Engineering Materials Lab (CVL 231)

Laboratory No. 3
<<Compression Testing of Materials>>

1. Objective
Experimental determination of mechanical characteristics: yield strength 𝜎𝑓 of low-
carbon steel and tensile strength 𝜎𝑡 of gray cast iron under compression.
2. Introduction
Compression testing is one of the most fundamental types of mechanical testing, alongside
tensile test. Compression test is used to determine a material’s behavior under applied
crushing loads, and are typically conducted by applying compressive pressure to a test
specimen (usually of cylindrical geometry) using the universal testing machine. During the
test, various properties of the material are calculated and plotted as a stress-strain
diagram which is used to determine qualities such as elastic limit, proportional limit, yield
point, yield strength, and, for some materials, compressive strength.
Materials that exhibit high tensile strength tend to (but do not always!) exhibit low
compressive strength. Likewise, materials high in compressive strength tend to exhibit low
tensile strength. Therefore, compression testing is often used on brittle materials such as
concrete, metals, plastics, ceramics, composites, and corrugated materials like cardboard.
These materials are often used in a load-bearing capacity where their integrity under
compressive forces is critical.

Test Device Description

For compression tests, universal testing machines that meet the requirements of the
standard are used (Figure 1). The conditions that must be met during the compression test
are the same as in the tensile test, but higher demands are placed on the centering of the
sample and the absence of mutual misalignment of the pressure plates transmitting force to
the sample. The compression test is widely used to determine the mechanical
characteristics of low-plastic materials, for example, cast irons, tool steels, ceramics, etc.

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Engineering Materials Lab (CVL 231)
Laboratory No. 3
<<Compression Testing of Materials>>

Fig.1 -Lab. Equipment General View:

1- Test Sample; 2- Dynamometer; 3- Bottom Plate; 4- Top Plate;

5- Movable Traverse; 6- Computing Device (laptop)

3. Theory
In a compression test, a sample of standard shape and size from the test material is placed in a
fixture mounted on a testing machine and undergoes continuous, smooth deformation to a
predetermined strain value or to failure. In this case, the relationship between the compressive force
F and the shortening of the height h of the sample is recorded in the form of a compression diagram
of the sample. The compression diagram of the sample allows you to evaluate the behavior of the
material of the sample in the elastic and elastoplastic stages of deformation and determine the
characteristics of the mechanical properties of the material. Compression test of material samples
is carried out according to the standard. Four types of cylindrical specimens are used: three types
of specimens with smooth ends and one with recesses at the ends. The type of samples is selected
depending on the characteristics to be determined. For compression tests, as a rule, short samples
with a height to diameter ratio of 1 to 3 are used (Figure 2). The use of high samples is unacceptable,
because such samples will not only shrink, but also bend.

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Engineering Materials Lab (CVL 231)
Laboratory No. 3
<<Compression Testing of Materials>>

Fig.2 – Geometric Model of the Sample

Samples must be carefully prepared, in particular, tight tolerances on the perpendicularity

of the axis of the sample to its ends are observed. The ends of the sample must be carefully
ground. The compression test has characteristic features that significantly distinguish it
from a tensile test:
- samples of plastic materials are not destroyed, receiving a significant deformation
superior to the deformation at break under tensile conditions;

- the compression test results of the samples significantly depend on the ratio of the
height of the sample to its diameter;

- the tensile strength and ductility characteristics are markedly affected by the friction
forces at the supporting ends of the sample.

In the process of loading the sample with compressive forces, its height decreases and the
diameter increases, and its diameter increases unevenly along the height of the sample.
This leads to a significant change in shape - the sample becomes barrel-shaped. Barrel
compression occurs due to friction between the contacting surfaces of the compressible
sample and device. Friction prevents lateral deformation at the ends of the sample (Figure
3).

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Engineering Materials Lab (CVL 231)
Laboratory No. 3
<<Compression Testing of Materials>>

Fig. 3 – Changing of the Sample’s Shape During Compression

The stress state in the sample, with developed barrel-shaped, is not uniaxial and
inhomogeneous. It is not possible to take this heterogeneity into account when processing
the results of compression tests; therefore, it is assumed that the stress state is uniform and
uniaxial over the entire volume of the sample. Thus:
𝐹
𝜎= (1)
𝐴0

where 𝜎 is the normal stress in the cross section, F – the force acting on the sample, A0 –
the initial cross-sectional area.
In order for the actual stress state in the sample to correspond to the expected one, it is
necessary to reduce or eliminate the friction forces at the ends of the sample. This is
achieved by introducing lubricant at the ends of the sample (Figure 4) or by creating conical
end surfaces with an angle α equal to the angle of friction between the materials of the
sample and the device (Figure 5).

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Engineering Materials Lab (CVL 231)
Laboratory No. 3
<<Compression Testing of Materials>>

Fig. 4 – Sample with End Cavities

You can combine the above methods of struggle with the forces of friction. As a lubricant,
paraffin, waxed paper, petroleum jelly, Teflon, etc. are used.

Fig. 5 – Samples with Conical Ends:

With a Central Hole (a); without Hole (b)

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Engineering Materials Lab (CVL 231)
Laboratory No. 3
<<Compression Testing of Materials>>

It is not possible to completely eliminate the frictional forces between the contacting
surfaces during the compression tests. This is the fundamental disadvantage of these tests.
The smaller the ratio of the height of the sample to its diameter, the greater the influence
of friction on the test results. From these positions, tests should be carried out using as long
samples as possible. However, when compressing long samples, it is difficult to avoid
bending. The optimal ratio for cylindrical samples is h/𝑑0 = 1 to 3.

A material compression diagram is obtained in the same manner as a tensile diagram. The
method for determining the mechanical characteristics of a material, such as the
proportionality limit, the elastic limit, and the yield strength, is fully consistent with the
method for determining these characteristics in a tensile test. It is not possible to establish
the tensile strength 𝜎𝑡 of low-carbon steel under compression, since a sample of this
material is flattened, remaining solid, i.e. not destroyed. The compression chart of the
material is obtained from the compression chart of the sample, while taking
𝐹
𝜎= , (2)
𝐴0

∆ℎ
𝜀= (3)
ℎ0

The compression diagram of low-carbon steel (Figure 6 a) in the area of elastic

deformations and general yield almost coincides with the tensile diagram of this material.
There is no point on the compression diagram corresponding to the tensile strength;
therefore, the tensile strength cannot be established. Compression tests of a material in a
plastic state are stopped at a strain of approximately 50%.

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Engineering Materials Lab (CVL 231)
Laboratory No. 3
<<Compression Testing of Materials>>

Fig. 6 – Sample Compression Diagrams:

Mild Steel (a); Constructional Steel (b); Cast Iron (c)

The conditional limits of proportionality 𝜎𝑝𝑟 , elasticity 𝜎0.01, yield stress 𝜎0.2 are
determined by the same method as in tension (Tensile Test).
Under normal conditions, gray cast iron is in a slightly plastic state; the compression
diagram of gray cast iron is shown in (Figure 6 c).
Strictly speaking, there is no linear section on the tension and compression diagrams of
gray cast iron where Hooke's law is observed, however, the deviation from Hooke's law is
small.
Unlike mild steel, cast iron is destroyed by compression. Failure occurs along sites tilted
at an angle of 45 degrees to the axis of the specimen, where the greatest tangential stresses
occur.

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Engineering Materials Lab (CVL 231)
Laboratory No. 3
<<Compression Testing of Materials>>

4. Procedures
1. Place steel sample (No.1) between the pressure plates of the device, carefully centering
it.
2. Gently load the sample with compressive force.
3. On the machine compression diagram, note the force corresponding to the beginning of
the fluidity of the material.
4. Continue loading the sample to a noticeable barrel shape (cylindrical distortion).
5. Unload the sample and remove it from the device.
6. Install steel sample (No.2) by placing paraffin gaskets between the ends of the sample
and the pressure plates of the device.
7. Repeat steps 2–5. The maximum load should be the same as for sample No.1.
8. Install a sample of cast iron in the fixture.
9. Gently load the sample with compressive force until fracture. Note the destructive
force in the machine compression diagram.
10. Unload the sample and remove it from the device.
11. Find the yield strength of steel, the tensile strength of cast iron.
12. Based on the results of processing and calculations, construct a diagram of the
compression of materials.

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Engineering Materials Lab (CVL 231)
Laboratory No. 3
<<Compression Testing of Materials>>

5. Results
Table 1 – The Geometric Dimensions of the Samples Before and After the Compression Test
Steel (without
Steel (with
Test Sample greasing the Cast Iron
paraffin pads)
ends)
Diameter of the sample before
testing 𝒅𝟎 , mm

Sample height before test 𝒉𝟎 ,

mm

Cross sectional area of the

sample before testing 𝑨𝟎 , 𝒎𝒎𝟐
Diameter of the sample after
testing 𝒅𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 , mm
Sample height after test 𝒉𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 ,
mm
Cross sectional area of the
sample after testing 𝑨𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 ,
𝒎𝒎𝟐

Table 2 – Compression Test Results

Steel without greasing at
Steel with paraffin pads Cast Iron
the ends
Point
F, ∆𝒉, 𝝈, F, ∆𝒉, 𝝈, F, ∆𝒉, 𝝈,
𝜺 𝜺 𝜺
kN mm MPa kN mm MPa kN mm MPa
A

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Engineering Materials Lab (CVL 231)
Laboratory No. 3
<<Compression Testing of Materials>>

Table 3 – Mechanical Characteristics of the Tested Materials

𝝈𝒑𝒓 , 𝝈𝒇 , 𝝈𝒆 , 𝝈𝒕 ,
Material
MPa MPa MPa MPa

Steel

Cast Iron

6. Safety Measures
General laboratory safety measures.

7. Application on the field

Compression testing allows manufacturers to assess the integrity and safety of materials,
components, and products during several phases of the manufacturing process. The
potential applications can vary from strength testing of a car windshield to endurance
testing of concrete beams used in construction.

Fig. 7 – Concrete Samples Compression Strength

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 Engineering Materials Lab (CVL 231)
Laboratory No. 3
<<Compression Testing of Materials>>

8. Report

The Laboratory report must have the following:

1- Cover Page.
2- Brief introduction.
3- All the calculations using the measured data.
4- Tables containing the data.
5- Discussion of the results.
6- Conclusion.
7- Answer the following:

1. What are the features of deformation during compression of samples from plastic and
brittle materials?

2. What mechanical strength characteristics are obtained during testing of brittle

material?

3. For some materials, the mechanical characteristics of tensile and compression strength
are almost the same, for which they are different?

4. What are the main compression tests for which materials?

5. Describe how to perform compression testing of material samples.

9. References
 . R.C. Hibbeler, Mechanics of Materials, 9th edition, Pearson Publications, 2012.

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