Both types of pneumatically applied concrete—
dry-mix and wet-mix processes—are discussed
Mix Design Hints
for SHOTCRETE
S hotecrete is both a material and
a method. The material is con-
crete, mortar or grout. The method
is the application of this material by
pneumatic pressure through a spe-
cially adapted hose.
The concrete is literally “shot” in-
to the forms or around the rein-
forcement network in the location
where it is to harden. The method
has also been used to apply the fin-
ished surface. Although not a new
development, shotcrete has seen in-
creased use in recent years, with
equipment and techniques improv-
ing concomitantly.
There are two basic types of shot-
crete: in one, the materials are com-
bined in a central mixer and then
transported through a hose, out the
nozzle and into place; in the other,
the dry ingredients are combined,
t ra n s p o rted through a hose and
mixed with water at the nozzle. The
former is referred to as the wet-mix
process; the latter, the dry-mix
process.
Dry-mix process
In this method, there is a wide
range of control over the amount of
mixing water used to adjust mix
consistency as the job progresses. It
also allows transportation of the mix
through a longer length of hose than
is possible with wet-mix. The dry-
mix process is better suited for con-
crete containing lightweight porous
aggregates than it is for a mixture
with normal weight aggregate. It al-
so requires that the operator of the
nozzle be exceptionally skilled in
controlling water content and,
therefore, consistency, strength and
watertightness as the placement of
the concrete progresses.
To determine the mix proportions
that will best suit the job at hand, it
is advisable to test about three dif-
ferent mixtures falling within the
range of 1 part cement to 3 to 4 1/2
parts sand. The sand pumped in the
dry-mix process should be damp
but its water content should be kept
reasonably uniform (usually 3 to 6
percent). If it is allowed to vary
widely, the nozzle man will have a
difficult time maintaining accept-
able slump and uniformity of the
shotcrete in place.
Because water content is so im-
portant in this work, it is necessary
that test panels be made in advance
of the job to ascertain the proficien-
cy of the operator and the accept-
ability of the mix proportions. Such
test panels also enable the specifier
to define the quality required of the
shotcrete in place. The test panel
should be examined to determine if
its physical pro p e rt i e s, such as
strength, shrinkage and watertight-
ness, will be acceptable.
It is advisable to batch the cement
and sand by weight rather than by
volume. The sand particles must be
thoroughly coated with cement; this
takes at least one minute in a drum-
type mixer. Application of the shot-
crete should be closely supervised
to guard against an overabundance
of rebound (which could indicate an
overly dry mix or aggregate prob-
lems) or slumping of the concrete in
place (which might mean too high a
water content). The stream of shot-
crete emitted from the nozzle also
should be watched to make sure
that it is consistently conical. Dis-
tortion of the stream may point to a
malfunctioning water injection sys-
tem.
The dry-mix process is ordinarily
limited to a grout mixture. Howe ve r,
concrete containing aggregate up to
a maximum size of 1 inch has seen
limited application in the United
States. Such problems as controlling
cement and water content and lim-
iting rebound to a practical amount
have curtailed its use on a large
scale.
Wet-mix process
This technique permits better
control and more versatile mix de-
signs than the dry-mix process. Any
type of admixture such as an air-en-
training, water-reducing and/or set-
controlling agent can be used. Thor-
ough mixing of the ingredients is
easier to achieve. More accurate
control of the mix proportions is
possible.
The mix proportions for the wet-
mix process are about the same as
for the dry-mix process. The entire
mix is premixed to a slump suitable
for the work. The slump is usually in
the range from 0 to 4 inches.
The proper mix is determined by
trial when it is desirable to use
coarse aggregate. Start with 20- to
40-percent coarse aggregate and ad-
just subsequent mixes on the basis
of trials.
Because there is good control of
water content and mixing, dust and
rebound are kept at a minimum.
Thus, there is less wasted material
and cleanup. On the other hand,
this technique is not accompanied
by the ready control of concrete
consistency that is provided by the
dry-mix process.
Materials should be measured by
weight rather than by volume. If ag-
gregates must be measured volu-
m e t ri c a l l y, their weight should be
ascertained regularly to maintain a
reasonably uniform water content.
The efficiency of the two basic
types of wet-mix equipment (pneu-
matic feed and positive displace-
ment ) will vary with the brand and
its operating condition. Ge n e ra l l y
speaking, it is possible to design
mortar or concrete to a lower slump
with the pneumatic-feed type. The
proposed equipment should be
tested before the start of a job to de-
termine its ability to place the con-
crete acceptably; this is especially
important for vertical or ove rh e a d
applications.
Materials
Requirements for materials used
for shotcrete are basically the same
as those used in conventionally
placed concrete. Because of the na-
ture of shotcrete, in some cases it is
necessary to exercise greater control
over physical and chemical proper-
ties.
Cements ordinarily used in con-
ventional concrete are also used in
shotcrete. Type I portland cement is
most commonly employed, al-
though Type II is sometimes used
for specific exposure requirements.
Type III is employed where high ear-
ly strength is needed. A cement that
exhibits a tendency toward flash set-
ting or rapid hardening should be
avoided. Premature stiffening of the
concrete could entail great loss of
time in freeing shotcrete equipment
and lines of hardened grout, mortar
or concrete.
Occasionally it is possible to use
aggregates that do not meet appro-
priate ASTM specifications, but it
will usually be found that sand finer
than that called for will result in in-
creased drying shrinkage; coarser
sand will result in increased re-
bound. Especially when using
coarse aggregate, it is necessary to
CHART I
Inclination of Surface
Floor or slabs
Sloping and vertical walls
O ve rhead work
eliminate ove r- s i ze particles from
the aggregates; over-size aggregates
increase the possibility of clogging
the lines. The safe procedure is to
thoroughly screen all aggregates
used. Sand should be sound and
hard; soft sand particles break down
on discharge through the nozzle,
undermining the bonding strength
of the cement. This condition is ag-
g ra vated by long hose lengths.
Admixtures are especially helpful
in shotcrete work. The four types
most often used are set controllers,
air-entraining agents, water reduc-
ers and mineral admixtures. Accel-
erators or retarders will often be
helpful in controlling both the set-
ting and strength-developing char-
acteristics of shotcrete. Rate of set is
especially important in this proce-
dure.
Air entrainment, which is possi-
ble only with the wet-mix process,
will be of value both in promoting
cohesiveness and in increasing
durability. As a rule of thumb, about
twice the air content desired should
be produced in the mix, since the
gunning operation will generally cut
air content in half. Water-reducing
admixtures are commonly used for
the improvements in strength, co-
hesiveness and reduction in shrink-
age that they afford. Fly ash has
been occasionally employed in
shotcrete to increase plasticity and
reduce sagging. Soluble admixtures
are introduced into the concrete or
mortar in the usual way in the wet-
mix process. In the dry-mix process,
soluble admixtures can be dissolved
in the mix water, but this will result
in variations in the admixture quan-
tity as the nozzle man varies the
content.
Percentage of Rebound
5 -15 percent
15 -30 percent
25-30 percent
Mix design evaluation
In the wet-mix process, the slump
o rd i n a rily will range from 0 to 4
inches. The water/cement ratio for
either type usually is from 0.50 to
0.35 by weight. It is recommended
that from 20 to 40 percent of the
coarse aggregate be tried initially
and subsequent mixes adjusted to
achieve the desired results.
To obtain a sample of a given mix
for evaluation, gun shotcrete onto a
back form of plywood. The shot-
crete should be at least 30 inches
square in area and 3 inches thick. A
separate panel should be made for
each mix design and for each incli-
nation to be encountered on the
job. Cores are obtained from the
panels and tested. These cores
should be at least 3 inches in diame-
ter and have a length-to-diameter
ratio of at least 1.
One gauge of the suitability of a
mix design is the amount of re-
bound. A number of variables (be-
sides materials and mix design) will
affect rebound; these include incli-
nation of the work, equipment used,
nozzle operator’s technique,
amount of reinforcement and thick-
ness of the section. All should be
kept under reasonable control. Gen-
erally speaking, the values shown in
Chart I can be expected.
If rebound substantially exceeds
the limits shown in the chart, it is
time to check cement content, wa-
ter content, and maximum size and
grading of the aggregates. It is rec-
ommended that rebound material
should not be collected and used
since its quality is highly variable.
PUBLICATION #C700112
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