Scientific African 9 (2020) e00504

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Scientific African
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/sciaf

Comparative acute toxicity of three pyrethroids (Deltamethrin,

cypermethrin and lambda-cyhalothrin) on guppy fish (Poecilia
reticulata peters, 1859)
Abdulbashir Femi Salako, Nnamdi Henry Amaeze∗, Hannah Motunrayo Shobajo,
Fidelia Ijeoma Osuala
Environmental Toxicology and Pollution Management Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Lagos, Akoka-Yaba, 101017, Lagos,
Nigeria

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Pesticides are agrochemicals synthesized to manage a specific range of biological agents
Received 6 May 2020 and have been yielding desirable results. However, they have been associated with harm-
Revised 29 June 2020
ful effects on non-target organisms. The focus of this study was to determine and com-
Accepted 28 July 2020
pare the acute toxicity of three commonly used Pyrethroids (deltamethrin, cypermethrin
and lambda-cyhalothrin) on non-target guppies, Poecilia reticulata, in order to guide the
Keywords: decision making for pest management. Twenty frys of P. reticulata (average weight of
Mosquitofish 0.28±0.13 g and length of 2.13±0.27 cm) were exposed to acute concentrations of each
Pesticide toxicology of the three pesticides over 96 hrs. The bioassay experiments were set up in duplicates
Non-target organisms of five test concentrations and untreated control. All three examined pesticides exhibited
Susceptibility varying degree of toxicity (median lethal concentration (LC50 ); Cypermethrin - 27.07 μg/L,
Lambda-cyhalothrin - 81.83 μg/L and Deltamethrin - 31.51 μg/L). Cypermethrin was 1.16
and 3.02 more toxic to the fishes compared to Deltamethrin and Lambda-cyhalothrin re-
spectively. It is concluded that all three Pyrethroids are dangerous to aquatic life with the
potential to disrupt the normal trophic balance. Their usage must be regulated and farms
should be remotely sited from rivers.
© 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of African Institute of
Mathematical Sciences / Next Einstein Initiative.
This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)

Introduction

Pyrethroids are synthetic derivatives of natural Pyrethrins produced from the flowers of pyrethrum plant (Chrysan-
themum cinerariaefolium and C. coccineum) [20]. They comprise esters of chrysanthemum acid (ethyl 2,2-dimethyl-3-(1-
isobutenyl) cyclopropane-1-carboxylate) and halogenated derivatives of their acids and alcohols [8,40]. Although Pyrethroids
and Pyrethrins are chemically and toxicologically similar, the latter undergo rapid decomposition when exposed to heat,
light, and moisture [18]. Hence, Pyrethrins were replaced with synthetic derivatives (Pyrethroids), originally considered safe
for humans [39]. These pesticides were introduced due to their lesser degree of persistence when compared to organochlo-

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: hamaeze@unilag.edu.ng, amaezenh@gmail.com (N.H. Amaeze).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sciaf.2020.e00504
2468-2276/© 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of African Institute of Mathematical Sciences / Next Einstein Initiative. This is an
open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)
2 A.F. Salako, N.H. Amaeze and H.M. Shobajo et al. / Scientific African 9 (2020) e00504

rine, organophosphate and carbamate pesticides which are associated with long-term ecological hazards. Pyrethroids usually
disintegrate in the presence of sunlight and atmosphere in one or two days [5]. Also, they do not significantly affect ground-
water quality making them preferred substitutes to traditional more persistent pesticides [5].
Pyrethroids’ mechanism of action is based on interaction with sodium channels and the induction of prolonged depo-
larization in neurons in the nervous system [38]. WHO [47] opined that pyrethroids are neuro-poisons acting on the axons
in the peripheral and central nervous system by interacting with sodium channels in mammals and/or insects. They have
a very high “selective toxicity” for insects compared to mammals and were reported by Bradberry et al. [5] to be 2250
times more toxic to insects than to higher animals. This is due to insects having more sensitive sodium channels, a smaller
structure, and lower body temperature as well as lower skin absorption and more efficient hepatic metabolism in mammals
[5]. However, they have been reported to be toxic to aquatic animals, e.g., shellfish [27], and finfishes [6,28,45], affecting
ion channels in both neuronal and mitochondrial membranes. They have also been reported to be toxic to higher mammals
[12,23].
Among the commonly used Pyrethroids in rural and urban farms in the City of Lagos, Nigeria, are Deltamethrin, Cyper-
methrin and Lambda-cyhalothrin. Deltamethrin is a synthetic Pyrethroid used in agriculture, forestry, horticulture, animal
husbandry, and vermin control on plants and wooden materials (Lahr et al., 20 0 0). It is reported by Kumar et al. [26] that
Deltamethrin is effective against vectors of malaria, making it useful in the production of mosquito repellent nets. It is a
type II Pyrethroid and is insoluble in water but soluble in acetone and alcohol [49]. More so, it is based structurally on natu-
ral Pyrethrins, which rapidly paralyzes insects’ nervous system, giving a quick knockdown effect [21]. It is a broad spectrum
pesticide, considered the most powerful synthetic Pyrethroids with characteristics of high stability and non-persistence in
the environment [41]. The mechanism of action of Deltamethrin is connected with the prolonged opening of voltage-gated
sodium channels which results in membrane depolarization of neurons, repetitive discharges and synaptic disturbances [7,8].
It also influences the function of the chloride and calcium channels of the neuron [5,7]
Cypermethrin was first synthesized by Elliott et al. [13] as a considerably active synthetic pesticide extensively used in
households, industrial and agricultural fields for controlling many insect pests [25]. It is also a type II Pyrethroid which
exhibits stability in neutral and acidic compounds. Its mechanism of action on the nervous system is to disrupt the trans-
port of sodium ion through the cell membrane (Singh et al., 2012). Lambda-cyhalothrin on the other hand is a synthetic
Pyrethroid insecticide and acaricide used to control a wide range of pests in a variety of applications [48]. It is a mixture of
isomers of Cyhalothrin which interrupts the functioning of the nervous system [10]. Lambda-cyhalothrin is widely used in
agriculture and public health management to control insect pests and vectors. It is categorized as a restricted use pesticide
in the Extension Toxicology Network due to its established toxicity to fish [30].
Fishes are bioindicator species that play important roles in monitoring water pollution because they respond with great
sensitivity to changes in the aquatic environment [10]. Exposure of fishes to pesticides creates stress which is a state of re-
established homeostasis, a complex suite of maladaptive responses (Choruses, 1998), with the potential to cause disruptions
and mortality. Guppy fish, Poecilia reticulata commonly called guppy, was first introduced in India as early as 1910 to control
mosquitoes and therefore, loosely called mosquitofish [24] as reported in Shahjahan et al. [36]. Shahjahan et al. [36] reported
that Bay [3], opined that Guppies can be used as predators of mosquito larvae due to their flattened head, protruded mouth,
small size and voracious appetite. These larvivorous fishes are quite tolerant of a variety of water conditions. Guppy has
been widely utilized as an experimental model by many researchers for toxicity studies of pesticides such as Cypermethrin
[9,15,33,51], Deltamethrin [44], Chlorpyrifos-methyl [11,29], Dichlorvos [19], Permethrin [2] and Lambda-cyhalothrin [16].
Saliu [35] opined that guppy fish is valuable for investigating the effects of carcinogenic and or toxic waterborne hazards
to humans. Also, Williams et al. [46] reported that the chronic carcinogenicity bioassays with guppy and potentially with
other small fish species are feasible and scientifically valid [35]. In Lagos, they are majorly found in gutters, canals and
perennial ditches where they help to control the mosquito population. Major cities in developing countries such as Lagos,
have mixed used landscapes with urban vegetable farms which can leach pesticides into nearby water collections and spread
across many locations. There is limited data available comparing toxicity of several pesticides on this important larvivorous
species. Hence, the present study is an attempt to rank the toxicity of three commonly used Pyrethroids in order to prioritize
their use, thereby protecting valuable non-target guppy fishes.

Materials and methods

Collection and acclimatization of test fishes

The Guppies, Poecilia reticulata (Mean weight of 0.28±0.13 g and total length 2.13±0.27 cm) were caught from storm
channels close to the University of Lagos, using a small mesh size sieve. They were transported in a rectangular tank (half
filled with water) to the Ecotoxicological laboratory section of the Zoological garden of the University of Lagos, then emp-
tied into acclimatization tanks (L x W x H: 40 × 30 × 30 cm) filled with de-chlorinated water (pH 7.1; Dissolved Oxygen
5.70 mg/L; Total Dissolved Solid 79 mg/L). The acclimatization process lasted for seven days during which they were fed
once daily (700 to 900 hrs) with commercial feed (Coppens®) containing 25% crude protein provided at 1% of body weight.
Laboratory conditions were maintained at a temperature of 27–28 °C, humidity of 65– 75% and 10-h/14-h light/dark cycle
before bioassays. Experiments were performed based on set standards for the bioassay technique [1].
 A.F. Salako, N.H. Amaeze and H.M. Shobajo et al. / Scientific African 9 (2020) e00504 3

Table 1
Concentration-response relationship of Guppy, Poecilia reticulata exposed to Lambda-cyhalothrin.

Concentration Log Mortality

μg/L of
conc. 24 hrs % 48 hrs % 72 hrs % 96 hrs %

Control – 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
60 1.78 4 20 4 20 4 20 4 20
70 1.85 5 25 5 25 5 25 5 25
80 1.90 7 35 7 35 7 35 7 35
90 1.95 11 55 11 55 13 65 13 65
100 2.00 20 100 20 100 20 100 20 100

Table 2
Concentration-response relationship of Guppy, Poecilia reticulata exposed to Cypermethrin.

Concentration Log Mortality

μg/L of
conc. 24 hrs % 48 hrs % 72 hrs % 96 hrs %

Control – 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
20 1.30 2 10 3 15 3 15 3 15
24 1.38 5 25 5 25 5 25 5 25
28 1.45 4 20 5 25 5 25 5 25
32 1.51 15 75 17 85 18 90 18 90
36 1.56 17 85 17 85 20 100 20 100

Procurement and preparation of pesticides

Three pesticides (Deltamethrin-12.5 g/L, Cypermethrin-10% EC and Lambda-cyhalothrin-2.5% EC) were purchased from a
chemical store at Bariga, Lagos. Their stock solutions were each prepared by measuring 1 mL of each pesticide and made up
to 1 L using distilled water. From the stock solution, varying concentrations were obtained and the eventual values of the
concentrations were ascertained based on the percentage of the active ingredients listed by the respective manufacturers.
Preliminary tests were conducted to determine suitable ranges of concentrations of each pesticide for the acute toxicity
assessment.

Bioassay tests

Ten (10) fishes were randomly selected from the acclimatization tank using a plastic sieve and carefully transferred to the
determined concentrations of each of the pesticide and Control bioassay tanks. Each experimental set up was in duplicate,
making a total of 20 individuals per concentration and the experiment was observed for 96 hrs. The fishes were not fed
during the acute toxicity experiment according to the method of [34]. Mortality was recorded at 24, 48, 72 and 96 hrs
during which dead fishes were carefully removed to prevent pollution. Mortality was determined when the fish failed to
move even when prodded [22]. Behavioural changes such as hyperactivity, swimming rate, fin movement, jerky movement
and morphological changes were also noted.

Statistical analysis

The dose-response mortality was analysed by Probit analysis (SPSS Software (IBM Version 20) as adopted by Otitoloju
[32] to calculate the 96 hrs mean lethal concentration (LC50 ). The toxicity factor (TF) was derived from the 96hr LC50 values
as follows [31]:
96 hr LC50 o f less toxic pesticide
TF =
96 hr LC50 o f more toxic pesticide

Results

Concentration-Response relationships

The Guppies responded in a concentration-dependent manner to all the three Pyrethroids (Tables 1, 2, 3), such that the
highest concentrations of exposure (100 μg/L for Lamda-cyhalothrin, 36 μg/L for Cypermethrin and 45 μg/L for Deltamethrin)
resulted in the highest percentage mortality (100%) while the lowest concentrations (60 μg/L for Lamda-cyhalothrin and
20 μg/L for both Cypermethrin and Deltamethrin) equally resulted in the lowest percentage mortality (20%, 15% and 20%
respectively). Also, the time-response relationship indicated that the fishes responded in a time-dependent manner to the
three pesticides because the highest duration of exposure (96 hrs) recorded the highest mortality while the lowest duration
of exposure (24 hrs) recorded the least mortality.
4 A.F. Salako, N.H. Amaeze and H.M. Shobajo et al. / Scientific African 9 (2020) e00504

Table 3
Concentration-response relationship of Guppy, Poecilia reticulata exposed to Deltamethrin.

Concentration Log of Mortality

μg/L conc.
24hrs % 48hrs % 72hrs % 96hrs %

Control – 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
20 1.30 2 10 4 20 4 20 4 20
25 1.40 2 10 5 25 7 35 8 40
30 1.48 12 60 12 60 12 60 12 60
35 1.54 7 35 7 35 12 60 12 60
40 1.60 5 25 9 45 14 70 14 70
45 1.65 20 100 20 100 20 100 20 100

Table 4
Relative 24 hrs acute toxicity (μg/L) for the three pesticides on Poecilia reticulata.

Pesticides LC5 LC50 LC95 SE DF TF (LC50 )

Lambda-cyhalothrin 62.70∗ 83.35∗ 108.15∗ 3.0 2 2.86

Cypermethrin 19.57 (15.57–21.95) 29.12 (27.17–31.48) 43.29 (38.01–56.23) 1.72 3 1.00
Deltamethrin 25.13∗ 36.62∗ 53.37∗ 2.10 2 1.26
∗
Probit analysis did not calculate confidence interval; SE- Standard Error; DF- Degree of Freedom; TF- Toxicity Factor.

Table 5
Relative 48 hrs acute toxicity (μg/L) for the three pesticides on Poecilia reticulata.

Pesticides LC5 LC50 LC95 SE DF TF (LC50 )

∗ ∗ ∗
Lambda-cyhalothrin 62.70 83.35 108.15 3.0 2 2.93
Cypermethrin 18.65 (0.00–23.79) 28.12 (15.80–75.29) 42.49 (3.67–1.61) 1.72 3 1.00
Deltamethrin 17.21 (8.90–21.86) 29.97 (24.94–33.28) 52.21 (44.35–79.85) 1.68 2 1.07
∗
Probit analysis did not calculate confidence interval; SE- Standard Error; DF- Degree of Freedom; TF- Toxicity Factor.

Table 6
Relative 72 hrs acute toxicity (μg/L) for the three pesticides on Poecilia reticulata.

Pesticides LC5 LC50 LC95 SE DF TF (LC50 )

Lambda-cyhalothrin 62.93 (55.80–67.46) 81.83 (78.78–84.80) 106.41 (99.79–118.83) 2.14 6 3.01

Cypermethrin 19.70∗ 27.16∗ 37.45∗ 1.96 3 1.00
Deltamethrin 17.2 (8.90–21.86) 29.97 (24.94–33.28) 52.21 (44.35–79.85) 1.68 2 1.10
∗
Probit analysis did not calculate confidence interval; SE- Standard Error; DF- Degree of Freedom; TF- Toxicity Factor.

Table 7
Relative 96 hrs acute toxicity (μg/L) for the three pesticides on Poecilia reticulata.

Pesticides LC5 LC50 LC95 SE DF TF (LC50 )

Lambda-cyhalothrin 62.93 (55.80–67.46) 81.83 (78.78–84.80) 106.41 (99.79–118.83) 2.14 6 3.02

Cypermethrin 19.56∗ 27.07∗ 37.48∗ 2.12 2 1.00
Deltamethrin 15.19 (4.27–19.12) 31.51 (27.22–37.34) 65.38 (48.15–224.71) 1.63 2 1.16
∗
Probit analysis did not calculate confidence interval; SE- Standard Error; DF- Degree of Freedom; TF- Toxicity Factor.

Relative acute toxicity of the three pesticides acting singly against the guppies

The results of the exposure of P. reticulata to the three pesticides evinced that Cypermethrin was the most toxic, with
median lethal concentrations (LC50 ) of 29.12 μg/L, 28.12 μg/L, 27.16 μg/L and 27.05 μg/L at the exposure periods of 24, 48,
72 hrs and 96 hrs respectively, while Lambda-cyhalothrin was the least toxic with LC50 of 83.35 μg/L, 83.35 μg/L, 81.83 μg/L
and 81.83 μg/L at the exposure periods of 24, 48, 72 hrs and 96 hrs respectively (Tables 4, 5, 6 and 7). The toxicity factor (TF)
revealed that Cypermethrin was 1.26 and 2.86 times at 24 hrs; 1.07 and 2.93 times at 48 hrs; 1.10 and 3.01 times at 72 hrs
and 1.16 and 3.02 times at 96 hrs more toxic than Deltamethrin and Lambda-cyhalothrin respectively. This is summarized
in terms of the degree of toxicity as thus; Cypermethrin > Deltamethrin > Lambda-cyhalothrin.

Physico-chemical parameters of the water in the experimental set-ups

The analysis of the physico-chemical parameters of the water showed that pH and DO decreased in time-dependent man-
ners in all the set-ups while TDS increased as the time of exposure increased. The highest pH and DO values of 6.96 mg/L
and 5.63 mg/L respectively were recorded at the beginning of the set-up while the lowest pH and DO values of 3.70 mg/L
 A.F. Salako, N.H. Amaeze and H.M. Shobajo et al. / Scientific African 9 (2020) e00504 5

Table 8
Physico-chemical Parameters of Water in the Experimental Group at the Beginning, 24 h and the End of the
Experiment.

Mean pH Mean Total Dissolved (mg/L) Mean Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L)

Lambda-cyhalothrin 6.96; 4.53; 3.70 70; 98; 127 5.63; 3.44; 3.31
Cypermethrin 6.96; 4.63; 4.01 70; 74; 118 5.63; 4.32; 4.10
Deltamethrin 6.96; 5.80; 5.71 70; 78; 95 5.63; 5.40; 5.31

and 3.31 mg/L respectively were recorded at the end of the set-up in the Lambda-cyhalothrin exposed group (Table 8). The
highest TDS value of 127 mg/L was recorded in the Lamda-cyhalothrin at the end of the experiment while the lowest value
of 70 mg/L was recorded at the beginning of the set-up.

Discussion and conclusion

The results indicated that there was a linear relationship between the mortality of the fishes and concentration of the
three pesticides. The percentage mortality was concentration-dependent for the three pesticide exposure. This is in accor-
dance with many reports including that of Yaji et al. [50]; Shaluei et al. [37]; Carcamo et al. [6]. The positive correlation
may be due to increased concentrations of the pesticides resulting in their increased uptake into the fish through gills as
suggested by Tiwari et al. [42]. Also, the findings indicated that the 96 hrs LC50 value of Cypermethrin for this study on
the guppy (27.07 μg/L) was within range of the 96 hrs LC50 of 38.38 μg/L reported by Dangi and Gupta [9] on male Poe-
cilia reticulata but far less toxic than the 96 hrs LC50 of 3.14 μg/L reported by Velisek et al. [43] for the same pesticide on
rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss, thus, implying a species-related susceptibility to the pesticide. This is also the same
for Lambda-cyhalothrin with recorded 96 hrs LC50 of 81.83 μg/L in this study which is much less toxic than 96 hrs LC50 of
1.6 μg/L of the same pesticide on Cyprinus carpio fingerlings and 1.72 μg/L for Labeo rohita reported by David and Umme,
[10] and Gadhave et al. [14]. For Deltamethrin, the 96 hrs LC50 for the fishes was 31.51 μg/L which doubled the values
of 15.47 μg/L and 14.9 μg/L reported by Boateng et al. [4] and Golow and Godzi [17] respectively for Oreochromis niloticus
fingerlings, equally reinforcing the differential susceptibility to various fishes of similar sizes.
Overall, the investigation revealed that Cypermethrin was the most toxic of the three, which was 3.02 times more toxic
than Lambda-cyhalothrin, which was the least toxic. This can be associated with their respective mechanism of action and
bioavailability. However, all three Pyrethroids exhibited high potency at low concentrations (of micrograms per ml) to initiate
a lethal effect on the exposed Guppies. Despite their usefulness in agriculture and public health management, it is a fact
that these pesticides can create a great economic loss by causing mosquito fish mortalities, compounding the fight against
malaria. Therefore, the use of these pesticides in urban farms must be with caution and due understanding of the unique
drainage patterns in such areas that can enhance their influx into storm channels and nearby water bodies. Cautious use
of Pyrethroids will minimize their effects on non-target fauna and therefore sustain the plasticity of their populations to
recover without losing their structure in view of the very essential role as mosquito larval control agents.
Finally, the threats posed to non-target biocontrol agent observed in this study emphasize the need for pesticide selection
to be well thought out especially in complex environmental settings like Lagos, where biological control of mosquitos offers
a sustainable strategy to keep populations of the virulent vector under control.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest regarding this research work and we have not received any
funding for this work.

Acknowledgement

The authors wish to thank the Department of Zoology, University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria, for providing bench space and
reagents for this research work.

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