbon dioxide into the air again.
2 a) Lightning directly converts nitrogen gas to nitrates.

Nitrogen-fixing bacteria convert nitrogen to nitrogen compounds in root nodules of leguminous
plants (or free living in the soil). Plants can use these nitrogen compounds to form amino acids.
Nitrogen gas can be converted to nitrates by chemical processes in the manufacture of fertilisers,
which are then applied to the soil.
b) Proteins in an animal are broken down to form urea, which is excreted from the body (usually in
urine). When an animal dies, its proteins are decomposed by microorganisms, producing ammonia
as a waste product. The ammonia can be reconverted to nitrates by nitrifying bacteria, and taken up
by plant roots.
c) Excess nitrogen fertiliser can cause eutrophication if it pollutes a river or lake – which may lead
to damage to the ecosystem, mainly as a consequence of rapid growth of algae, forming an algal
bloom. A likely sequence of events following eutrophication is summarised on page 267.
Section 6

1 a) Clear lake water indicates that the water has little biological material in it compared with a lake
with cloudy water. Cloudiness of water may be due to the presence of microscopic plankton
(including algae), so clear water might indicate that the low pH is stopping growth of plankton.
b) The factory is probably producing a gas that is harming trees downwind of the factory. This
could be a directly poisonous compound, or it could be the result of sulfur dioxide pollution, which
dissolves in rainwater to form sulfuric acid (acid rain). The acid rain makes the soil pH lower. This
interferes with the ability of roots to take up certain mineral ions, leading to damage to the trees.
c) The old gas heater might not be burning the gas properly, and might be producing carbon
monoxide, which is toxic. This could slowly poison the whole family, as it stops red blood cells
doing their job of carrying oxygen around the body.
d) Wood is a sustainable fuel, as more trees can be grown and burnt. Coal is fossilised wood from
millions of years ago, and once it is used up it is all gone – it is not a sustainable fuel.
e) This family will use some electricity made directly from (renewable) sunlight, rather than all
their energy needs coming from electricity power stations. Most of these are likely to burn fuels
such as gas and coal, which are not renewable fuels.
f) The catalytic converter makes the waste exhaust gas of a car less rich in polluting gases such as
nitrous oxide. However, it is hard to convert old engines – but as cars are replaced with newer ones,
then eventually nearly all cars will produce less pollution.
g) Sharing a car or using public transport means that less fuel is used in the journeys of individual
passengers in cars – this reduces costs and also reduces the energy used by individuals.
h) The lake water might be polluted with chemical fertilisers from the surrounding farmland, and
stimulate the growth of green algae in the warm sunny weather.
i) The farmer is reducing his pollution of the water near his farm. He is also reducing his energy
costs, by making his own useful energy product (biogas) from what was otherwise a waste product.
j) The roots of the trees had helped to hold the soil together, and stopped rain leaching the mineral
ions away. Their removal meant that the rain could now damage the soil and erode soil particles
into the nearby river. This could become blocked with soil particles, resulting in flooding. Water
that might have been transpired back into the atmosphere by the trees in the past is no longer
returned to the atmosphere, so there is less rainfall.
Section 6
Use of biological resources Part 1

1 a) Discuss this with a group of students and use the bulleted lists on pages 249 and 250 of the
Student’s Book to help you. Rearrange these points into a table so that you can make a comparison
of the two approaches to pest control. Some examples are given in Table 7.1 and you can find out
some more to support your answer.
b) i) Use a chemical pesticide as there is not enough time to allow a biological control system to get
going. The gardener must prevent further damage to the leaves to make sure the fruit crop is not
reduced.
ii) Use a biological control measure such as using ladybirds as predators for the aphids.
2 Extract your list, with reasons, from information on pages 285 and 287 of the Student’s Book.
Section 7

1
Feature Production of bread Production of yoghurt
(a) microorganism used Yeast* Lactobacillus bacteria
(b) starting material Flour**, water & sugar Milk (lactose)
(starch)
(c) chemical substances produced ethanol (alcohol) and lactic acid
carbon dioxide
equation (in words) for the reaction glucose → alcohol + lactose → lactic acid
carbon dioxide
(d) temperature for the fermentation 30°C 37°C to 44°C
time for fermentation stage 1–2 hours 6–12 hours
(e) reason for fermentation stopping Baking at high Acid pH and chilling
temperature kills yeast stops process
(f) how is end product different from Bread is solid but filled Yoghurt is more viscous
starting materials with air bubbles than milk and tastes
sharper
(g) benefits to people of making the Provides a tasty, light Keeps longer than milk
product and nutritious source of and people enjoy the
carbohydrates taste
* Yeast cells produce the enzyme maltase which digests maltose to glucose.
** Starch often contains amylase enzymes which digest starch to maltose.
Section 7

1 a) Fish diet – provide the fish with high-protein feed, especially when they are young.
Feeding – feed regularly without overfeeding, as this may harm water quality.
Water quality – ensure high dissolved oxygen levels and avoid overcrowding of fish. Remove waste
(nitrogenous) material. Use artificial methods for aeration if necessary.
Competition – too much overcrowding leads to competition for resources and lower growth rates,
and may encourage spread of disease.
Control of disease – regularly check the stock of fish for disease and take action quickly if it occurs.
Good-quality stock – better quality fish will grow faster and sell for a better price.
b)
•The waste from a fish farm can pollute the water nearby – causing eutrophication. The
outbreak of disease in the farm could lead to wild fish nearby becoming infected.
• Fish predators might be attracted to the fish farm, and cause harm to the nearby wild fish
stocks.
• Fish that escape from the farm might displace wild fish in the local habitat.
Make your own suggestions for minimising these effects.
2 The sudden growth of algae as a result of rising nitrate levels in the water might lead to a fall in
the oxygen levels in the water. This situation can lead to the death of the fish, because they need
adequate dissolved oxygen in the water for respiration.
Section 7

1 a) Each parent provides only one of each pair of homologous chromosomes to their offspring, and
the other chromosome of the pair is provided by the other parent. The alleles on these chromosomes
may be different, so this ensures that the offspring will be genetically different to each of their
parents – they only have 50% of the genotype of each.
b) Parents that share some phenotypic feature that is favoured, probably share certain similar alleles
relating to the favoured feature. Their offspring will have an increased chance of having these
alleles, and thus having the desired characteristic.
2 a) Attractive features might include: undamaged tissues, pleasing colour and scent. (Features
depend on the fruit or vegetable you choose.) Cost might influence your decision.
b) Disease resistant; tolerant of wind and weather; easy to plant and harvest; fast growing and
predictable harvest time; uniform size at harvest; good storage and good shelf life; easy to prepare
and cook.
3 a) They would want to breed animals that are calm and easy to manage, that grow quickly and
maintain good health. They should also produce good-quality milk and meat all year round, though
the features depend on the animal in the herd and why it is being kept.
b) Hill and mountain sheep – many examples from mountain areas around the world. Sheep may be
hardy, remain outside in the worst weather and feed on tough vegetation (e.g. hill sheep in the Lake
District in the UK).
4 The orchid would be suitable for micropropagation as described on pages 314 to 317 of the
Student’s Book. This procedure could produce thousands of genetically identical orchids cloned
from the original plant.
Section 7

1 See Figure 7.24 on page 307 of the Student’s Book and note the following steps:
• Cut desired DNA gene and the target vector DNA, using the same type of restriction
enzyme – to leave sticky ends
• Mix the cut vector DNA and cut desired gene, allowing them to link up with their sticky
ends to form recombinant DNA molecules
• Seal the links between the different parts of the recombinant DNA using a DNA ligase
enzyme – creating strong recombinant DNA molecules.
2
• Bacterial plasmids can be used as vectors inside bacteria. Plasmids are extracted from
bacteria, cut with restriction enzymes to insert foreign genes, and sealed with DNA ligase.
These recombinant plasmids are then re-introduced to bacteria, to create genetically
modified (GM) bacteria.
• Bacteriophages are viruses and can be used as vectors inside bacteria. DNA is removed from
a bacteriophage, cut with restriction enzymes to insert foreign genes, and sealed with DNA
ligase. The recombinant viral DNA is then re-introduced to bacteriophages. The
bacteriophages are then allowed to infect bacteria, producing GM bacteria.
Bacterial plasmids can be used as vectors for some plants (using the bacterial species
Agrobacterium tumefaciens, a plant pathogen). Plasmids are extracted from Agrobacterium
tumefaciens bacteria, cut with restriction enzymes to insert foreign genes, and sealed with DNA
ligase. These recombinant plasmids are then re-introduced to bacteria, to produce GM bacteria.
These GM bacteria are then used to infect plant tissue, during which they transfer their recombinant
DNA to the plant chromosomes, to produce a GM plant tissue. The GM tissues can be cultured to
produce mature GM plants.
3 Some examples are given in Table 7.4 on page 309 and Table 7.5 on page 312 of the Student’s
Book.
Section 7

1 a) A mutation is a random change in a gene that can be inherited. It is a result of a change in the
sequence of bases on the DNA. This changes the phenotypic characteristic that the gene specifies.
Such changes are random events, and can be triggered by mutagenic chemicals or ionising
radiation. Increasing the exposure of an organism to these environmental factors increases the
frequency of mutations.
b) The offspring of a cross between the new blue mutant roses and the original red roses might not
be blue. This is because the new blue allele (for flower colour) may be recessive to the original red
allele. If the allele (for blue colour) is recessive, the offspring must be homozygous for this
character to show up in the phenotype. If the new blue rose is crossed with a red rose, the recessive
blue allele will not show up, unless the parent red rose also carried a recessive. However, if the
allele (for blue colour) is dominant, some offspring are likely to show the blue flower colour. Draw
yourself a genetic diagram to help support your answer.
c) The gardener needs to clone the plants (create genetically identical offspring). The gardener can
do this by taking cuttings from the plant, dipping them in rooting powder (contains plant growth
regulator) and planting them in some soil, so that they can grow into new whole plants
d) Micropropagation – the plant breeder carefully cuts of hundreds of tiny pieces of plant. These
explants are then grown aseptically in tissue culture, to produce lots of tiny plants. When these are
big enough they are planted into some soil, and grown on into mature plants. The whole programme
can be timed so that the rose plants are ready when required. If the plants are grown in a greenhouse
or polytunnel, the climate and artificial lighting can be adjusted so that the plants are flowering at
just the time the plant breeder requires them for their customers. An outline of the steps undertaken
in micropropagation is summarised in Figure 7.32 (page 315) in the Student’s Book.
Section 7

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● Answers to Study questions

Living organisms: variety and common features Part 1

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move around the body, in or out of the blood

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c) i) cellulose, starch, glycogen

b) Differences between enzymes and non-biological catalysts:

Similarities between enzymes and non-biological catalysts:

Study questions page 41

d) e.g. lungs (alveoli inside lungs), leaves

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FSH Produced by the brain / pituitary Stimulates the development of the

gland mature egg from the ovary

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b) i) In the ovule, inside the ovary of the flower

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b) i) Peanuts, maize (sweetcorn), rice, peas, wheat (as flour)

c) i) Apples, oranges, bananas, grapes, strawberries

Embryo uses foods

The wall of the ovary

Fertilised egg cell

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2 a) adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C) and thymine (T)

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2 a) i) 4 = Dd, 5 = Dd, 6 = Dd, 7 = dd

b) i) 9 = dd, 10 = Dd, 11 = dd, 12 = dd, 13 = dd

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2 a) e.g. living plants → caterpillar → centipede → wood mouse → tawny owl

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2 a) Lightning directly converts nitrogen gas to nitrates.

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