Lecturer: Dr.

HF Duan

Additional Reading Materials for Lectures 07 & 11

(for Fluid Mechanics: CSE10252 & 20202)

Tips for working with momentum and mass balances

Consider the following control volume.
y

x
V2 , A2 ,  2
1
2
2
1 3
3
V3 , A3 ,  3
V1 , A1 , 1

4
V4 , A4 ,  4

1. Remember that in the equation m  IN = m  OUT , m IN refers to all the fluid streams
entering the control volume, and similarly for m OUT . Thus, conservation of mass
requires m 1 + m
2 = m
3 + m 4.
2. A similar comment applies to the conservation of momentum equation, i.e.,
(m Vx ) |OUT means m V x summed over all locations where the fluid leaves the
control volume. Thus, in the above example,
 Fx = (m Vx ) 3 + (m Vx ) 4 − (m Vx )1 − (m Vx ) 2
3. The term  Fx refers to the sum of forces acting on the control volume.
4. The m terms refer to the total rate at which mass crosses the control surface at
each location. Thus, we can write m  = VA , where V is the velocity of the fluid
crossing the control surface at each location.
5. The terms V x refer only to the x -component of the velocity of the fluid at each
location. In the above example,
V1x = V1 cos  1 , V2 x = −V2 cos  2 ,...
Remember that velocities which point in the negative direction give V x a negative
sign, but that m is always positive.
6. Make sure that the flow is steady in the frame of reference attached to the control
volume. This means that you may have to have a control volume which moves
with some constant velocity.
 Lecturer: Dr. HF Duan

Losses due to sudden expansion in pipe

Head losses in pipe bends and valves have to be taken into account in addition to
losses sustained by pipes. We have already used the formula
V2
hL = K
2g
There is an important case where the estimation of the head loss may be made by
analytical methods.
Consider a flow through sudden expansion of a pipe.

1 p2
V1

V2

Note that two regions may be specified in a pipe with a larger diameter: one region
where the flow is irregular and another region with relatively smooth flow. In this
case it is convenient to consider a control volume in the form shown below, which
encloses the region of relatively smooth flow.

Suppose that the velocities in a smaller and larger sections of the pipe are V1 and V2 ,
respectively. In this case (if the flow is incompressible) the linear momentum flux
through the control surface is a fixed quantity. The pressure p 2 decreases in order to
maintain the same linear momentum flow through the control volume.
Our assumption here is related to the pressure distribution at section 1 (where there is
a sudden expansion). When the fluid passes through section 1, the flow separates from
the boundary. We can see a jet of fluid discharged into the larger pipe. The
streamlines in the jet are initially straight and parallel. This means that the pressure
distribution in the jet will be hydrostatic. Since the fluid in the separation zone has
low velocity, it can be assumed that the pressure in this zone is the same as in the jet
except for the hydrostatic variation.

Applying the linear momentum equation for the control volume shown by the dashed
line, we obtain
p1 A2 − p2 A2 = V2 (V2 A2 ) + V1 (−V1 A1 )
Continuity equation gives
V1 A1 = V2 A2
Eliminating V1 from the above two equations, we obtain
 Lecturer: Dr. HF Duan

p1 − p 2 V22 A2 − V12 A1 p − p2
=  (V12 = V22 A22 / A12 )  1 = V22 (1 − A2 / A1 )
 A2 
p1 − p 2
V22 (1 − A2 / A1 )
 =
 g
The energy equation applied to sections 1 and 2 is
V12 p1 V22 p 2
+ = + + hL
2g  2g 
p − p2
Replacing V12 from the continuity equation and 1 from the momentum

equation, we obtain
V22 A22 V22 (1 − A2 / A1 ) V22 V22  A22 A 
2
+ − = h L   2 + 2 − 2 2 − 1 = hL
2 gA1 g 2g 2 g  A1 A1 
Thus,
2
V2  A 
hL = 2 1 − 2 
2g  A1 
It is seen from the above formula that the losses in turbulent flow are proportional to
the square of the velocity.

Hydraulic jump
Consider a rapidly flowing stream of fluid in an open channel. Such a flow can arise
in a number of ways. Liquid can be released from under a sluice gate, or enter through
steep spillway. One can observe then that a rapidly flowing stream of fluid suddenly
changes to a slowly flowing stream with a larger cross-sectional area and an abrupt
change in water depth. This phenomenon is called “hydraulic jump”.

A1 1 A2
y1
y2
V2

V1
Hydrostatic pressure Hydrostatic pressure
at section 1 at section 2

The kinetic energy of rapidly flowing stream is converted into potential energy (larger
water depth) and losses. The jump causes eddy formation and turbulence. There is a
loss of total energy after the jump. Hydraulic engineers try to create the jump in order
to reduce the downstream velocity.
Assume that the channel width is 1 ( A1 = y1 , A2 = y 2 ).
 Lecturer: Dr. HF Duan

Continuity equation: V1 y1 = V2 y 2 (1)

Momentum equation:  Fx = m V2 − m V1
 p1 y1 − p2 y2 = V2 y2V2 − V1 y1V1 ,
where p1 and p 2 are the pressures at the centroids of the areas y1 and y 2 , respectively.
y y
Note that p1 = 1 and p 2 = 2 .
2 2
Thus, the momentum equation becomes
y12 y 22
− = V22 y 2 − V12 y1 (2)
2 2
Energy equation (for points on the liquid surface) is
V12 V22
+ y1 = + y 2 + hL ,
2g 2g
where hL represents losses due to the jump.
Eliminating V2 from (1) and (2) we obtain
V1 y1 y2 y2 V 2 y2
V2 =  g 1 − g 2 = y 2 1 2 1 − V12 y1
y2 2 2 y2
g 2 ( y − y2 )
 ( y1 − y 22 ) = V12 y1 1  divide by y1 − y 2
2 y2
g V12 y1 g
 ( y1 + y 2 ) =  ( y1 y 2 + y 22 ) = V12 y1
2 y2 2
2V12 y1
 y + y1 y 2 −
2
2 =0
g
The solution to the above quadratic equation is
y1 y12 2V12 y1
y2 = −  +
2 4 g
A negative y 2 has no physical meaning, therefore we choose the solution in the form
y1 y12 2V12 y1
y2 = − + +
2 4 g
The depths y1 and y 2 are referred to as conjugate depths.
It is often desirable to know the head loss due to hydraulic jump. Eliminating V1 and
V2 from the continuity and momentum equations and using the energy equation, we
obtain
( y 2 − y1 ) 3
hL =
4 y1 y 2

Example. Water flows in a rectangular channel at a depth of 30 cm and with a

velocity of 16m/s, as shown in the figure below. Suppose that a downstream sill
forces a hydraulic jump. Find the velocity and depth downstream of the jump. What
head loss is produced by the jump?
 Lecturer: Dr. HF Duan

30 cm y2
V2

16 m/s

Solution. First, we calculate y 2 from (1):

0.3 0.09 2  16 2  0.3
y2 = − + + = 3.81m.
2 4 9.81
From the continuity equation we obtain V2 :
V y 16  0.3
V1 y1 = V2 y 2  V2 = 1 1 = = 1.26m / s
y2 3.81
Finally, the head loss is
(3.81 − 0.3) 3
hL = = 9.46m
4  3.81  0.3

Practical application: use of the hydraulic jump on

downstream end of dam spillway

Hydraulic jump

Water

Apron

It is clear that the flow velocity is high near the base of the spillway. On the other
hand, the velocity of the flow in the channel downstream is considerably smaller.
Thus, a hydraulic jump must form near the base of the spillway.
The downstream portion of the spillway is called apron. Note that the apron must be
designed in such a way so that the hydraulic jump would form on the concrete
structure. Otherwise severe erosion can occur.
One way to solve the problem is to make apron relatively long.
 Lecturer: Dr. HF Duan

Conditions of a hydraulic jump

The downstream depth of the flow, y 2 , is given by

y1 y12 2V12 y1
y2 = − + +
2 4 g
The hydraulic jump occurs when y 2  y1 , or equivalently, when y 2 − y1  0 .
Substituting y 2 from the above formula, we obtain
y1 y12 2V12 y1
− + + − y1  0
2 4 g
y12 2V12 y1 3 y1 y12 2V12 y1 9 y12
 +   + 
4 g 2 4 g 4
V12
 1
gy1
V1
The dimensionless parameter = Fr is called the Froude number.
gy1
Thus, the condition of a hydraulic jump is
Fr  1.
The flow is called supercritical, if Fr  1, and subcritical, if Fr  1 . Therefore, a
hydraulic jump occurs if the flow upstream is supercritical.

It is clear that a hydraulic jump is a very effective tool of energy dissipation (the head
loss represents energy reduction due to turbulence in the wave).
The formula for the head loss tells us that a hydraulic jump will occur only from flow
with higher velocity to flow with a smaller velocity. Hydraulic jump does not occur if
y 2  y1 since in this case hL  0 .

The moment-of-momentum equation

The general unsteady linear-momentum equation applied to a control volume has the
form
    
F =  Vdv +  VV • dA
t c.v. c. s .

Recall that the moment of a force F about a point O is
  
 M = r F
Here r is a radius vector from the origin of a fixed coordinate system to the point of
application of the force or the centre of mass of the system (see the figure below).
 
r F


 
r F

O
 Lecturer: Dr. HF Duan

   
Here r  F is the cross product of two vectors, so that | r  F |= Fr sin  .
 
Using r  F we obtain from the momentum equation that

        
r  F =  r  Vdv +  ( r  V )(V • dA)
t c.v. c. s .

the torque exerted by the rate of change of the net outflow of

any forces moment of momentum moment of
on the control volume within the control momentum from
volume the control volume

The equation above is the general moment-of-momentum equation for a control

volume. It is important in the analysis of problems in turbo-machinery, where torques
are more important than forces.

Consider now some special cases of this equation.

1. Flow in the xy -plane.


Vn


r

Vt


t 
In this case, Ft r  Tz = rVt dv +  rVtVn dA
c .v . c. s .

A useful form of this equation applied to an annular control volume is

Tz =   2 r2Vt 2Vn 2 dA −  1r1Vt1Vn1dA
A2 A1

For circular symmetry ( r ,  ,Vt ,Vn = const ) we have

Tz = Q[(rVt ) 2 − (rVt )1 ]