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GENERATIONAL IMMIGRANT STAGE AND THE ACHIEVEMENT STATUS OF
AFRICAN AMERICAN HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS
THAT PUT THEM ON TARGET FOR GRADUATION
by
Ingrid Rizzolo
A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Educational Leadership
UNIVERSITY OF PHOENIX
August 2012
UMI Number: 3571497
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ABSTRACT
The study addressed the problem of unacceptably low graduation rates of African
American high school students. The purpose of the study was to conduct a quantitative
correlational explanatory investigation into possible associations between immigration
stage and achievement status of African American high school students that puts them on
target for graduation. Survey data collected from 273 seniors from five high schools in
New York City measured the dependent variable achievement status in high school
credits. The independent variable immigrant generational stage was appraised across
three generations of African Americans (1st, 2nd and 3rd generations) and weighted in
sub-variables of foreign culturally influenced parental style, ethnic capital, and perceived
self-efficacy. Data collected were analyzed using analysis of variance, multiple
regression and regression statistics. Results indicate generational immigrant stage and
self-efficacy are associated with the academic status of the students. Foreign influenced
parental style and ethnic capital are not associated with academic status of the
demographic. A key finding is first generation students performed better than each
subsequent generation of their peers. Implications are that fresh ethnic cultural memory
and high self-efficacy beliefs result in better academic outcomes for African American
students. The need for culturally ingenious leadership to facilitate ethnic cultural values
and promote self-efficacy beliefs of African American students for more favorable
academic outcomes is indicated by the results of the study. Certification in cultural
competencies relative to the operating context is therefore a prerequisite for educational
leaders working among this demographic.

v
DEDICATION
I dedicate this research study to my God and my family. I thank my God for the
divine enablement and for the perfection of my intent. He has indeed made my life’s
circle just. I extend deepest thanks to my husband Robert and children Andre and Renee
whose support and love saw me through this journey. Thanks for the comfort you
provided during those rough stints.
I dedicate the research study to my grandmother Louisa Job who modeled for me
what the values of ambition and hard work could achieve. I mourn her loss but I celebrate
what she stood for. I also dedicate the research study to my mother Clothilda Duke who
passed the values of ambition and hard work to me. Mummy your unselfish dedication to
the welfare of all peoples inspired me to want to fight tirelessly to improve the welfare of
this group of young people.
I honor my father Belfield Duke and my siblings Arlene, Wendie, Joan, Garfield,
Gem and Andy, and my niece TeHilla whose vote of confidence kept me on track.
vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I acknowledge my mentor Paul Shuler who gave unconditional support and
guidance through the process and ably facilitated my potential to achieve. You never
grew weary of answering my questions. Your feedback and insights were invaluable.
Your sincerity and confidence in me were significant enablers in my process.
I acknowledge my committee members Lesley Harbin and Sushil Jindal for
completing the journey with me and for sharing valuable insights and knowledge with
me. I also recognize the contribution of committee member Sean Gyll who was unable to
complete the journey with us. With your help I was able to arrive at this significant
juncture in my life. I also acknowledge the assistance of my editor and statistician, and
of the New York City public school system that provided me with data for the conduct of
my study.
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Tables ................................................................................................................... xi
List of Figures ................................................................................................................. xii
Chapter 1 ........................................................................................................................... 1
Background .................................................................................................................. 3
Statement of the Problem ............................................................................................. 6
Purpose of the Study .................................................................................................... 8
Significance of the Problem ......................................................................................... 9
Nature of the Study .................................................................................................... 10
Research Questions and Hypotheses .......................................................................... 12
Theoretical Framework .............................................................................................. 15
Definition of Terms .................................................................................................... 17
Assumptions ............................................................................................................... 19
Scope and Limitations ................................................................................................ 21
Delimitations .............................................................................................................. 23
Chapter 2: Review of the Literature................................................................................ 26
Title Searches, Articles, Research Documents, and Journals .................................... 27
A Historical Perspective of African American Education ......................................... 27
Inadequacy of Education Reform Efforts .................................................................. 33
The Dependent Variable: Achievement Status .......................................................... 34
The Independent Variable: Immigrant Generational Status ...................................... 42
Appraisal of Immigrant Academic Scholarship ......................................................... 42
African American Immigrants’ Country of Origin .................................................... 45

viii
Mediating Variables/Independent Sub Variables....................................................... 46
An Autonomous European-American Perspective .................................................... 49
A Collectivist Perspective .......................................................................................... 50
An Ethnic Congruent Parental Style .......................................................................... 52
Authoritarian/Foreign Culturally Influenced Parenting Style .................................... 53
Foreign Culturally Influenced Parental Style as a Sub-Variable ............................... 54
Value Transmission.................................................................................................... 55
Foreign Culturally Influenced Parental Style/Acculturation and Dilution ................ 57
Independent Sub-Variable: Ethnic Capital................................................................. 59
Ethnic Networks ......................................................................................................... 61
Independent Sub-Variable: Self-Efficacy .................................................................. 64
Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 69
Chapter Summary....................................................................................................... 71
Chapter 3: Method .......................................................................................................... 72
Research Method and Design Appropriateness ......................................................... 72
Research Questions and Hypotheses .......................................................................... 75
Population .................................................................................................................. 77
Sampling Frame ......................................................................................................... 78
Informed Consent ....................................................................................................... 79
Confidentiality ........................................................................................................... 80
Geographic Location .................................................................................................. 82
Data Collection........................................................................................................... 83
Instrumentation .......................................................................................................... 83
ix
Independent Sub-Variables ........................................................................................ 84
The Instrument ........................................................................................................... 85
Validity....................................................................................................................... 88
Internal and External Validity. ................................................................................... 90
Reliability ................................................................................................................... 92
Data Analysis ............................................................................................................. 95
Chapter Summary....................................................................................................... 98
Chapter 4: Analysis and Results ..................................................................................... 99
Data Collection......................................................................................................... 100
Demographics .......................................................................................................... 101
Sample Size .............................................................................................................. 101
Preparation for Data Analysis .................................................................................. 102
Findings .................................................................................................................... 102
Hypothesis 1 ............................................................................................................. 105
Hypothesis 2 ............................................................................................................. 109
Hypothesis 3 ............................................................................................................. 113
Hypothesis 4 ............................................................................................................. 118
Additional Analyses ................................................................................................. 120
Summary of Results ................................................................................................. 124
Chapter Summary..................................................................................................... 125
Chapter 5: Conclusions and Recommendations ........................................................... 126
Problem Statement ................................................................................................... 126
Purpose and Research Methods ............................................................................... 126

x
Research Questions and Hypotheses ........................................................................ 127
Implications for Leadership ..................................................................................... 138
Recommendations for Future Research ................................................................... 142
Contribution to the Literature................................................................................... 143
Summary .................................................................................................................. 144
Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 144
References ..................................................................................................................... 147
Appendix A: Summary of Generational Immigrant Academic Results ....................... 165
Appendix B: Informed Consent–Participants 18 Years of Age or Older ..................... 167
Appendix C: Parental Consent Letter ........................................................................... 169
Appendix D: Informed Consent – Participants Under 18 Years of Age....................... 171
Appendix E: A Letter to the Principal .......................................................................... 173
Appendix F: Generational Motivation Questionnaire................................................... 174
Appendix G: Summary of Statistical Tests and Variables by Hypothesis.................... 178
Appendix H: Permission to Use Questionnaire ............................................................ 179
Appendix I: Test of Between Subjects Effects Derived From MANOVA
Analysis......................................................................................................................... 180
xi
List of Tables
Table 1. Targeted Population ................................................................................. 78
Table 2. Study Variables and Statistical Test Used to Evaluate Research
Questions................................................................................................................ 104
Table 3. Summary of Reliability Analysis of Independent Variables.................... 105
Table 4. Descriptive Statistics of Achievement Status by Immigrant Phase ......... 105
Table 5. Model Summary Generated from ANOVA Analysis of Hypothesis 1 ..... 108
Table 6. Descriptive Statistics of Achievement Status by Parental Style .............. 110
Table 7. Model Summary Generated from ANOVA Analysis of Hypothesis 2 ..... 112
Table 8. Descriptive Statistics of Achievement Status and Ethnic Capital ........... 114
Table 9. Model Summary Generated from Multiple Regression Analysis of
Ethnic Capital and Achievement Status ................................................................. 117
Table 10. Descriptive Statistics of Achievement Status and Self-efficacy–
Hypothesis 4 ........................................................................................................... 118
Table 11. Model Summary of Regression Analysis of Hypothesis 4 ..................... 120
Table 12. Model Summary Generated from ANOVA Analysis of Additional
Analysis 1 ............................................................................................................... 121
Table 13. Cross tabulation of Frequencies (% within Immigrant Phase) of
Parental Style and Immigrant Phase ..................................................................... 122
Table 14. Descriptive Statistics of Three Dependent Variables grouped by
Immigrant Phase .................................................................................................... 123
Table I-1: Test of Between Subjects Effects Derived From MANOVA

Analysis................................................................................................................. 178
xii
List of Figures
Figure 1. Comparison of national the status dropout rates for African American
and White high school students. . ............................................................................. 4
Figure 2. Ethnic comparisons of graduation outcomes for class of 2007. .............. 7
Figure 3. Frequency histogram of the achievement status variable. ..................... 106
Figure 4. The means plot indicates a significant difference in Achievement
Status across Immigrant Phase............................................................................... 109
Figure 5. The means plot indicates a nonsignificant difference in Achievement
Status across Parental Styles. ................................................................................. 112
Figure 6. The frequency histogram of the Ethnic Network variable shows
normality. ............................................................................................................... 115
Figure 7. Scatterplot of the Achievement Status variable shows
homoscedasticity. ................................................................................................... 116
Figure 8. Frequency histogram of the predictor variable Self-efficacy. .............. 119

1
Chapter 1
At a time when a college degree is a basic prerequisite for competing in a global
world (Balfanz, 2009), African American high school students are failing to graduate on
time and are dropping out of high school at alarming rates. Common core data from the
National Center for Education Statistics ([NCES] 2010a) indicates that 10% of African
American students drop out from high school annually. In the years 2006-2007,
8,288,264 African Americans were enrolled in schools nationally (NCES, 2010b). Based
on NCES data, by 2019, a projected near one million African American students would
have left school prematurely.
Major attempts at education reform, A Nation at Risk, and the National Education
Summit Policy Statement have failed to change the academic fortunes of African
American and Latino minority groups. Current reform efforts enacted in the No Child
Left Behind Act (NCLB) have been similarly unsuccessful in bridging the persistent
divergence of educational outcomes between African American students and their White
peers. Under the supervision of an NCLB-driven education system, the dropout rates for
African American high school students almost doubled the dropout rates for White high
school students (NCES, 2010b). The comparative underachievement of African
American students cannot be ignored. Investigating variables with the potential to help
correct the vexing problem is of critical importance.
Studies conducted among non-African immigrants found an association between
generational immigrants and academic achievement (Kao & Tienda, 1995; Pong, Hao, &
Gardner 2005; Zhou, 2006). The purpose of the research was to conduct a quantitative
correlation study among African American immigrants in order to determine if similar

2
relationships exist. The study was conducted to investigate possible within-group
variation similar to non-African American immigrants to identify associated variables
that may provide insights into improving academic outcomes for African American
students. African American immigrants are migrants of African ancestry whose countries
of origin are in Western and Eastern Africa and the Caribbean.
Within the context of the present inquiry, the dependent variable was achievement
status as measured by the number of high school credits by the 12th grade, which puts the
students on target for graduation. The independent variable was generational immigrant
stage. Based on a review of literature relevant to both immigrant scholarship, and general
academic achievement, the independent variable, as proffered, was a composite of
uniquely configured sub-variables. Following the trajectory of theories and models
established in the field of immigrant scholarship, the independent variable was assessed
in terms of the sub variables of (collectivist) culturally influenced parenting style (Pong,
Hao, & Gardner, 2005), ethnic capital (Borjas, 1995), and perceived self-efficacy
(Bandura, 1971).
The rest of Chapter 1 includes background knowledge that locates the problem of
African American under achievement outcomes in its context, the purpose of the study,
and the problem statement that justifies the need for the study. Chapter 1 also focuses on
the theoretical framework that explains variations in levels of academic motivations and
provides definitions of key terms. Included in the chapter are discussions of the
appropriateness of the study’s method and design, and the research questions and
hypotheses that drive the study. Discussions of the significance and scope of the study,
the limitations and delimitations, and a chapter summary complete the chapter.
3
Background
The persistent underachievement and high dropout rates of African American students
present a rationale for the focus of the study. From whichever angle one views the
underachievement of African American high school students, it is a major cause for
concern. Nationally, the status dropout rates in the United States for African American
high school students in the years 2004-2008 were 11.8%, 10.4%, 10.7%, 8.4%, and 9.9%
respectively. During the same period, the status dropout rates for White high school
dropouts were 6.8%, 6.0%, 5.8%, and 4.8% respectively (NCES, 2010b). The
achievement gap continues to widen; while the dropout rates of Whites have been
steadily decreasing, the African American dropout rates remain somewhat constant at
around 10% (NCES, 2010b). The wide margin of achievement differentials between the
groups may suggest underlying inequities (Fowler, 2009).
African American vs. White Dropout Rates
African Americans Whites
11.8%
10.4% 10.7%
9.9%
8.4%
6.8%
6.0% 5.8% 5.3% 4.8%
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

4
Figure 1. Comparison of national the status dropout rates for African American and
White high school students. Data from National Center for Education Statistics, 2010,
Public School Graduates and Dropouts from the Common Core of Data: School Year
2007–08: First Look, by R. Stillwell.
States. The national trend of comparative under-achievement of African
American students is mirrored in the low freshman graduation rates recorded in the states
of Mississippi, Louisiana, North Carolina, Georgia, and Maryland. These states contain
the largest African American population in the United States. Mississippi accounts for
36.6 % of African Americans, Louisiana 32%, North Carolina 29.9%, Georgia 29%, and
Maryland 28.8%. In these states, the freshman graduation rates for African Americans
high school students are 60.5%, 53.3%, 61.9%, 57.4%, and 73.0 % respectively (NCES,
2010b). The relatively low freshman graduation rates of African American students in
these significant African American enclaves echo the national trend, and highlight the
need for targeted intervention as a national policy.
Cities. The five largest cities in the nation, consisting of New York City, New
York; Los Angeles, California; Chicago, Illinois; Houston, Texas; and Phoenix, Arizona,
also have record low graduation rates for African American students. In these cities, the
freshman dropout rates for African American students are recorded in the United States
Census data of 2007-2008 as 39%, 42.6%, 38.5%, 34.3%, and 23.1% respectively
(NCES, 2010b). The problem of African American students who have levels of
achievement below the standard is prominent wherever significant numbers of the
demographic are found. The nation’s education system is in crisis as every year across
America, nearly 33% of African American students can be classified as dropouts after
5
four years of high school (NCES, 2010b). The greater crisis however, is the inability of
America, a nation of global prominence (Bernazzoli, 2010), to correct the situation that
results in so many African American students not meeting the requirements for high
school graduation.
A constituent part of the predicament is that neither educational policies of the
past, A Nation at Risk and the Standards Movement, nor the current NCLB and its
standardized testing system, have been able to arrest the persistent gap. Imprecise
assessment of the need of the demographic and an inaccurate definition of the problem
may be compounding the situation. Within these parameters, the generation of reform
policies that are ineffective in rousing students of the African American community
toward academic success, will continue.
A close appraisal of African American demographics could help determine the
policy options that would best meet the educational needs of the stakeholder group.
Immigrants represent a significant constituent of the general African American
population (Population Reference Bureau, 2010). Theorists Kao and Tienda (1995),
Zhou (2006), and Pong, Hao, and Gardner (2005) found that Americans with immigrant
backgrounds fare better in school relative to their American peers. An NCES (2007)
report declared Black foreign born 16 to 24 year olds had lower dropout rates than their
locally born counterparts. Given the findings of these sources, focusing on African
American immigrants may potentially lead to a determination of what can catalyze the
achievement of the wider population of African American students. Garnered outcomes
can be instructive in addressing the under-achievement of African American students.

6
A focus on immigrant generations is also justified because increasing flows of
immigrants into the country continues to affect the dynamics of the U.S. population
significantly. Between 1990 and 2010, the number of foreign born immigrants doubled;
rising from twenty million to forty million increasing the U.S. population by 33%
(Population Reference Bureau, 2010). By 2003, about 14% of high school students were
born in America of immigrant parents (Fry, 2007). Data from The Urban Institute (2012)
specify 16.4 million children in the U.S. had at least one immigrant parent. The report
also indicated in 2008 26% of 13-15 year olds were immigrants. A significant number of
these immigrants were likely African Americans who, in 2010, were numbered among a
population of 43.9 million African Americans in the United States (U.S. Census Bureau,
2012a). In this context, the focus on immigrant African American students is justified.
Statement of the Problem
The general problem is nationwide, African American high school students are
graduating at unacceptably low rates and are dropping out of school in large numbers.
Left unaddressed, the problem could potentially result in future collective economic
disempowerment of the ethnic group and negatively affect the nation as a whole. Given
the gravity of the situation, taking the role of a peripheral observer, accepting a
reductionist destiny for any ethnic group as the status-quo would be an unethical position
to take. The need for engagement for the accuracy of assumptions of causality is critical
to the success of intervention programs (Posavac & Carey, 2007). The section provides a
framework of knowledge for reflection and effective assessment of the critical nature of
the problem.
7
The national problem is reflected in the situation in New York City. The New
York City Department of Education (NYC DOE), which controls the largest system of
public schools in the United States, indicated that nearly 15% of the 25,560 African
American students in the class of 2007 dropped out of high school (NYC DOE, 2007).
By contrast, less than 10% of Whites and Asians of the class of 2007 dropped out of
school. The data revealed that 50% of the 2007 cohort of African Americans had
graduated from high school on time, compared to 80% of Whites and Asians. Almost
30% of African American students of the class of 2007 were still in school when it was
time to graduate, compared to 12.3% of White students and 8% of Asian students. See
Figure 2.
Class 2007: Graduation Outcomes by

Ethnicity
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
Graduation Rates
40%
Retention Rates
30%
20%
10%
0%
African Americans Whites Asians
Figure 2. Ethnic comparisons of graduation outcomes for class of 2007. Data from New
York City Department of Education, Statistical Summary of Borough Enrollment, 2012.
The nation cannot afford to ignore the problem of African American high school
academic status. In 2008, the average income for a dropout was $23,000 as opposed to
$42,000 for a high school graduate (NCES, 2011b). As adults, students who fail to
complete high school are likely to depend on welfare, to be unemployed, or employed in

8
low status jobs. The research also indicates, as adults, dropouts have unstable marriages
and end up in prisons (Zhang et al., 2007). For fiscal year 2008, the federal government
allocated almost $573 million to finance training programs for high school dropouts
(Tyler & Lofstrom, 2009). The dropout problem, therefore, has severe economic and
social consequences for the nation.
Educators, researchers, and policy makers, urgently need to find solutions to the
unremitting dilemma due to the tremendous social and economic costs. A quantitative,
correlational explanatory study was conducted to determine possible variables that may
influence the academic status of the African American high school students thus putting
them on target for graduation. The study isolated for purposes of analysis three
generations of African American immigrant students in the graduating cohort of 2012.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the quantitative, correlational explanatory inquiry was to
investigate and explain probable associations between generational immigrant stage and
the achievement status of African American students as measured by high school credits
that puts them on target for graduation. In the study, immigrant generations were
articulated in delineations of first, second, and third generations. First generation African
American students and their parents were born outside of the U.S. Second generation
students, but not both their parents, were born in the U.S.. By the third generation, both
the students and their parents were born in the United States (Fugilni, 1997; Kao &
Tienda, 1995; Pong, Hao, & Gardner, 2005). Students of each generation will mostly
include students from Caribbean countries Haiti, Jamaica, Trinidad, and Tobago and from
African countries as Nigeria, Ghana, Ethiopia, and Somalia as explained in Chapter 2.

9
The aim of the investigation was to seek for possible relationships between the
dependent variable of achievement status and the independent variable of generational
immigrant stage that put African American students on target for graduation. In the
process, generational immigrant stage was weighted in terms of the sub-variables of
foreign culturally influenced parental style, ethnic capital, and students’ perceptions of
self-efficacy. Referencing five high schools in NYC, an assessment of the academic
outcomes of generational immigrant students, relative to those of African American-
native students was analyzed. Data obtained from 12th graders in the five high schools
were analyzed using correlational inferential statistics in order to find possible
relationships that may account for variations in academic outcomes among African
American generational immigrant students.
Significance of the Problem
Significance of the study. Outcomes from the study may contribute to existing
scholarship in the area of the education of dissimilar populations. Educators and other
stakeholders may glean information from the investigation that may promote a better
understanding of the needs of African American and other minority students. Findings
may contribute to a culturally varied knowledge base upon which educators can draw to
facilitate the academic achievement among multiethnic or multicultural student
populations (Brown, 2007). Such knowledge may be used in colleges to train teachers in
the development of a culturally responsive pedagogy for use in environments of diversity.
A culturally responsive educator will ensure greater congruence between student home
culture and the culture in which learning occurs, as educators of this ilk recognize that
culture influences student learning outcomes (Brown, 2007). From findings on the
10
valued foreign culturally influenced parental style, knowledge may be provided that can
contribute to the development of a sensitivity model that will inform the training of
teachers for the education of African American and other minority students.
Significance of the study to leadership. A shift from generic leadership
competencies to more context based leadership competencies may be realized by
education supervisors and may be evidenced by diversity in curriculum and management
of operations (Rayner, 2009). Leaders may begin to view diversity as an asset rather than
a liability as a result of the critical reflection that the study’s findings might motivate in
these leaders. The paradigm shift so occasioned, will influence leaders to build a culture
of inclusion and to promote policies aimed at empowering the marginalized by raising
their critical awareness (Egbo, 2008). Discoveries arising from the operations of ethnic
networks may empower transformational leaders to initiate and nurture community
partnerships and establish coalitions with community leaders to add value to the lives of
students. The results from the study may add to the knowledge of socio-cultural
behaviors to facilitate better relations between homes and schools to directly impact
student achievement. Reform programs may be initiated or policy adjustments made
based on the fresh perspectives that will emanate from findings, as to how to leverage the
culture of students of diverse background, to catalyze their success in education
institutions.
Nature of the Study
Overview of the research method. The method of choice to conduct the study
was the quantitative method as it is more appropriate than a qualitative method given the
nature of the study. Researchers use qualitative methods to explore problems about
11
which little is known (Creswell, 2005). Because studies have been done on the particular
topic, a qualitative approach was not appropriate. The congruence between the aim of the
study and quantitative research’s orientation toward a description of trends and
explanation of relationships between variables made a quantitative approach the more
appropriate approach (Creswell, 2005). A quantitative method was more appropriate as
the method lends itself to impartiality which was needed for the generalizability of
results, as opposed to a qualitative method (Creswell, 2005).
Overview of the design appropriateness. In conducting an investigation of the
study’s research problem, the aim was to explain the relationship between the variables of
generational immigrants and the achievement status of African American students. A
quantitative study expedited the process by reducing the study to specific questions and
by allowing for statistical investigation of variables, based on data collected and analyzed
(Creswell, 2005). Because of the explanatory nature of the problem, the issue is best
studied using a quantitative approach (Creswell, 2005). The investigation took the form
of a quantitative correlation explanatory study. A correlation design was appropriate for
the study as the aim was to establish relationships that correlate and correlational designs
facilitate the purpose. A correlational explanatory design was employed for the study due
to its capacity to facilitate the explanation of relationships among variables which is the
major purpose of the study (Creswell, 2005).
Data collection. To collect data for the study, the investigation targeted the
population of African American students in five public high schools in New York City.
For the investigation, data were gathered from convenient samples of the target
population. The study consisted of a sample of 273 students who are African American
12
immigrants of first generation, second generation, and third generation and beyond from
each of the five schools. Student surveys provided the necessary data for the study. See
Appendix F.
Analysis of data. A statistical analysis of collected data allowed for the
description of trends and the comparison of generational group differences, as
connections were made between the different levels of independent variables with the
dependent variable. Comparing predictions of the study to past research findings
provided a basis for the interpretation of the results of the study (Creswell, 2005). Both
descriptive and inferential statistics were employed in an analysis of the data. A
summary of the results are explained in Chapter 4.
Instrument. The examination of student data was required in order to determine
if there was any correlation between generational immigrants and the achievement status
of African American high school students. Data were retrieved from the students via
surveys. A review of the generational studies, other empirical theoretical studies, and
measurement literature informed the design of the survey instrument. The design of the
survey instrument was similar to instruments used by other researchers in the genre,
which should be evidence of its credibility and worth (Creswell, 2005). Information
relative to the validity and reliability of the instrument are located in Chapter 3 of the
study.
Research Questions and Hypotheses
The study was a quantitative study, which imbued the enquiry with the capacity to
measure the impact of variables on the outcomes (Creswell, 2005). A correlational
explanatory design analysis allowed for the explanation of the relationship between the
13
independent variable (IV) of generational immigrant stage and dependent variable (DV)
achievement status of African American students. In order to comply with the demands
of the purposes of the study, the dependent variable and the independent variable were
analyzed for covariance. The independent variable was accounted for in terms of
generational immigrant status, foreign culturally influenced parental style, ethnic capital,
and perceived self-efficacy. The dependent variable was accounted for in terms of
academic status measured in high school credits. Possible influence of each independent
variable on the on the dependent variable was determined.
Research questions. Research questions were developed to initiate the process
of data collection for analysis. The questions functioned as gauges of the kinds of data to
be collected and statistically analyzed to make determinations of correlations between the
variables. Each research question identified an independent variable or sub-variable that
needed to be investigated (Cone & Foster, 2006) in relation to the dependent variable.
RQ1: What is the relationship between generational immigrant stage and
achievement status, as defined by high school credits, of African American immigrant
students?
RQ2: To what extent does foreign culturally influenced parental style affect the
students?
RQ3: What is the relationship between ethnic capital and the achievement status,
as defined by high school credits, of African American immigrant students?

14
RQ4: What is the relationship between African American students’ self-efficacy
perceptions and the achievement status, as defined by credits, of African American
immigrant students?
Hypotheses. Hypotheses are suppositions about the relationships between
variables (Cone & Foster, 2006). Following the quantitative research paradigm, four
hypotheses were developed based on the research questions (Cone & Foster, 2006). The
following null (H0) and alternative (Ha) hypotheses were used in the study.
H10: Generational immigrant stage is not related to the achievement status, as
defined by high school credits of African American immigrant students.
H1a: Generational immigrant phase is related to the achievement status, as defined
by high school credits, of African American immigrant students.
H20: Exposure to foreign culturally influenced parental style has no effect on the
achievement status, as defined by high school credits of African American immigrant
students.
H2a: Exposure to foreign culturally influenced parental style has an effect on the
students.
H30: Ethnic capital has no effect on the achievement status, as defined by high
school credits, of African American immigrant students
H3a: Ethnic capital has an effect on the achievement status, as defined by high
school credits, of African American immigrant students

15
H40: There is no relationship between African American immigrant students’
perceptions of self–efficacy and their achievement status, as defined by high school
credits.
H4a: There is a relationship between African American immigrant students’
credits.
Theoretical Framework
Albert Bandura’s (1971) social learning theory. Theories of motivation and
learning provide an interpretive framework for analyzing the academic behaviors and
outcomes of the African American students under study. Seminal theorist Albert
Bandura’s (1971) Social Learning Theory proffers adequate conceptualizations of the
motivations, demotivations, and behaviors that may account for the present complex
phenomenon of academic underachievement of African American students.
Bandura’s Social Learning Theory’s self-efficacy hypothesis is significant as it
explains performance in terms of one’s belief that one has the ability to complete given
tasks successfully, as opposed to one’s ability to complete the task (Bandura, Adams, &
Beyer, 1977). Proficiency in performance is thus inseparable from a learner’s self-
efficacy beliefs. The construct holds the potential to enlighten African American student
educational results. Self–efficacy beliefs mediate between cognitive and motivational
processes to directly influence academic functioning (Bandura, Caprara, Barbaranelli,
Gerbino, & Pastorelli, 1996). Self-efficacy beliefs may be pertinent to an understanding
of African American students as these beliefs influence a learners’ ability to self-regulate
for academic achievement. Bandura et al., (1996) also articulated that self-efficacy
16
influences the effort learners expend on tasks, persistence on puzzling tasks and choices
made at crucial moments like on standardized tests.
Vicarious experiences. Students’ self- efficacy beliefs are not divorced from the
social relations in which they are embedded; rather the beliefs take shape within certain
socio-cultural contexts. In western individualist oriented cultures self- beliefs reference
the private self. Within collectivist oriented cultures from which African Americans
originated, self -beliefs reference the collective self (Williams & Williams, 2010). In the
context, the individuals’ sense of efficacy references the collective group efficacy. The
process resonates with Bandura’s (1971) construct of learning through vicarious
experiences. African American students’ predilection for certain academic self-efficacy
beliefs and hence attitudes towards school may be acquired vicariously from behaviors
modeled by certain group members.
Modeling. Bandura (1971) used the construct of modeling to explain that
students may imitate behaviors of similar others. The modeled behaviors serve to
demonstrate new patterns of behavior or serve to strengthen or weaken a learner’s resolve
to perform a particular behavior (Bandura, 1971; Bandura, Adams, & Beyer, 1977). The
information may explain African American immigrant students’ decline in academic
achievement with immigrant generational maturity and continued assimilation into
marginalized communities.
Observation and reinforcement. Bandura et al., (1996) theorized that observing
similar individuals perform successfully can increase one’s self–efficacy estimates.
Successful experiences or mastery reinforces feelings of self-efficacy while repeated
failure lowers such perceptions (Bandura, 1977; Bong & Skaalvik, 2003). For African
17
American immigrants, migration to demographics of limited ethnic capital, as evidenced
in a dirge in role models, lowers their self-efficacy judgments. Successful performers or
achievers who may motivate high levels of efficacy appraisals in these students migrate
to better neighborhoods.
Weiner’s attribution theory. Attribution theories explain how past experiences
shape future behavior. Perceived causes of prior events determine future behaviors.
Weiner’s (2010) construct of phenomenal causality explains positive or negative
motivations for behaviors are based on one’s perceptions as to why one was rewarded or
punished for a given action. If phenomenal causality is attributed to something that is
unchanging, expectations of future failure are present in feelings of hopelessness. This
may result in decrements in expectations and in goals and performance (Weiner, 2010).
Definition of Terms
Acculturation. Berry, Phinney, Sam, and Vedder (2006) referencing Berry (2003),
defined acculturation as the change that occurs within an individual, following
intercultural interaction. Berry et al., (2006) suggested that immigrants acculturate in
four ways:
Assimilation. Assimilation occurs when individuals prefer to merge into the
general culture of the larger society and has little interest in maintaining former cultural
models of interaction (Berry et al., 2006).
Integration. Integration seeks to amalgamate culturally maintained modes of
operation with cultural involvement with the larger society (Berry et al., 2006). Schwartz
et al. (2007) referred to the phenomenon as biculturalism. Biculturalism suggests

18
adopting and receiving ideals and behaviors of the host culture while retaining cultural
ideals and behaviors (Schwartz, et al., 2007).
Separation. Separation is the choice of cultural maintenance over involvement
with others (Berry et al., 2006).
Marginalization. Schwartz et al., (2007) explained marginalization as a situation,
in which an individual neither retains the heritage culture, nor adopts the receiving
culture.
Achievement status or on track for graduation. Achievement status is defined as
being positioned to be awarded, at minimum, a local high school diploma. In the New
York State, 44 high school credits are needed for graduation (NYC DOE, 2011). A
minimum of 11 credits should be obtained each year with the aforementioned education
expectations. For purposes of the study, a student was considered to be on track for
graduating from high school if towards the end of the 12th grade that student is in
possession of 40 of the 44 required credits.
Freshmen graduates. Students who, having entered high school in the ninth
grade, graduated with a regular diploma after four years (NCES, 2010).
Ethnic network. The term refers to individuals with a common ethnic
background, culture, and language who are, located in a proximal geographical area. The
ethnic network may provide guidance and support for cultural values, or support of a
psychological and financial nature (Cardack & McDonald, 2004).
Ethnic capital. Ethnic capital refers to the net skills and income (SES) of the
ethnic group of the parental generation inclusive of the income and skills of the parents
(Borjas, 1995).
19
Foreign culturally informed parental style. Within the configuration of foreign
culturally informed parental style parents transmit values of immigrant optimism, pro-
academic valuing to their children. Parents who also monitor their children’s education
and supervise them by strict enforcement of rules, demanding obedience are
encompassed in the definition. Foreign culturally influenced parental style is also
characterized by making sacrifices for children, unilateral decision-making and the
promotion of respect for authority (Pong, Hao, & Gardner, 2005). In the study, it is the
equivalent of authoritarian parenting as practiced in collectivist oriented societies, an
extensive explanation of which is found in the literature review.
Generational immigrant status. In immigrant literature, first generation African
American students and their parents are born outside of the U.S. Second generation
students are students, who are born in the United States (U.S.) along with one parent.
Third generation students, along with their parents, were born in the United States (Kao
& Tienda, 1995; Pong, Hao, & Gardner, 2005).
Parenting style. A psychological construct comprised of strategies parents use in
raising their children. Parenting style is characterized by certain practices a parent
believes work to influence their children’s behaviors (Kordi & Bhanduri, 2010).
Assumptions
A basic assumption of the study is that survey questions were honestly answered.
The assumption was made since the pressure of having their information publicly viewed
was removed from students. Students were also assured that responses would be viewed
anonymously. Anonymity was reiterated in the consent forms (see Appendices B, C, and
D). The tendency for honesty of responses was promoted as a connection and established
20
with students in the provision of the investigator’s name, affiliated organization, and a
brief outline of the purpose of the study. A better understanding of the context of the
project facilitates more truthful responses (Cooper & Schindler, 2006).
Consent granted was deemed to be genuine for, having explained the purpose and
value of the study as objectively as possible, it was made clear that participation was
voluntary and that they could withdraw from the study at any time. Some students opted
not to participate. A personal email for contacting the project leader for purposes of
withdrawal, even after the survey was completed, was also provided. There were also no
financial inducements to coerce participation. Another assumption entails that the
attitudes formed by participants were not influenced through participation, as each
student established a personal space independent of each other for the completion of the
surveys as directed.
An assumption was made that any bias held by the research team, regardless of
legitimacy, did not impact the outcome of the study. Personal biases were not expressed
and students completed the questionnaire unaided by the research team who remained
inconspicuous throughout the process. Outcomes of the study were scientifically
determined by statistical analysis and were not influenced by researcher biases.
Another assumption is that the data collected from the sample accurately reflected
population characteristics and were valid and reliable. Demographic data provided by
participants were carefully scrutinized to ensure the final sample reflected the legitimate
characteristics of the population to be studied (See Appendix F). For validity of findings,
sample size was determined by power analysis. There was an 80% probability that 88
participants were sufficient to find a statistical relationship (effect size of .15) between
21
variables where alpha = .05. (Faul, Erdfelder, Lang, & Buchner, 2007). The final sample
consisted of 273 participants.
A final supposition is New York was fertile ground for conducting the study as
the state has the largest African American population (3.5 million in 2008). African
American population consists of descendants of voluntary and involuntary migration
augmented by continuous flows of migration (Census data, 2009). By 2010 New York
State had the largest foreign born African population after California (Immigration Policy
Center, n.d.). With 10.2% of New York’s population being foreign born, New York was
assumed to be well positioned for an investigation of the dynamics associated with
African American achievement differentials at various generational stages (U.S. Census
Bureau, 2010).
Scope and Limitations
Scope. The scope of the study is established in the identification of issues that are
not a part of the research question by forming boundaries to separate connecting issues
from the primary objective of the study (Cooper & Schindler, 2006). The research was
restricted to African American high school students currently residing in the United
States of America where the problem was identified, as opposed to African American
students residing outside of the United States studying abroad. Study participants were
students in public high school to the exclusion of private high school students since the
study was motivated by the problem of high dropout rates of African American public
high school students.
Participants were inclusive of students of African descent, whether or not they
were voluntary immigrants themselves or descendants of voluntary or involuntary

22
immigrants. Descendants of involuntary immigrants are identified in the study among
3rd generation African American-native students which included 3rd generation and
beyond African American-native students. Within the scope of the quantitative
correlational study, variables of causation could not be established. The use of a
correlational procedure limited the analysis of the study’s findings to identification of
relationships between the dependent variable of African American academic achievement
and the independent variable of immigrant generational stage and its sub-variables.
Limitations. Limitations are the acknowledged possibility for weaknesses or
problems in a given study (Creswell, 2005). Limitations are usually in the areas of data
collection and data analysis. Identifiable limitations in the study were primarily in
measures of variables, sample composition, sample size, and errors in measurement.
Within the parameters of the research, data collection was limited to demographics of
African American population in public high schools. The focus of the study was on five
public high schools in New York to the exclusion of other schools. Generalizability of
results to other schools or to other African American student populations may thus be
affected as findings may only reflect the characteristics of the populations in the survey.
Given the nature of the study, random sampling was not practical, as in a true
experiment, since it might not have yielded a sufficient number of participants. Although
not as rigorous as bona fide experiments, the quasi experimental study employed yielded
valuable information to address the research questions and hypotheses (Creswell, 2005).
The use of non-probability convenience sampling typical of quasi experimental studies
may have compromised the ability to generalize the study’s findings of co-relationships.
Sampling a large portion of the intended population reduces sampling error characteristic
23
of convenience sampling, the difference between sample estimates and estimates of the
total population (Creswell, 2005). A sufficiently large sample of the intended population
(273 respondents) was obtained which reduced the probability of differences between the
sample estimates and estimates of the true population, and increased the capacity for
generalization of findings.
Operationalizing variables as obtained in the study may potentially shadow the
reliability of the scores generated to test relationships among the variables (Cone &
Foster, 2001). Reliability analyses run determined the scores elicited by the three
operationalized independent variables (Parental Style, Ethnic Network, and Self-efficacy)
were sufficiently reliable (see Chapter 4). One limitation outside of the study’s control
was dispassionate respondents may have given inaccurate responses to survey questions.
Delimitations
Delimitations in research are those constructs or variables that were not
incorporated into the study (Ellis & Levy, 2008). The research was confined to15-19
year- old African American 12th grade students that were currently in high school as
opposed to students who had dropped out of school. The study was limited to five
schools because of the constraints of time and cost. The high concentrations of African
American students of varied socio-economic (SES) designations of which the
participating schools consist adequately compensated for limitation in the number of
participating schools.
Geographically, four of five of the public high schools in the study were located
in one borough in New York City because of time constrictions and multiple school
agendas associated with the end of the school year when the survey was distributed.
24
Since the focus was on the graduation rates of African American students, all non-
African American student respondents were rejected from the final sample. A
researcher-imposed delimitation was respondents could withdraw from the study or
refuse to complete the survey at any point although this affected the number of
respondents from which to gather data.
Chapter Summary
African American high school students are dropping out of school at higher rates
than their White peers (NCES, 2010b). Low freshmen graduation rates are also
indicative of the group of students are not meeting the standards. The need for research
was established in the chapter in order to address the issue of the consistent
underachievement of African American high school students. The articulated
background of the problem demonstrated that the underachievement of African American
students was apparent in all major cities and states where there were high concentrations
of African Americans. The intensity, extent, and the highlighted consequences of the
problem, along with the purpose of the study, made the need for the study justifiable. In
Chapter 1, allusions to the relatively positive academic fate of similar immigrants of
different ethnicities provided a rationale for the focus on the immigrant subgroup. The
quantitative correlational explanatory design inquiry which was used to investigate a
possible existing relationship between the independent variable, the independent sub-
variables, and the dependent variable was also introduced in the chapter. Inclusive to the
chapter, are research questions and hypotheses that guide the study, and theories that may
account for graduation oriented and or dropout behaviors. Conducting research to
address the issue is important as the findings may assist policy makers in developing
25
policies that can help to counter the present trend of academic underachievement of
African American high school students.

26
Chapter 2: Review of the Literature
The aim of the study was to determine whether or not a relationship existed
between the independent variable of generational immigrant stage, independent sub-
variables; foreign culturally influenced parenting style, ethnic capital, and immigrant
student perceived self- efficacy; and the dependent variable of African American
achievement status rates. In Chapter 1, the background of the problem and the
significance of the study along with the need for the study were presented. Chapter 2
further expedited the study’s purpose by presenting a comprehensive historical analysis
of empirical and theoretical studies associated with the independent variable, sub-
variables and dependent variable. The resultant extensive literature review presented for
appraisal referential contexts for fundamental intuitions against which conjectures were
made about the dependent variable; African American achievement.
Chapter 2 provides for analysis, a summative snapshot of the history of African
American education, an overview of studies on the achievement gap and of current
reform efforts. Inclusive to Chapter 2’s historical analysis is an appraisal of scholarship
on immigrant education outcomes that became the platform for the study’s independent
variable. An engagement with the literature not only gave focus to and guided the study
but findings and inferences drawn informed the discourse of which the chapter consists.
In the argument that ensued, the independent variables and sub variables were assessed as
valid constructs worthy of investigation for their possible influence on the academic
achievement of this group.

27
Title Searches, Articles, Research Documents, and Journals
Peer reviewed journal articles, newspapers, dissertations, books, published
research documents and government websites were accessed to locate literature to
structure the study, inclusive to the literature review. The preliminary search netted
approximately 300 documents, two thirds of which were worthy of evaluation beyond a
perfunctory level. The proposal cites 120 of those documents. Databases used were Eric,
Google Scholar, Google Books, ProQuest and EBSCOhost. Other databases used were
NY State Department, National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Department of
Education, and the U.S. Census Department databases.
The key words used to research the topic were; immigrant parents, immigrant and
education, cultural orientation, immigrant students, academic achievement, parental
styles, ethnic capital, African American education, achievement gap, No Child Left
Behind, voucher school choice, policy making, standardized testing, high school dropout
rates and student achievement. The key words were essential to locate information to
develop a historical perspective, review current findings, and identify gaps in the
literature.
A Historical Perspective of African American Education
Genesis in deficits. To fully conceptualize the issue of African American
academic underachievement of necessity, one must analyze the issue in its historical
framework. An appraisal of history will foster an appreciation that people are hostages of
history. The following brief overview will raise an understanding of the shaping effects
of history on education decision making and hence on the context in which education
reform is enacted.
28
African American education emerged in late 19th century and early 20th century;
a period of pervasive biological racism. In the context, the dominant culture assumed
African American inferiority and questioned their intellectual capacity (Mohr, 2009). A
template of deficiency was thus foundational to African American education. Birthed in
a long history of low expectations and diminished resources (Rucker & Jubilee, 2007),
African American education, when it emerged, re-configured American education system
into a symbiotic dual caste system. The symbiotic system situated African Americans in
the caste of the disadvantaged.
The immigrant heritage. Immigrants enter into an educational arrangement put
into place by an inviolable operational caste system in which academic failure will most
likely become their inheritance. Immigrant African Americans, like their native
counterparts, succumb to the caste conscription, become dropouts, or underachieve, or
resist such conscriptions. African American immigrants may choose to even the score by
outscoring their white counterparts on standardized tests, similar to their earlier peers in
South Carolina high schools in the 1930s and 1940s (Mohr, 2009). Comparable to their
earlier peers in these high schools, many immigrants have managed to score on or above
the national norm on IQ tests (Donnelly, 2009).
The achievement gap. African American educational achievement differentials
are articulated in terms of an achievement gap. A deconstruction of the concept
achievement gap would reveal that it is merely a diffuse term used for political
expediency. Such rhetoric is indicative of the pseudo engagement of politicians with
disparity in achievement between Black and White students. Beneath the façade of an
achievement gap lie the inequities endemic in society and replicated in its education
29
system. While contrived ignorance may prevent the suicide of political careers,
consequent artificial assignations will authenticate inequality of access toward
educational competencies, and propagate the disparity of achievement. The focused
analysis that follows will explain the true nature of the gap and the impact of the concept
of the gap on African American student achievement outcomes. A perceptive analysis
will also establish the invalidity of inferences drawn from such measures of African
American student outcomes.
The term achievement gap politicizes the underachievement of African American
students in the public school system while deflecting attention away from the underlying
issues. The absurdity of the construct becomes apparent when one recognizes the
contributory inequities that continue to shroud geographies of African American
neighborhoods. Disproportionate inter-generational poverty, and other socio-political
complications arising from a legacy of slavery continue to militate against equity of
context and hence of achievement among demographics of African American students
(Graft, 2011). The rhetoric of an achievement gap extends the hegemonizing of African
Americans, attributed to a legacy of slavery, racial segregation, and disenfranchisement
(Graft, 2011). The annihilation of hope and dampening of ambition that may result from
the rhetoric may exacerbate existing disparity in achievement between African American
students and their White peers. Acknowledging and dismantling these institutionalized
injustices should be the focus of politicians who are passionate about promoting a
competent American citizenry.
Stereotype threat. More accurate vocabularies than the current partisan
delineations of an achievement gap must therefore enter the discourse of African

30
American student academic outcomes. Insensitive coinage of terms to articulate African
American student achievement may be subversively negative to the minority group to the
extent of activating a stereotype threat. The publicized notion of an achievement gap
may shift the direction of student performance on stereotyped relevant tasks - the
standardized tests, as students may surrender to notion so enacted (Armenta, 2010).
Students may also shift to self-define as belonging to a caste of the academically
incompetent, with obvious consequences for their academic self-concept. This method of
stereotyping may thwart students’ attempts to rise above the legacy of identity shame
arising from the community’s remembered trauma of slavery and its reminders of
segregation and discrimination. Some students may use defensive coping strategies of
irrational disassociations to mask the pain, as poor behavior or seeming disinterest in
school work (Graft, 2011). Such dissociations will be incompatible with strategies
needed for successful school outcomes (Graft, 2011). Activating the stereotype threat
may thus function to lower student academic expectations and corrode high school
graduation prospects in the long term. The language in which messages are streamed
from institutions of power to individuals in disenfranchised communities must convey to
them a genuine sense of entitlement to positions of privilege. Policy makers must begin
to confront the histories and social conditions that steer policy to a range of
predetermined ineffective options (Vavus & Seghers, 2010).
Psychic freezing. A stereotype threat may be become so malignant as to trigger
behaviors that can only be explained as function of psychic freezing. Theorists Turan
and Gutton (2010) used the construct of psychic freezing to explain the phenomenon that
occurs when in conditions of war prisoners make little effort to free themselves even
31
when probable opportunities were present. Some African American students may be held
captive by a confluence of factors arising from generations of discrimination that
continuously activate and reinforce stereotype induced behaviors (Neblett, Chavous,
Nguyên, & Sellers, 2009). The students may be aware that failure may result from
performance avoidance, yet may be afflicted by a kind of paralysis in which they
cooperate with powerful stereotypes to their academic demise. Bombardment with the
concept of an achievement gap may exacerbate psychic freezing in some African
American students thus promoting further under-achievement of the group. Weiner
(2010) described the phenomenon in terms of attribution, the result of which may be
decrements in expectations and in goals and performance.
Standardized tests. Standardized test results on which the achievement gap is
measured may be of questionable validity. Learning and performance are not the same.
Standardized test measures of African American learning outcomes therefore may not be
a reflection of ability for learning. Outcomes of standardized testing may be read as
accounts of lowered self-efficacy beliefs of African American students triggered by
stereotype threats (Schweinle & Mims, 2009). Efficacy of the positively stereotyped
group, Whites in this instance, will receive a stereotype boost as their performances will
shift towards the area of positive comparison, as they are enabled to perform by
downward comparisons (Deaux, Bikmen, Gilkes, Ventuneac, Joseph, Payne, & Steele,
2007). Test results, which update the status of the achievement gap, should be regarded
with reservations as they may not be representative of the ability of the students.
African Americans and other minorities constitute 90% of the population of the
poorest cities in the United States (Lee & Malay, 2007). Horizontal and vertical
32
inequities exist as there is not equal expenditure on resources. Economically more well
off students obtain quality education as opposed to the poor who are educated in
underfunded and ill equipped schools. Darling-Hammond (2007) referred to issues such
as class size, school funding, teacher quality, availability of books, which are issues faced
by many schools with 90% minority populations. Schweinle and Mims (2009) explained
that scarcer resources and unequal education delivered to African American students may
be reflected in the lower performance of students on academic tests. Test results, which
update the status of the achievement gap, may thus be analyzed as the failure of
legislative policies to address persistent intergenerational poverty and of an educational
system that continues to propagate the vertical and horizontal inequities that peripheralize
African American education.
The accuracy and trustworthiness of inferences made on the basis of standardized
test scores obtained from assessment of African American students may be of
questionable validity because several extraneous variables may be accounted for in the
test scores (Macmillan, 2008). The extraneous variables constitute an influence which
threatens the internal validity of test outcomes. The reliability of standardized testing
instruments is similarly compromised as the instruments do not measure what they are
supposed to measure which is the ability of African American students.
Explanations of African American students’ under-achievement need to move
beyond narrow biological conscriptions of race. Reform efforts should focus on
addressing the social, economic and other structural variables that are associated with the
educational underachievement African American students. Refusal to acknowledge and

33
address these issues will allow for the propagation of spurious views of this vulnerable
group of students as antagonists in narratives of educational accomplishment.
Inadequacy of Education Reform Efforts
No Child Left Behind Act. The No Child Left Behind (NCLB) legislation is the
current reform effort to address the disparity in achievement between White and minority
students. Like previous approaches to education reform, NCLB policies have proven to
be inadequate to bridge the education divide between Whites and African American and
other minority students. NCLB is also ineffective in significantly changing the academic
fortunes of African American and other disadvantaged minority groups (Darling-
Hammond, 2007). Under NCLB, schools face punitive sanctions if the schools fail to
meet NCLBs annual yearly requirement (AYR) for all demographics. Under pressure to
raise test scores, some schools resort to unethical practices that may compromise the
academic results of the students (Darling-Hammond, 2007). To show better test scores
schools sometimes may not account for certain subgroups (like African American
students) or may retain students on grade, thus contributing to minority dropout rates
(Darling-Hammond, 2007).
NCLB unwittingly sabotages outcomes of African American students and other
minority groups it is designed to help. NCLB mandates spawn practices that
inadvertently harm the very demographics the act intends to help. The impact of NCLB
on African American students is pertinently summed up in Campbell’s law which
explains “quantitative social indicators used for decision tend to be susceptible to
corruption” (Nichols & Berliner, 2008, p. 42). Standardized tests are the tools that NCLB
uses to ensure equity of educational experiences for all demographics, but schools find
34
ways of circumventing the NCLB requirements (Darling-Hammond, 2007). In the
pursuit of equity, Murphy (2009) advised that policy makers can initiate legislation that
disproportionally favors the disadvantaged group. NCLB’s policies facilitate the singling
out of disadvantaged groups for disproportionate disfavor when it designates schools that
serve these populations as failing schools.
The apparent failure of NCLB to transform the academic outcomes of the students
may be indicative of inaccurate problem analysis. Michel and Rothstein (2007)
suggested that accuracy of problem analysis is a prerequisite for effective intervention.
From a different perspective, through NCLB, society’s power brokers may be subtly
mobilizing biases so the meaningful participation of certain groups, in this case African
Americans, in successful education experiences, is limited (Fowler, 2009).
The Dependent Variable: Achievement Status
Following the appraisal of referential contexts for fundamental intuitions against
which conjectures are made about African American achievement, it is logical to
progress to a description of the dependent variable. A review of empirical studies
indicates many factors affect students’ achievement status which puts them on track for
graduating or dropping out from high school. Some of these factors are generic across the
board while other factors may be particular to certain groups given the social context of
those groups. The section presents factors that bear special relevance to African
American students achieving or dropping out of high school.
Segregation. In accounting for students who are not on track for graduation and
with the possible consequence of dropping out of African American high school students,
researchers have advanced several explanations. Theorist Guryan (2004) is among them
35
is who advocated a segregation theory. Guryan (2004) reported that in the 1970s African
American dropout rates declined with desegregation but increased again with re-
segregation in the 1990s. Horsford, (2010) argued for segregated schools. Horsford
(2010) contends that the cultural affirmation and community support available in ‘good
black schools’ in the pre-Brown era, would promote African American achievement.
Storer, Meinko, Chang, Kang, Miyawaki, and Shultz (2012) advanced the segregation
theory and explained associations between spatial stratification and graduation rates of
African American students. Storer et al (2012) proffered academic results of African
American students in segregated schools are less favorable than the results of their White
peers.
Theorists Goza & Ryabov (2009) supported the anti-segregation hypothesis. In a
study on the importance of heterogeneous peer networks, Goza and Ryabov (2009) found
African American students who associated with varied racial and ethnic networks had
positive educational outcomes. Goza and Ryabov (2009) contended that for all groups
attending schools with large collections of minorities, there was an association with low
academic achievement. The theorists claimed the more heterogeneous the school body,
the greater the prospects of graduating for all groups of students. To fix the problem of
academic underachievement of the demographic, geographic stratification must be
addressed.
It is not so much the racial concentration, but the concentration of poor students
that contributes to segregation’s negative impact on student performance (Goza and
Ryabov, 2009). Segregation is accompanied by funding inequities across the segregated
areas Thiem (2009). Thiem (2009) explained that gentrified and middle class
36
neighborhoods in Chicago had college prep programs while in non- white and poor
neighborhoods programs consisted of basic skills and military training. African
Americans’ poor achievement and dropout rates are, in part a function the resource
challenges faced by segregated schools with a mostly minority populations.
White, Loker, March, and Socklager (2009) stated that in New York City, 41.3%
of minority students passed the English Language Arts tests in segregated schools as
opposed to 54.8% in non-segregated schools. Minority students seem to fare better in de-
segregated school environments. African Americans educated in segregated
environments are susceptible to not being on track for graduation and for dropping out of
school which will continue until policy makers move to de-segregate schools. While
segregation may not be on the scale of pre-Brown vs. Board of Education era, a
segregated school system is still evident. A great number of African American and
Latino students attend schools in which the 90% of the students are minorities (Balfanz,
2009). An even greater number of White students attend high schools that consist of an
almost exclusively white population (Balfanz, 2009). The inference is that school system
is highly segregated. Since white students have better graduation rates, then segregation
may be subversive of the capacity of African American high school students for being on
target graduation to the same extent as white students. Segregation may be partly
responsible for the high dropout rates among African American students.
Family socio-economic status. Tyler and Lofstrom (2009) suggested that among
the strongest predictors of minorities dropping out of school or not being on track for
graduation are parental education, occupation, and income, which constitutes their
socioeconomic status. Both locally and internationally, student educational under-

37
achievement and dropout rates are linked to low SES (Nonoyama-Tarumi, 2008). The
National Center for Education Statistics (2011) recognized that students from low-socio-
economic backgrounds were twice as likely as middle class students to drop out of
school. The report indicates in 2007, 8.8 percent of students from low income families,
3.3% from middle income families and 0.9 % of high income families dropped out of
high school between 10th and 12th grade. Close to fifty percent of high school seniors
who become dropouts are from the lowest quadrant of the socioeconomic status bracket
(NCES, 2009). Seventy seven percent are from the lowest half (NCES, 2009). In support
of the analysis, Chakraborty (2009) hypothesized that student achievement was more
explainable by SES than by school variables.
African Americans and other minorities constitute 90% of the population of the
poorest cities in the United States with the median family income of $19,000 (Lee &
Malay, 2007). The theorists declared that by contrast, the population of the more affluent
cities consists of 89% Whites and only 2% African American and other minorities. The
median family income in these affluent cities is $120,000. By virtue of family variables
African American students are at risk for school failure. Poverty, the issue of
concentrated poverty with which many African Americans live, must not be ignored in
conversations aimed at addressing the academic performance of African American
students.
Resource challenged neighborhood schools. A corresponding disparity of
resource expenditure exists between schools located in neighborhoods of differing SES.
An estimated $30,000 is spent annually per student in affluent demographics as opposed
to $3, 000 which is spent on each African American student in less advantaged
38
demographics (Darling-Hammond, 2007). Chambers (2009) pointed to a receivement
gap in the context of resources allocated to schools with minority populations. Christle,
Olivette, and Michaelson (2007) found that school poverty was significantly related to
achievement rates of students. Van Dorn, Bowen, and Blau (2006) further explained that
African Americans were less likely than White students to dropout when neighborhood
and school effects were controlled for. To address the dropout rates accurately, federal
and state initiatives need to target schools which a majority of disadvantaged students
attend. Populated as they are by high concentrations of African American students, these
schools are responsible for 50% of the nation’s dropouts (Balfanz, 2009).
School and class size. Tyler and Lofstrom (2009) suggested that factors such as
resource, school size, and pupil teacher ratio may contribute to students dropping out of
school. Bressoux, Kramarz, and Prost (2009) reported learning in smaller classes
improves student achievement. Smaller classes may increase chances of African
American students graduating from high school on time. Researchers Atta, Amer, Asif,
Muhammad, Tahir, and Muhammad, (2011) suggested small class size has a significant
effect on student achievement and explain smaller class size has an indirect relationship
with higher academic performance. Chapman and Ludlow (2010) advised increase in
class sizes introduce hardships on teachers and students that are challenging to overcome.
Small class sizes are linked to well-equipped schools associated with students of higher
socioeconomic backgrounds (Tyler & Lofstrom, 2009). The dynamics for students of
African American students of lower socio economic backgrounds, position them for
underachievement and dropping out of school.

39
Werblow and Dewsbery (2009) suggested attending larger schools increases the
odds of students dropping out of school. Since many African American students attend
larger schools, there is an increased chance of larger class sizes and the probability of
them becoming high school dropouts. The discourse on school and class size has proved
the types of schools attended by the group of focus, lack qualities that would be
supportive of higher achievement. Bektas-Cetinkaya and Oruc (2011) linked school
quality, and motivation for learning. The analysis indicates that inequality of
opportunity, institutionalized in the school system manifests itself in inequality of results.
Issues of equality and social justice are compromised when results of a group are caused
by factors that are not under the control of the group (Fowler, 2009).
Family background. Some researchers explained not graduating from school in
terms of family background (Archambault, Janosz, Morizot, & Pagani, 2009).
Researchers Van Dorn, Bowen, and Blau (2006) stated that a student who has a parent or
brother or sister who dropped out of school is at risk for dropping out of school too.
Research has consistently associated students who are in single parent families with a
greater risk for dropping out of school than those who live with both parents. Children of
single parents may be at risk for dropping out of schools. Wong (2007) explained that
single parents might not be capable of monitoring and guiding their children effectively
to allow for satisfactory academic results.
Urbanization. Minorities attending inner cities schools seem to be at risk for
failure to graduate or for dropping out of high school. Reports are that achievement rates
for low income and ethnic minority students in urban high schools are unsatisfactory
(Sandy & Duncan, 2010). The problem is exhibited in the of low graduation results for
40
African American students in five of the largest cities in the nation: New York City, Los
Angeles, Chicago, Houston, and Phoenix. Generational theorist Fry (2007) explained
dropout rates as a phenomenon of schools in large cities, where groups like African
Americans and other minorities are likely to take up residence. Theorists Sandy and
Duncan (2010) acknowledged an urban/suburban gap and explain less encouraging
performances in urban schools in terms of the large numbers of minority students and
students of low income family that constitute the population.
The problem with urban schools became acute in the 1960s and 1970s when
whites and middle class African Americans fled the cities. As the more affluent groups
fled with their resources, poor African Americans and Hispanics (Donnelly, 2008) were
left behind to increase the numbers of urban schools now depleted of resources. The
capital flight continues, as where members of the majority racial group remain in the
same district as minorities, they leave the public schools for private schools (Balfanz,
2009).
A disproportionate availability of resources to schools in these cities exists as
school funding is related to property taxes. The inability of these schools in these low
SES demographics to fund the resources needed, negatively impacts student academic
outcomes. Christle, Olivette, and Michaelson (2007) found that low SES in the public
school system relates to school failure and by extension student failure by the inequities it
allows for. Academic disparity outcome of African Americans and Latino students can
be situated in these demographics of poverty that limits the quality of educational
experiences provided for these minority students.

41
A similar situation occurs for whites living in low SES areas. Balfanz (2009)
reported for schools located in low SES neighborhoods White students have inadequate
skills and few attend college, unlike their more affluent peers. In a study conducted at
John Hopkins University, Balfanz and Legters (2004) discerned an association between
low SES neighborhoods in which schools were situated, and high schools with high
dropout rates. Conversely African American students by virtue of attending their
neighborhood schools are positioned for underachievement.
The National Center for Education Statistics postulated low income students will
be in a better position for educational attainment in a middle-class school environment.
The Census bureau found low income students attending middle class schools were more
successful in Math than middle class students attending low SES schools (Kahlenberg,
2006). In 2005-2006, however, one third of African American and Hispanic students
were in attendance at high-poverty schools as opposed to 4% of Whites (Sack-Min,
2008).
At the heart of the problem of African American underachievement is the
violation of the principles of social justice. Social justice violations abound in unequal
distribution of rights, social resources, and access to opportunity articulated in the context
of the dependent variable. To address the problem policies must of necessity be built to
effect greater equality of access to these elements (Solas, 2008). The realization of such
policies will bring a shift in the psychic landscape of the African Americans as it will
communicate meanings with transformative possibilities (Brooke, 2009). Outcomes may
include a genuine belief in the power of education to alter their life circumstances.
42
The Independent Variable: Immigrant Generational Status
The research project targeted for investigation factors that influence the decision
of different generations of African American immigrants to graduate or drop out of high
school. Generational status, the independent variable, is defined in terms of first, second,
and third generation immigrants. First generation African American students are students
who, along with their parents, are born outside of the United States (foreign-born).
Second generation students, along with one parent is born in the United States. Third
generation and beyond students are those who are born in the U.S., of U.S. born parents,
and are considered African American-native students (Kao & Tienda, 1995; Pong, Hao,
& Gardner, 2005). Selection of the independent variable was based on findings in the
literature relative to generational immigrant scholarship.
Appraisal of Immigrant Academic Scholarship
To address the problem of African American students’ underachievement and
attrition rates, the focus of the study is the subgroup of African American students with
an immigrant background. Empirical studies were reviewed to trace the academic
outcomes of immigrant students of varied ethnicities as they evolve toward native status.
Based on the findings, a comparative trajectory for African American immigrant students
was assumed. To facilitate the illuminative comparison, a study by study review of
generational immigrant scholarship tracked the academic trajectory of immigrant
subgroups. A summary of the findings, grouped under broad themes, served to advance
the investigation for enlightenment (Creswell, 2005).
An immigrant advantage. As early as 1987, generational immigrant theorist,
Valverde, found that limited English proficiency (LEP’s) first generation immigrants had
43
superior high school graduation rates to native Hispanic American students. In the
groups studied, the non-LEP’s, to a large extent, were born in America; while LEP’s
were born in Mexico. Later researchers in the genre corroborated and augmented
Valverde’s (1987) findings. Researchers Kao and Tienda (1995), Fuligini (1997),
Feliciano (2001), Pong, Hao, and Gardner 2005), Fujiwara (2008), Thomas (2009) noted
that both first and second generation Hispanic, Latino, African American, Filipinos and
European immigrant students outperformed their third generation and beyond peers (See
Appendix A).
A second generation advantage. Researchers noticed that first and second
generation students perform better than their third generation and beyond peers. Second-
generation immigrant students however, performed better than their first generation
counterparts (Fuligini, 1997; Pong, Hao, & Gardner, 2005). The mitigating factor
between first and second generation immigrant success seemed to be language ability.
Second generation immigrants tend to be bilinguals (Fuligini, 1997; Pong, Hao, &
Gardner, 2005). First generation tend to be non-English speakers while third generation
seems to speak English only (Fuligini, 1997; Pong, Hao, & Gardner, 2005). Though
acculturation is inevitable, a degree of cultural retentions seem to be an asset as
immigrants pursue education. Acculturation, in this case with linguistic retentions, rather
than assimilation, in which there is negligible cultural retention, seems to be accountable
for the second generation positive success (Berry, Phinney, Sam, & Vedder, 2006).
These findings challenge the assimilation hypothesis of theorist Gordon. Gordon’s
assimilation hypothesis assumed that education outcomes increase with generational
maturity as immigrant students take on the cultural orientations of American society

44
(Pereira, Harris, & Lee, 2006). Appendix A presents a summary of the findings of
generational immigrant academic results.
The third generation challenge. By the third generation immigrant, students are
considered natives (Kao & Tienda, 1995). With American self–identification by the third
generation, students’ academic fortunes seem to decline (Feliciano, 2001; Fuligini, 1997;
Kao & Tienda, 1995; Pong, Hao, & Gardner, 2005; Thomas 2009). The indication of
generational immigrant scholarship may be that cultural retention has the capacity to
offset the decline in academic fortunes that comes with generational maturity; an issue
that will be addressed later in the study.
African American immigrant challenge. Many African American immigrants,
such as African American-natives, inherit low SES. Upon entry into the United States,
African American and European American immigrants are of similar socio-economic
statuses (SES). Their white European Americans are counterparts are Americanized into
the mainstream culture while immigrant African American parents and their children are
Americanized into demographics of inferiority and low SES. Differences in educational
achievement between first generation African American and first generation Euro-
American were not statistically significant (Emeka, 2004). First and second generation
African American immigrant students also achieved better than their native counterparts.
First generation African American immigrant students seem to be able to challenge the
demographics of poverty to achieve respectable academic results (Emeka, 2004). In
aggregate, inferences are that with generational maturity achieving positive academic
results becomes as challenging a task for immigrants as it is for their native African
American-native counterparts.
45
Based on the above analysis, immigrant generational stage qualified to be taken
beyond the status of an investigative reference point to a decisive point of entry into the
discourse as to how to treat with the troubling issue of African American academic
underachievement. The research project elevated generational immigrant stage to the
status of independent variable. Logically, the study targeted for investigation covariance
between the relationships that influence the different generations of African American
immigrant high school students to be or not to be on target for graduating on time.
Generational status, the independent variable, is defined in terms of first, second, and
third generation immigrants. First generation African American students are students who
along with their parents are foreign-born. Second generation students, along with one
parent, are born in the United States. Third generation and beyond students were born in
the U.S. of U.S.-born parents and are considered native students (Kao & Tienda, 1995;
Pong, Hao, & Gardner, 2005).
African American Immigrants’ Country of Origin
To foster an understanding of the composition of African Americans in the study,
an overview of African Americans’ countries of origin and generations is proffered.
Initially, African Americans in the United States were the products of forced migration
generated under slavery. Eighty percent of these forced migrants originated in Sub-
Saharan countries of Senegal Gambia, Nigeria, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Congo, Zaire
Angola and Namibia (African American Place of Origin, n.d.). By the turn of the 20th
century people of Caribbean African ancestry began to voluntarily migrate to the United
States. These early migrants came mainly from Barbados, Jamaica and Montserrat. By
2005, non-Hispanic Blacks from the Caribbean came mostly from Jamaica, Haiti and
46
Trinidad and Tobago. While Haitians comprise half of the population of Caribbean
Blacks in Miami, they are exceeded by Jamaicans in New York where the study was
conducted (Johnson, 2008).
Beginning in the 1970s, Africans began to migrate voluntarily to the United
States; a situation that escalated between the 1980s and 2000. Most of these migrants
came from West African countries of Nigeria, Ghana, and from East African countries of
Somalia and Ethiopia, as opposed to the East Africans who reside in the Minneapolis,
West Africans mostly reside in Boston and New York (Johnson, 2008). Generations of
African Americans in the study therefore originated mainly from Caribbean countries of
Jamaica, Haiti, Trinidad, and Tobago and from African countries of Nigeria, Ghana,
Somalia and Ethiopia. In the study, descendants of involuntary migration are considered
African American-native students. From the third generation, immigrants are also
considered to be African American-native students. The designation of 3rd generation
African-American native therefore includes descendants of involuntary migration as well
as third generation and beyond immigrant students, all of whom are considered to be
African- American native students.
Mediating Variables/Independent Sub Variables
Revisiting the foreign culture hypothesis. A mediating variable plays an
intervening role in accounting for the relationship between two or more variables (Cone
& Foster, 2006). The foreign culture of immigrant parents of the countries described
above may well be a mediating variable. Previous engagement with generational
immigrant scholarship identified foreign parental culture as an asset relative to positive
immigrant academic results (Kao & Tienda, 1995). By the second generation, African
47
American immigrant students may begin to assimilate into the culture of the larger group
of African Americans with its socio-historical liabilities. A waning interest in
maintaining former cultural models of interaction may also be present (Berry et al.,
2006). An examination of the foreign parental culture hypotheses that generational
theorists propagate was conducted to determine, for the purposes of the study, what
culture-specific element correlates to more positive generational academic achievement.
Foreign culture associations. African American immigrants originated from
collectivist societies like the sub-Saharan and North African regions. Cultural
embeddedness, in which an individual’s life takes meaning from its relationship to the
group, is built into these collectivist societies (Schwartz, 2006). In such societies,
affective and intellectual autonomy are not highly valued norms (Schwartz, 2006). A
significant degree of ethnic loyalty and adult oversight might be a consequence. The
second group of African Americans under study originates from the Caribbean and may
have a similar orientation because of the proximity of the Caribbean to Latin America, an
area steeped in embeddedness, and relatively low in intellectual autonomy. Theorist
Naroll (Schwartz, 2006) credited the possible similarity of cultural orientations with the
diffusions of values and practices across territorial borders.
Chakraborty (2009) opined that student achievement was as explainable by non-
school variables as by school variables. To date attempts to raise student scores and
decrease dropout rates by concentrating on improving school variables, have not been
effective as for instance African American students continue to underachieve (NCES,
2010c). A shift in focus to out of school factors may yield more effective results.
Following the lead of generational scholarship, the non-school variable of cultural

48
retention of parents received considerable focus. Parental style is a non-school variable
and it is passed down from previous generations (Brown & Iyengar, 2008). Brown and
Iyengar, (2008) pointed out that parental style has an influence on student achievement.
For the purposes of the study, identifying the non-school variable, parenting style,
indigenous to those cultural jurisdictions from which African immigrant parents come,
proved to be illuminative. Even more illuminative to the purposes of the study was an
investigation of how parental style spawned in foreign home cultures affects immigrant
students’ academic achievement in the U.S. A sequential discussion of this nature
follows.
A culturally retentive immigrant parenting style. Parenting beliefs and styles are
culturally informed (Chan, 2009; Chan, Bowes, & Wyver, 2009). African immigrant
parents would be predisposed to utilize the traditional forms of authority as is generic to
embedded foreign cultural orientation (Schwartz, 2006). Asadi et al. (2007) indicated
that the authoritarian parenting style is associated with collectivist societies; like those
from which African American immigrant parents come. Pong, Hao, and Gardner (2005)
studied Chinese immigrants in the United States and noted that parents of first and second
generation immigrant Chinese students practiced an authoritarian parenting style
characteristic of collectivist cultures. Consistent with shared collectivist orientation
African American immigrant parents in the study may practice a style of parenting
similar to the Chinese.
Cultural perspectives on parenting styles. The work of seminal theorist
Baumarind served as a platform for an extensive discussion of the nature of immigrant
parental style Spera, 2005). Parenting styles are indicative of parents’ attitude to their
49
children. Parental attitude creates a relationship climate that facilitates the achievement of
parental goals for children (Chan, Bowes, & Wyver 2009; Chan & Chan, 2007). Seminal
theorist Baumrind (1971) classified parenting behaviors or attitudes among European
Americans into a typology of authoritarian, authoritative and permissive parenting styles
(Li, Costanzo, & Putallaz, 2010). Though frowned upon by some, authoritarian parenting
style is cited in generational immigrant scholarship, as characteristic of collectivist
oriented immigrant parental style (Pong, Hao, & Gardner, 2005). Authoritarian and
authoritative delineations as defined by collectivists are at variance with Baumrind’s
definitions. A discussion to reconcile variances in designations, specifically targeting
perceptions of the authoritarian genre follows, as this parental style has great relevance to
the cultural group under study.
An Autonomous European-American Perspective
Authoritarian parenting style. There are two perspectives to authoritarian
parenting style; an individualist western perspective and a collectivist perspective.
Authoritarian parental styles are conceptualized differently from these different socio-
cultural perspectives. In a meta-analysis of works on parenting styles, theorist Spera
(2005) referenced Baumrind (1966) who characterized authoritarian parenting styles as
lacking in warmth, very demanding, and not given to encouraging exploratory behaviors.
Spera (2005) similarly reported that this style of parenting acts to regulate behavior and
to communicate expectations through rules.
Assadi et al. (2007) presented the individualist perspective of authoritarian
parenting style. The researchers (2007) suggested that authoritarian parenting style is
associated with harsh discipline and rigid boundaries and linked the style with unilateral
50
decision-making, strong parental supervision and control, respect for authority, and low
student achievement. Parents were intolerant of selfishness and acted to assert power in
the face of incorrect child behaviors, characteristic of an authoritarian style of parenting.
Similar to Assadi et al. (2007), Domenech-Rodriguez, Domenek, and Crowley (2009)
reported characteristics of low responsiveness, high demandingness, and low levels of
autonomy granting, associated with this parenting style. Following the lead of Baumrind,
other researchers continue to conceptualize authoritarian parenting from the perspective
of autonomous cultures, in terms of dominance, suppression and lack of warmth (Rudy &
Grusec, 2007).
A Collectivist Perspective
Authoritarian parenting style. The construct of authoritarian parenting
theorized from a collectivist perspective, is an expression of caring and warmth rather
than parenting by strict control as conceptualized in the West (Chan & Chan, 2007). In
support of this designation, theorists Chan and Chan (2007) offer Chao’s (1995)
conception of guan. Conceived in terms of guan, Chao (1995) viewed authoritarian
parenting in terms of control as in training in the context of love, care, deep concern, and
involvement of parents (Chan & Chan, 2007). In the guan concept parents are expected
to devote their lives to the welfare of their children. Children are expected to reciprocate
by practicing filial piety in which children are expected to respect senior members of the
family, especially parents (Chan, Bowes, & Wyver, 2009). The practice fosters cultural
harmony.
Authoritative parenting style. Authoritarian and authoritative parenting styles
practiced in collectivist societies are not the cultural equivalents of authoritarian and
51
authoritative styles as practiced in individualist societies (Chan & Chan, 2007; Rudy &
Grusec, 2007). Rudy and Grusec’s (2007) study of Egyptian Canadians and European
Canadians found low levels of warmth in circumstances of difficult child behaviors
associated with Euro-Canadian authoritarian styles. Low levels of warmth of Euro-
Canadian authoritarian styles were not characteristic of authoritarian styles practiced by
Egyptian Canadian groups which were more collectivist in orientation. Authoritarian
style is a practiced by Chinese parents (Chan & Chan, 2007). In a study conducted by
Rudy and Grusec (2007), Chinese students who reported on parenting behaviors,
identified their most influential parents by authoritative qualities (Li, Costanzo, &
Putallaz, 2010). Individualist perceptions of authoritative and authoritarian parenting do
not exactly capture the essence of the parenting styles practiced by Chinese parents and
other parents in collectivist societies (Rudy & Grusec, 2007).
Of similar relevance to the study is authoritative parental style for the comparative
clarification it can yield. From an individualist cultural perspective, the parenting style is
viewed as diametrically opposite to authoritarian parenting. Spera (2005), referring to
Baumrind (1971), described the authoritative parent as warm, affectionate, and
encouraging of exploratory, and self-reliant behaviors. Authoritative is also described as
a style of parenting that fosters the pursuit of interests, individuality, self-assertiveness,
and self-regulation among students (Spera, 2005). Assadi et al. (2007) credited the
parenting style with positive academic achievement. Domenech-Rodriguez, Domenek,
and Crowley (2009) characterized authoritative parents as being responsive and
demanding, yet granting autonomy to their offspring. Autonomous cultures like the U.S.
52
with its goals and expectations of the independence of the individual find greater
congruence with an authoritative parenting style.
An Ethnic Congruent Parental Style
Some theorists found that authoritarian parental styles hurt White immigrants’
academic success while advancing the academic success of Chinese immigrants in the
U.S. and Canada (Barry, Bernard, & Beitel, 2009; Pong, Hao, & Gardner, 2005). The
academic achievement of Chinese immigrants is celebrated in the United States, but the
achievement seems to be accountable to foreign cultural retention of these immigrant
parents.
Other theorists found that while Chinese and Latino immigrants do well with an
authoritarian style, Whites fare better academically with authoritative parenting style
(Domenech-Rodriguez, Dominick, & Crowley, 2009). Steinberg in (Spera, 2005)
associated authoritative parenting with grade point average and school engagement but
reported that it was not consistent for all groups.
Authoritative parenting style characteristic of middle class mainstream America
does not seem to yield positive academic outcomes for ethnicities that constitute
immigrant minorities in the United States. The investigation seems to have unearthed the
existence of a phenomenon of ethnically pertinent parenting. Non–European groups
seem to flourish more, with a collectivist genre of authoritarian style of parenting.
Authoritarian parenting style, because of its congruence with ethnic minority groups was
investigated for possible associations with academic achievement of African American
immigrant students. Hereinafter in the study, authoritarian parenting will be referred to

53
as foreign culturally influenced parental style because the style is situated in foreign
collectivist immigrant culture.
Authoritarian/Foreign Culturally Influenced Parenting Style
Greater school engagement. An authoritarian parenting style may allow for
greater school engagement and academic competency in African American students.
Rudy and Grusec (2007) cited Brody and Flor as explaining the presence of the much-
disputed quality of warmth among authoritarian parenting practices of African
Americans, despite the use of highly controlled parenting. As practiced among African
Americans, authoritarian style parenting led to greater cognitive and cultural competence.
Adding to the conversation Spera (2005) found African American students became more
assertive with authoritarian parenting in a way that resulted in greater school engagement
and hence achievement. The theorist also purports among parents with low levels of
education in the United States authoritarian parenting resulted in increased academic
achievement for students. Spera (2005) also cited Dornbusch et al., explains among
African American teenagers, authoritative parenting did not positively impact school
achievement and engagement as was previously noted among European Americans. An
effective alignment of parental style with the African American student differentials may
be necessary for enhancing the academic achievement and chances for high school
graduation of these students.
Reduced behavior problems. Rudy and Grusec (2007) found fewer
internalizing of problems with the use of authoritarian parenting styles among African
American students. Greater externalizing of problems was found, however, among Euro
Americans who experienced authoritarian parenting (Rudy & Grusec, 2007). The
54
theorists noted that 28% of African American students with emotional and behavior
problems drop out of school (Rudy & Grusec, 2007). Authoritarian practices may
address behavior problems and contribute to increasing high school graduation rates
among this subgroup. In the context of deviant behaviors in challenging neighborhoods
authoritarian style of parenting may thus function as gatekeeper.
Authoritarian parenting styles seem to be associated with improved academic
results, greater school engagement and less problem behaviors and dropping out of
school among African American students. The style may potentially be more congruent
with the academic success of African American students with immigrant parents. The
research inquiry aimed to determine whether the sub-variable of foreign culturally
informed parental style of these immigrant parents is positively or negatively associated
with the dropout rates/academic achievement of students of this minority group.
Foreign Culturally Influenced Parental Style as a Sub-Variable
As previously explained, foreign culturally informed parental style relative to the
group understudy had its genesis in collectivist cultures. Parental style is reflective of
parental philosophies of how to socialize children to arrive at the type of individuals
parents want their children to become. Empirical research established immigrant parental
style manifested benefits of greater school engagement and competency and reduced
behavior problems to improve academic achievement. The collectivist genre of
authoritarian parenting has the potential to achieve these effects because of its alignment
toward certain values, belief systems and goals which parents transmit to their children
(Li, Costanzo, & Putallaz, 2010).

55
Value Transmission
Optimism. Generational theorists specifically noted the motivating effect of
immigrant parental optimism (Kao & Tienda, 1995). Immigrant parents transmit their
optimism of chances for upward mobility to their children for whom they believe the
projections for success are better (Kao & Tienda, 1995) than they had, due to the
American image of opportunity. By communicating their optimistic expectations, and
beliefs in the students’ abilities to transcend debilitating factors endemic to the host
culture, immigrant parents provide emotional support for student learning.
Pro-academic valuing. Parental educational ambitions for their children
motivate student engagement at the behavioral, cognitive and affective levels
(Archambault, Janosz, Morizot, & Pagani, 2009). Immigrant parents motivate their
students for academic success by passing on their pro-academic values. Immigrant
parents transmit to their children the importance of education for upward social mobility
(Fuligini, 1997; Kao & Tienda, 1995). Fuligini (1997) credited an emphasis on the role
of education, shared with parents and peers for the relatively high levels of academic
achievement of immigrant students.
Work ethic. Immigrant parents’ work ethics transmitted to their offspring are of
similar motivational capacity. Gibson (1988) disclosed that immigrant work ethics are
profiled by high aspirations, and a belief that hard work and effort will be rewarded.
Owens (2008) submitted that high GPA and bright academic prospects of immigrants are
linked to this ethic.
Discipline and respect for authority. Walters (1990) suggested that Caribbean
immigrant parents also stressed the importance of discipline (Thomas, 2009). Immigrant
56
parents also position their children for academic success by inculcating in them respect
for authority. In the parameters of collectivist cultural orientations, immigrant children
are socialized into recognition of the need to obey their parents. Parents reciprocate by
making sacrifices for their children’s education (Schwartz, 2006).
Rules, supervision, and cognitive support. Pong, Hao, Gardner (2005) found
greater parental control and supervision, and an emphasis on obedience and respect for
authority linked to practices of immigrant authoritarian parenting style. Theorist Spera
(2005) acknowledged immigrant parents employed this collectivist oriented parenting to
regulate behavior and to communicate their expectations through rules. Chan and Chan
(2007) reported that parental style affects the goal orientations of students and their
academic results. The theorists noted that students directed by goals have a great desire
to learn and become proficient in new skills imparted. The setting of goals has a
motivational impact on the students.
In keeping with their cultural orientation immigrant parents also monitor their
children’s behavior in and out of school (Pong, Hao, & Gardner, 2005). These parents
establish and strongly enforce very strict rules about grades and homework. As is
characteristic of an authoritarian style immigrant parents are given to more unilateral
decision making and exercise a great degree of parental control and supervision (Pong,
Hao, & Gardner, 2005).
Immigrant parents motivate their children by pushing them to focus on academic
achievement rather than focusing on chores (Kao & Tienda, 1995). Authoritarian
parenting is facilitative of extrinsic motivation (Chan & Chan, 2007) and works even
better with males who are more challenging, than with females. The African American
57
male is a demographic whose needs challenge the capacity of the education system.
Spera (2005) explained authoritarian parenting was associated with high GPA of African
American males. Authoritative parenting was associated with low GPA for the group.
Using the strategic practices of an authoritarian parenting style; unilateral
decision making, and deference given to parents, rules, respect for authority, immigrant
parents transmit pro-academic valuing of education, optimism and strong work ethics to
immigrant students. The parents seek to provide extrinsic motivation for the academic
success of their children. To more fully grasp the impact of generational immigrant
status on student achievement, the study thus targeted foreign culturally informed
parental style as a sub-variable as it may parallel and accompany this major independent
variable.
Foreign Culturally Influenced Parental Style/Acculturation and Dilution
Acculturation and erosion. The authoritarian parental style characteristic of
foreign collectivist culture can be viewed as part of immigrant parent’s cultural capital.
The authority and capacity to influence immigrant students’ behavior may be affected in
the process of acculturation. The collectivist foreign culturally influenced parental style
seems to confer onto immigrant parents the ability to motivate their immigrant children
for academic success (Piedras & Engstron, 2009). The capacity of foreign culturally
influenced parental style may be facilitated or hindered in the process of acculturation.
As articulated by Williams and Williams (2009), Bandura’s concept of reciprocal
determinism may explain what occurs to the parental style in the process of acculturation.
In the concept, Bandura argues that a reciprocal relationship occurs between behavior and
environment. The foreign culturally influenced parental style with its attendant authority
58
attempts to shape the child and hence the environment, but over time may become shaped
by the environment. The focus of the present inquiry was an evaluation of the extent to
which foreign culturally influenced parental style configures the socio-psychological
space occupied by immigrant students, for successful academic outcomes as they
acculturate towards Americanization.
Dissonant acculturation. Theorists Piedras and Engstron (2009) suggested the
authority that informs the immigrant parental style may be eroded in situations of
dissonant acculturation. Dissonant acculturation, the theorists explained, occurs when
students adopt the host culture too quickly (Piedras & Engstron, 2009). Acculturation of
this nature may result when students become more proficient in the language and or
culture of the host country than parents. In such instances parental authority is eroded and
role reversal occurs as students act to guide their parents. Parents virtually lose control
over their children. Piedras and Engstron, (2009) claimed without the parental authority
and guidance, immigrant students may become susceptible to destructive subcultures and
academic underachievement, which are associated with poor neighborhoods in which
some immigrants may take up residence.
Schools. Schools speed up the acculturation process as they facilitate the values
of mainstream culture. In the process schools may undermine cultural retention (Piedras
& Engstron, 2009). The impact of parental influence, advice, and socialization practices
may become lessened in the process of acculturation through schooling.
Changes in family structure. Piedras and Engstron (2009) proposed that family
disruptions or changes in family forms due to assimilation also corrode the level of
59
parental control. In such circumstances, the influence of institutions, other than their
parents, influence and guide the life of these students more so than the parents.
Contracted parental capital. Level of education, job skills, wealth, and
knowledge facilitates the degree to which parents can guide and monitor the children as
they navigate the social institutions in the country (Piedras & Engstron, 2009). Some
immigrant parents work at more than one job to make ends meet, and this practice, these
theorists claim, reduces the ability of the parents to monitor and control their children and
their authority to influence academic practices. Blondal and Adalbjamardottir (2009)
acknowledged parental style has a significant effect on students because it influences
academic achievement. The theorists claimed as well that parental style was a more
meaningful way of noting the impact of parenting on student achievement than parental
involvement (Blondal & Adalbjamardottir, 2009).
Since foreign cultural parenting is affected by acculturation it may operate in
tandem with generational immigrant stage. To more fully grasp the impact of
generational immigrant status on student achievement, the study targeted foreign
culturally informed parental style as a sub-variable as it may parallel and accompany the
major independent variable.
Independent Sub-Variable: Ethnic Capital
Facilitating support. Documented evidence from empirical research, earlier in
the chapter, spelled out that academic achievement, the dependent variable in the study,
was affected by dynamics as segregation (Butchar, 2010); family socio-economic status
(Tyler & Lofstrom, 2006); challenged neighborhood schools (Van Dorn, Brown & Blau,
2006); and urbanization (Sandy & Duncan, 2010). The previous section explicated that
60
collectivist influenced authoritarian parental style passed on values of optimism, pro-
academic valuing, discipline and respect for authority. Rules supervision, communication
of parental expectations for behavior, and cognitive support for academic achievement
are similarly transmitted to students.
Values that collectivist oriented parental style offers students could be perceived
as an offsetting influence, as newer generations generally rise above neighborhood
challenges. The newer generations are also able to do better than third and beyond
generations (See Appendix A). The power of this militating resource could be negatively
impacted in the process of assimilation, as was shown, hence limiting parental ability to
motivate their children to achieve academically. With decline of parental power to
influence, students lose a valuable mediating resource with which to counter negative
influences as they try to negotiate their way in highly contested spaces with multiple and
sometimes clashing cultural values. The ability to cope with the stigma of being ‘other’
may also diminish with a wane in parental authority (Wamwara-Mbugua & Cornwell,
2009). Potential facilitating patronage for the mediating variable of foreign parental style
may lie in the support mediating resource of ethnic capital
Ethnic capital. Borjas (1995), who coined the phrase ethnic capital, suggested
that student outcomes are affected by parental income and skills, as by the net income
and skills of the ethnic group of the parental generation. The net income and skills that
afford the ethnic capital resource are accessed in networks consisting of parents and their
friends and ethnic associates. The dynamic behind ethnic capital and the network in
which it is generated is the empowering potential it holds for families. The value of
61
ethnic capital resource accessed is determined by the size and quality of the network in
which it is aggregated (Cardack & McDonald, 2004).
Ethnic Networks. Ethnic networks function as ethnic education resource. Ethnic
networks could potentially drive academic performance. The type of resources ethnic
networks could make accessible to support parents in their efforts to facilitate their
children’s education could be invaluable. The capacity to make connections with college
educated or well employed people are an index of the quality of ethnic capital that can be
accessed in the network to the advantage of ethnic families (Lee & Mayun, 2009).
Ethnic networks can be catalytic in function. In a study of immigrant education
outcomes ethnic capital was found to be associated with high school completion rates
among minority groups Cardack and McDonald (2004). The numbers of people in the
community that possess a university degree was also found to strongly influence the rates
of high school and university enrollment (Cardack & McDonald, 2004). The theorists
seem to assume students draw their ambitions from the pool of ethnic accomplishments.
Pereira, Harris, and Lee (2006) suggested that youth perceive their future prospects by
referencing what is common to their neighborhoods. Student academic empowerment or
disenfranchisement may well depend on the inspiring absence or presence of role models
within ethnic communities (Bhatti, 2006).
Ethnic models. Goza and Ryabou (2009) credited ethnic groups with providing
support for intergenerational transmissions of norms relative to education. Networks
provide support for educational valuing (Le Croy, Krysik, & Craig, 2008). Parents can
find support for their pro-academic valuing in ethnic networks. Support is enabled as the
values espoused in ethnic peers and parents’ networks may bare proximal relatedness to
62
immigrant parental academic orientation and to values of academic competence sourced
within the ethnic group. Bandura’s (1971) concept of observational learning and
modeling captures the possible dynamic between parenting, student self-efficacy
perceptions, graduating high school on time and the vibrancy of ethnic networks. Borjas
(1995), in delineating ethnic capital, claimed individuals in affluent ethnic neighborhoods
will be exposed to certain social and economic variables that would position them for
enhanced levels of achievement. The theorist opined that ethnic capital sets the ceiling
on student achievement as ethnic students almost involuntarily gravitate towards
replicating perceived norms.
Ethnic support for consonant acculturation. Ethnic capital found in networks
can provide complementary or supplementary resources. Lack of personal and
community capital reduces the ability of parents to maintain effective influence on the
acculturation process of their children, and hence on their educational outcomes (Piedras
& Engstron, 2009). Co-ethnic support can slow down this erosion process by
complementing or supplementing parental authority in cultural value transmission for
educational achievement.
With access to ethnic capital available in ethnic networks parents are enabled to
effectively supervise their children for success utilizing key ethnic principles. Ethnically
dense social networks help to embed and maintain in students, ethnic cultural values that
may empower the students to rise above debilitating influences to achieve (Sabatier &
Berry, 2008). Some immigrant students may become situated in socially disadvantaged
neighborhoods, where there are relatively few connections with people who are college-
educated or well-employed (Lee & Mayun, 2009). In these neighborhoods, rich models
63
of achievement migrate to more advantaged neighborhoods (Donnelly, 2008).
Membership in ethnic networks may offer protective support in such circumstances.
Because neighborhoods like these may be characterized by certain degrees of social
disorganization mechanisms for informal social control may be weak (Steenbeek & Hipp,
2011). The poverty, ethnic heterogeneity, lack of shared norms and hence mistrust that
may characterize such neighborhoods may neuter the capacity for informal social control
(Steenbeek & Hipp, 2011). In such conditions, deviant values could become embedded
in students. The expectation of intervention by a community with shared norms with
which the student has attachments and social ties may serve as a means of exercising
social control of children (Steenbeek & Hipp, 2011).
Students located among a peer culture that devalues education, do not reference
the cultural resources of their foreign origin and so struggle academically (Callahan,
Wilkinson, & Muller, 2008). The lack of accessible quality ethnic capital may result in
students acculturating downward with poor academic consequences. Ethnic capital
realized in ethnic networks empowers parents to embed and maintain collective norms in
the homes needed to exercise social control over their children (Madyun, 2011). Because
of similarity of expectation from students and similarity in approaches to parenting, well
needed support against erosion of parental values and influence may be located in such
networks. Piedras and Engstron (2009) argued exposure of children to their cultural
heritage; afforded in the ethnic networks, enhance parents’ authority to keep their
children in check. Theorists referred to this phenomenon as consonant acculturation and
suggested consonant acculturation could address decay in cultural artifacts

64
Ethnic capital has the potential to disable or offset the debilitating effects of
assimilation on foreign parental style. Across immigrant generations, ethnic capital
seems to operate in conjunction with the mediating resource of parental style to influence
the dependent variable of academic achievement. The investigation of ethnic capital as a
sub-variable of generational immigrant status alongside the parental style sub-variable
was a logical option.
Independent Sub-Variable: Self-Efficacy
Self-efficacy, connected with the works of Bandura, is a judgment of confidence
and a belief regarding one’s ability to perform specific tasks (Bandura, Barbaranelli,
Caprara, & Pastorelli, 1996; Hansen & Wanke, 2009). Self-efficacy judgments impact
academic achievement by mediating between students’ cognitive and motivational
processes (Bong & Skaalvik, 2003; Hansen & Wanke, 2009). Self-efficacy judgments of
African American immigrant students may become impaired in the process of
acculturation, which may explain their less favorable achievement status with
generational maturity.
Self-efficacy judgments primed by stereotypes. In the process of acculturation
to American culture, immigrant students face the dilemma of establishing a sense of who
they are within the context of their group that has been pejoratively stereotyped into
stigmatized diminutive statuses of inferiority (Griffin & Hargis, 2008). Linking up with
the stereotype, could bias the immigrant students’ self-efficacy perceptions (Hansen &
Wanke, 2009). The stereotyped behavior may then become integrated into students’ self-
efficacy beliefs and influence subsequent motivational and cognitive behaviors (Williams
& Williams, 2010).

65
Donnelly (2008) referred to Erickson, to indicate in the adolescent stage of
development students experience identity confusion. Stereotyping may exacerbate this
state of confusion, with damaging consequences for the psyche of African American
adolescent immigrants, who are in the process of developing a sense of who they are.
Stereotyping can affect students’ self- efficacy or their personal judgments of their
abilities. By reducing self-efficacy beliefs stereotyping compromises student
motivations, memory, persistence, cognitive engagement, use of self-regulatory strategies
and achievement, which social cognitive theorists relate to positive academic
achievement (Armenta, 2010).
Neighborhood effects and self-efficacy. In the process of acculturation,
choosing to assimilate or integrate may influence self-efficacy beliefs. Because initially
students may be situated in low socio-economic neighborhoods, immigrant students may
find themselves marginalized into the underclass and their self-efficacy perceptions
undermined. Should they choose to assimilate rather than to integrate, students may
mirror the anti-intellectual culture reflected in such neighborhoods (Lee & Mayun, 2009).
Students may take motivational cues for action, from behavior modeled by same race
individuals in these neighborhoods (Bandura et al., 1996; Bong & Skaalvik, 2003).
Bandura et al. (1996) insisted that self-efficacy beliefs are located in and inseparable
from the social relations that influence their formation.
Vicarious experiences and self-efficacy. In Bandura, Adams, and Beyer’s
(1977) concept of vicarious learning is the suggestion that learners make inferences as to
their academic abilities and expectations from social comparisons. The theorists proposed
that given a long history of failure, mastery expectations are extinguished (Bandura, et
66
al., 1977). Researchers Abada, Hou, and Ram (2009) explained that in co-ethnic
communities, repeated narration of accounts of discrimination distort the immigrant’s
optimism for achievement. Inadequacies vicariously experienced through such accounts,
may negatively impact self-efficacy judgments (Bong & Skaalvik, 2003).
Through Weiner’s (2010) attribution theory, one may explain the impact on self-
efficacy in terms of phenomenal causality. Immigrant students may account for the
achievement status of their group, in terms diminishing effects of an inescapable
discrimination and may themselves, lose their immigrant optimism and self-esteem upon
the realization. As a result, students may adjust their future academic behaviors in
anticipation of failure. Learned helplessness, a resignation to failure, will control student
behaviors (Weiner, 2010).
The resultant lowered self- efficacy judgments may reduce student motivation;
limit the goals they set for themselves, the effort they are willing to exert, and lack of
persistence in the face of difficulty (Bandura et al., 1996). With goals and expectations
for achievement downwardly adjusted, self-protecting mechanisms such as; task
avoidance behaviors or dropping out of school may be adopted by students. However,
Shields, Brawley, and Lindover (2006) claimed that increased self-efficacy beliefs could
mediate over such attributions to influence goals and expectations of mastery outcomes
Self-efficacy and academic self-concept. LeCroy, Krysik, and Craig (2008)
reported third generation Mexican immigrants lose the motivation of first and second
generation Mexican immigrants and become discouraged as to their chances for academic
success. With diminished self–efficacy conceptions, immigrant students may lose the
67
motivation to persevere and to view obstacles as but temporary setbacks, as their peers
with high self-efficacy judgments would.
Anomie and self–efficacy. Distrustful of the American dream for which they
came, because of negative experiences, immigrants may lose their optimism for success.
Feelings of despondency added to the identity confusion faced by adolescents may lead
to further confusion and anomie. Despondency, anomie, and similar physiological
reactions to negative experiences may result in subsequent adjustments in self-efficacy.
Bong and Skaalvik (2003) offered that self-efficacy beliefs influence the development of
academic competence. These now “amotivated” immigrant students may question their
reason for being at school and ultimately make the choice of dropping out (Peterson,
Louw, & Dumont, 2009).
Parental style and competencies and student self-efficacy perceptions. Low
levels of education may compromise parental confidence to promote educational
competencies in their children and to safeguard them from the environmental risk that
could jeopardize the development of healthy self-efficacy (Bandura et al., 1996). With
consonant acculturation; an enhancement in socioeconomic status (education, income and
job), parents may experience an increase in the self-efficacy judgments of their abilities
to promote high expectations and improved self-efficacy for academic achievement in
their children.
Among immigrant parenting styles, consonant socialization practices that
observes filial piety are associated with high academic self-efficacy for superior
academic achievement (Li, Costanzo, & Putallaz, 2010) among young adults. Students’
self-efficacy for achievement may be mediated within cultural adjustments needed for
68
orientation to host country domains, by expected parental reciprocal support for their
efforts normative of collectivist informed parenting style.
Ethnic capital and self-efficacy. Hansen and Wanke (2009) suggested
identification with successful individuals may activate the stereotype of success
associated with that individual, resulting in enhanced self-efficacy beliefs. Associations
with competent ethnic networks have the potential to positively impact student self-
efficacy judgments by mediating between corrosive neighborhood elements to produce
high self-efficacy beliefs in immigrant students. High efficacy judgments are associated
with high levels of performance (Hansen & Wanke, 2009). Hansen and Wanke (2009)
also indicated high self-efficacy beliefs may cause certain esteemed behaviors to seem
achievable. Students with high self-efficacy beliefs may be motivated to work towards
achieving these behaviors. Perceived self-efficacy inadequacies may short circuit such
motivations.
Stereotype priming, discrimination, acculturation decisions, vicarious
experiences, marginalizing neighborhood effects, and anomie may negatively affect
student self –efficacy beliefs. Parental style and quality ethnic capital may mediate
against these elements that may work to diminish self- efficacy beliefs. Upward
adjustments of academic self-efficacy may result in academic upgrade in academic
performance. Bandura et al. (1996) offered self-efficacy is predictive of educational
performance. The research thus locates foreign-influenced parental style, ethnic
networks, and academic self-concept, as sub-variables of the major independent variable;
generational immigrant status, in its association with the dependent variable of

69
achievement status. An investigation of these sub-variables may provide insights to
correct effectively the poor positioning for graduation of African American students.
Conclusion
Chapter 2 consisted of a review of literature relative to foreign immigrant parental
style, self-efficacy and ethnic capital and the relationship to student achievement or
dropout decisions. Attempts to articulate African American student underachievement in
terms of an achievement gap was shown to be politically subversive of African
Americans. Such articulations were also found to activate the stereotype threat among
these students. The gap was presented as one of resource, a construct that was a constant
motif in the literature that consistently intercepted this group’s prospects for achievement.
The discussion showed NCLB, as other reform efforts, will fail if policy makers do not
address the socio-structural issues associated with underachievement of this subgroup.
Ethnic capital and parental style. From tracing the trajectory of the immigrant
to native African American status summarized in the matrix, evidence of the effect of
referencing cultural models of parenting for better academic outcomes was presented.
Deconstructing the cultural model that evolved from the literature directed the focus of
the present study to the authoritarian parental style, maintained from the collectivist
culture from which immigrant parents came, as a possible pivotal independent variable.
Research revealed that the authoritarian parenting style shows positive outcomes for
African Americans and other non-European minorities. The literature supports the
cultural artifact that foreign culturally informed parental style provides community ethnic
capital. Together these independent variables were shown to create an alternate pathway
70
for high student self-efficacy beliefs and improved academic self-concept that transcend
those factors contributing to the high dropout rates of these students.
Gaps in research. A gap in the literature exists for few studies on immigrant
education achievement, and dropout rates have focused exclusively on African
Americans. The investigation filled the fissure in immigrant scholarship by focusing
exclusively on African American immigrants. Using immigrants as an entry point for
addressing the underachievement of African American students in general will add to the
literature on African American students in particular and to research on minority students
in general. The research, unlike past research, has primarily focused on the impact of
school variables on student achievement. The present investigation filled the void left by
insufficient consideration of variables outside of school contexts that can be as influential
as school variables. The study added to education scholarship that investigates the
immigrant African American cultural frame of reference from which educational acts
ensue, as research of this nature is scarce.
The study took a relatively unique approach by evaluating African American
education orientation for success or failure in the context of cultural retentive values
transmitted through foreign oriented parenting style. Outside of the study, few studies
depict authoritarian parenting associated with the collectivist societies from which
African American immigrant parents came as other than a deviant phenomenon. An
investigation of the relationship between authoritarian parenting style and student
achievement from a perspective outside of mainstream culture, as obtains in this study,
could provide information to address the achievement of non-mainstream students.

71
Chapter Summary
Findings may contribute to recognition of a culturally or ethnically compatible
parenting style that could act as a buffer to undesirable academic outcomes and dropout
rates of the sub-group studied. Gonzalez et al. (2001, 2002) suggested the need for
further studies on the perceived effects of parenting styles as moderated by ethnicity. In
the present study, an attempt was made to investigate how a foreign culturally influenced
parenting style, supported by immigrant ethnic capital, informed breaches in immigrant
self-efficacy, and positively impacted student achievement. Chapter 3 provides a
discussion on the research design, sampling frame, methods of data collection and
analysis, and the establishment of the validity and reliability of the instrument.
72
Chapter 3: Method
The purpose of the quantitative, correlation explanatory study was to investigate
and explain the relationship between generational immigrant stage and the achievement
status of African American students as measured by high school credits that put them on
target for graduation. The literature review in Chapter 2 of theoretical and empirical
studies provided information that indicated pertinent variables for identifying and
measuring possible associations in the comparative investigation. The objective of
Chapter 3 is to argue for the appropriateness of a quantitative correlational explanatory
design for investigating the relationship between generational immigrant stage and the
variables that put African American students on track for graduation. Chapter 3
constitutes a comprehensive description of the nature and appropriateness of the research
method and design. Inclusive to the chapter are the research questions that led to the
formulation of hypotheses to guide the study, as well as a description of these hypotheses.
The section also comprises of a description of the population to be studied, the sampling
frame, the geographic location of the study, instrumentation for data collection and data
collection procedures. Following a description of the statistical methods for analyzing
the data, the chapter concludes with a discussion of the validity and reliability of the
research questionnaire and a summary of the chapter.
Research Method and Design Appropriateness
The method of choice for the conduct of the study is the quantitative method.
Quantitative methods describe trends or relationships among variables by showing how
one variable affects another. Qualitative methods are used to explore problems in which
the variables are not known and need to be explored. Quantitative studies are used in
73
cases in which variables have already been explored in similar studies. With a
quantitative research method a researcher can reduce a study to specific questions and act
to statistically correlate variables from data collected and analyzed (Creswell, 2005).
The aim of the study is to explain the relationship between the independent
variable of generational immigrant stage, independent sub-variables, and the dependent
variable of achievement status of African American high school students on target for
graduation. The independent variable generational immigrant stage is accompanied by
the independent sub variables of foreign culturally influenced parental style, ethnic
capital and student perceived self-efficacy. The appropriateness of a quantitative method
for the study lies in the shared congruence between the aim of the study and quantitative
research’s orientation towards explanation of relationships between variables (Creswell,
2005). A quantitative approach expedites the determination as to whether one or more of
the independent variables affect the achievement status of African American high school
students with an immigrant background.
For purposes of the study, a quantitative design is more appropriate than a
qualitative design. A qualitative narrative design for instance would be appropriate for
collecting information about the experiences of one or more individuals and telling their
stories. A qualitative action design addresses a problem specific to a localized setting. A
qualitative ethnographic design describes, analyzes, and interprets how the shared
patterns of behavior and beliefs of a group in a given setting developed over time. The
purpose of the study was to investigate a problem that is complex and both local and
national in scope. The aim of the study is not to describe how cultural patterns developed
74
over time but to determine which patterns explain current outcomes (Creswell, 2005).
For the purpose of the research project, a quantitative method is more suitable.
The study employs a correlation explanatory design. As is common to
quantitative designs, a correlation design allows for the explanation of the relationship
among variables (Creswell, 2005). A quantitative correlation design explains
relationships by establishing association while a quantitative experimental design does so
by establishing causation. A correlation design explains relationships between variables
by making determinations of co-variance between variables as well as determinations to
the degree of covariance between these variables. By use of statistical tests, the design
facilitates a description of the degree of relationship between variables or the extent to
which variables co-vary. A quantitative experimental design, on the other hand, explains
the relationship among variables by controlling and manipulating variables (Creswell,
2005). In the study there are no plans to control variables in an experimental sense.
The explanatory correlational design is appropriate for the purposes of the study.
Similar to a predictive correlation design, an explanatory correlation design explains
associations between two or more variables (Creswell, 2005). A predictive design is used
when the purpose of a study is to anticipate outcomes and it does so by using variables as
predictors (Creswell, 2005). An explanatory design explains past performance and
therefore is better suited for the purposes of the study, which is not to predict future
performance, but to explain past performance.
The appropriateness of a correlation explanatory design for the study is premised
on its capacity to determine the type and degree of association between the outcome
variable and predictor variables in the study. A correlation explanatory design enables
75
identification and explanations of association, and of complex relationship between
multiple independent variables and the outcome variable as is required in the study
(Creswell, 2005). In congruence with the nature of the project, a correlation explanatory
design empowers the investigation of the multiple variables in the study at one sitting and
the analysis of participants as a single group (Creswell, 2005).
Research questions. Research questions are developed to guide the study in an
analysis of possible covariance between the dependent variable and the independent
variables. Research questions identified the independent variables and sub-variables to
be investigated (Cone & Foster, 2006) in relation to the dependent variable. The
following research questions are designed to give focus to the study:
RQ1: What is the relationship between generational immigrant stage and
students?
RQ2: To what extent does foreign culturally influenced parental style affect the
students?
RQ3: What is the relationship between ethnic capital and the achievement status,
as defined by high school credits, of African American immigrant students?
RQ4: What is the relationship between African American students’ self-efficacy
perceptions and the achievement status, as defined by credits, of African American
immigrant students?
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Hypotheses. The research questions are transposed further into hypotheses to
more closely superintend and clarify the study’s course for the accomplishment of its
purpose. The determinations as to co-relationships between generational immigrant
status and its sub-variables; and African immigrant academic achievement are premised
on the validation or invalidation of the hypotheses. Assumptions for the use of statistical
testing of each hypothesis are presented at the end of Chapter 3. The null and alternative
hypotheses designed to achieve the objective are:
H10: Generational immigrant stage is not related to the achievement status, as
defined by high school credits of African American immigrant students.
H1a: Generational immigrant stage is related to the achievement status, as defined
by high school credits, of African American immigrant students.
H20: Exposure to foreign culturally influenced parental style has no significant
effect on the achievement status, as defined by high school credits of African American
immigrant students.
H2a: Exposure to foreign culturally influenced parental style has an effect on the
students.
H30: Ethnic capital has no effect on the achievement status, as defined by high
school credits, of African American immigrant students.
H3a: Ethnic capital has an effect on the achievement status, as defined by high
school credits, of African American immigrant students.

77
H40: There is no relationship between African American immigrant students’
credits.
H4a: There is a relationship between African American immigrant students’
credits.
Population
The target population of the study consisted of 12th grade African American high
school students, a subset of the graduating class of 2012, who were still attending high
school. Samples were drawn from the population of African American 12th graders in
New York City from which to make generalizations about academic outcomes of African
Americans with an immigrant background. African American high school students with
immigrant backgrounds were drawn from five urban public high schools in New York
City located in several districts across two boroughs of New York City. Schools
qualified for participation because of their substantive concentrations of African
Americans students (see Table 1). A sizable portion of most of the schools’ population
receives school lunches, indicative of low SES.

78
Table 1
Targeted Population
4 year
SES/Free
Name of High School District Population Graduation Rate Ethnicity
Lunches
(2009)
HsB (Brooklyn) 13 633 97% 1% W 9% H 65%

86% B 2% A
HsM (Brooklyn) 17 1104 97.5% 0% W 97% B 82.8%
3% H 0% A
HsP (Manhattan) 2 502 93.1 37% W 21% B 27%
30% H 5% A
HsBr (Brooklyn) 13 5332 97.7% 21% W 11% B 64.3%
8% H 60% A
HsD (Brooklyn) 21 2168 65.59% 12% W 31% B 55.9%
8% H 37% A
Sampling Frame
Convenience sample. Data was gathered using purposeful non-probability
convenience samples of the target population in the five schools selected. The sampling
strategy was purposeful sampling because the respondents were picked because they had
a particular quality, being 12th grade African American students (Creswell, 2005). The
strategy was a non-probability convenience sample as the sample consisted of students in
the participating schools who fit the generational status and who were available and
willing to participate in the study. A probability simple random sampling technique
could have been used to obtain a sample of individuals that were accurately
representative of the total population, thus allowing for greater generalizability of results.
In this context, however, the sampling method was not feasible, as it might not have
yielded a sufficient number of participants in each generational subgroup for a rigorous
enough study. In circumstances where a simple random sample is feasible, it allows
biases in the population to be evenly spread throughout the sample and so reduces
79
sampling error. In the study convenience sampling was a realistic option because of its
potential to yield sufficient numbers of the target population to provide useful
information to address the research questions and hypotheses. To reduce sampling error,
the difference between sample estimates and estimates of the total population, a
sufficiently sizable sample of students was secured. Sampling a large portion of the
intended population minimizes the usual effects of convenience sampling (Creswell,
2005).
Power analysis for sampling. To validate sample size, a formal power analysis
was conducted to statistically determine the number of participants needed to conduct the
study. To assess a priori sample size, a sample size program called G*Power was used.
Using logistics regression, power was set at .80 and the expected effect size was set at
.15. For the main research question with five independent variables, the sample size
necessary to likely determine a statistical difference was 88 participants where alpha =
.05. There was an 80% probability that 88 participants would be sufficient to find a
statistical relationship (effect size of .15) between variables where alpha = .05 (Faul,
Erdfelder, Lang, & Buchner, 2007).
Informed Consent
Prior to the completion of the study, informed consent forms were obtained from
the participants in the form of a signed letter of agreement. Consent letters informed the
students that participation in the study was voluntary. The letters informed them of their
rights to withdraw from the study at any time and that there would be no penalty for not
participating or for withdrawing. Included in the letter were explanations of the study’s
purpose, and benefits. They were assured that no known risks would result from
80
participation in the study. Participants were also assured of the confidentiality of
information they supplied and were provided with valid contact information, which was
duly noted in the consent letters. Participants who were 18 years or older were qualified
to sign their consent (See Appendix B). Students who were minors took the consent
forms home for their parents’ or guardians’ signed approval (See Appendix C). Students
returned the signed documents and survey to the research crew. Each minor was also
required to sign an assent form (See Appendix D). Signed permission was obtained from
the Department of Education and school administrators (See Appendix E) in order to
conduct the study. Letters similar to student and parent consent letters detailing the
purpose, population to be sampled, foreseeable risks to the population, and benefits of the
study were communicated to the personnel concerned for approval.
Confidentiality
In observation of research ethics, all participation in the study was voluntary. In a
review session prior to the start of the survey, the nature of the study was truthfully
communicated to the participants so that volunteering could be an informed choice.
Participants signed their written agreement to become involved in the study and the
researcher apprised participants of their right to withdraw at any time (Neuman, 2003).
Participant were also assured that responses would be reported as part of the sample and
not individually. To protect participants against fraudulent research abuse, the
investigator’s true identity was not withheld from participants. Such transparency was
intended to demonstrate the integrity and legitimacy of the project and promote trust and
participant involvement (Neuman, 2003).

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There were no known risks to participants, however, noted stressors were
identified and attempts made to suitably manage or lessen these stressors. Since family
income disclosure could have been a sensitive issue, family income range as opposed to
actual income was requested on the survey instrument. There was also an option to not
answer the question regarding income. In furthering confidentiality, data relating to
participant socio-economic status in place of participants’ addresses was utilized in the
survey. Addresses were not collected. Date of birth also could have been a sensitive
issue, students were requested instead to note the year of entry into high school. To
ensure participant security and protect participant privacy, it was explained to participants
that individual data will never be released. The information was included in the consent
form.
To protect student identity, student names were not placed on the survey because
of the sensitive nature of this issue. As an alternative, participants were issued surveys
with pre-assigned codes and a coded list connecting survey codes to student names was
kept. Codes consisted of a combination of school name and survey number (example:
HsB1). Names were retrieved from the consent form to develop the coded list that linked
codes to names of participants. Coded lists were developed and consent forms bearing
participant names were stored in a locked cabinet in researcher’s home to which only I,
the chief investigator, had access during and after the study. The information will be
stored there for a period of three years after which it will be destroyed. The coded list
will be consulted only in instances of incomplete data when absolutely unavoidable.
Data were extracted from the completed surveys and the surveys kept in another
section of the locked cabinet. Surveys were accessed again as needed to verify data but
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were simultaneously replaced in the secure cabinet. Extracted data were stored in
numbers and statistics in a form not identifiable to the participants and retained in
encrypted computer files on a personal computer used solely by the researcher. Three
years from completion of the study the surveys will be incinerated and computer files
deleted. Informed consent forms will also be stored for three years before incineration.
Students who wished to withdraw from the study at any point had the option to
contact the investigator. An appropriate email address was provided so students who
wished to withdraw from the study at any point could communicate their wish to do so.
Upon receipt of the request for withdrawal, the particular student’s survey would be
identified by linking the code on the survey to the name on the coded list locked away in
the cabinet. The identified survey would then be pulled from the study along with the
attendant consent letter and both would be incinerated. The individual would be
informed via the email address used to communicate the request, of the action taken and
the date on which the action was taken. The withdrawal process would then be
considered complete.
Geographic Location
The study was limited to students in public high schools in two boroughs in the
New York City area. The schools targeted are administered by the New York City
Department of Education, one of largest school systems of the United States (NCES,
2011a). The department serves 1.1 million students in 1,170 schools in five boroughs,
according to data on the department’s website (NYC DOE, 2012). Public high schools
under its jurisdiction number 804, located in the city’s five boroughs. Approximately
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577,584 African American high school students are served in the system (Education bug,
n.d.). The focus of the study was the two boroughs of Brooklyn and Manhattan.
Data Collection
Upon gaining permission of the New York City Department of Education, the
permission-granting document was presented to the relevant school principals. With the
consent of each building leader, flyers were posted at host schools inviting students to
participate in the study (see Appendix D). The flyer briefly informed students of the
nature of the study and invited student participation. The nature and purpose of the study
was explained to students, along with the procedure and time commitments required.
Students were also assured there were no personal risks involved.
Instrumentation
Operationalizing the research variables. The purpose of the study was to
investigate and explain the relationship between generational immigrant stage and the
achievement status of African American students, as measured by high school credits that
put them on target for graduation. To facilitate such determinations, data collected were
statistically analyzed in order to make comparisons, and explain relationships (Creswell,
2005). Consistent with the purpose of the study, all variables were operationally defined
for accuracy of measurement and results, prior to instrument construction.
Dependent variable. The dependent variable was the academic achievement
status of African American immigrant high school students that put them on track for
graduation. Achievement status that put students on target for graduation was
operationally defined as the number of high school credits possessed by the spring of the
12th grade; the date the study was initiated. A minimum of 40 of the 44 high school
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credits required for graduation in New York City high schools (NYC, DOE, 2011) was
the delineated minimum benchmark of the dependent variable. Students’ grade point
average (GPA) was also referenced.
Independent variable. The overarching independent variable, generational
immigrant status, was defined in terms of first, second, and third generation immigrants.
The following definitions are based on subject matter research in the field of study. First
generation African American students are students who as their parents were born outside
of the U.S. Second generation students and one of their parents, were born in the United
States. Third generation students along with both parents were born in the United States
(Kao & Tienda, 1995; Pong, Hao, Gardner, 2005). In the study population, students of
each generation were mostly students from the Caribbean countries of Haiti, Jamaica,
Trinidad, and Tobago and from the African countries of Nigeria, Ghana, Ethiopia, and
Somalia for the most part, as explained in Chapter 2. The independent variable could not
be sufficiently explained in terms of its relationship to a single independent variable but
in conjunction with independent sub-variables. An assumption of the study was the
effect of the major dependent variable of generational status varies in keeping with the
degree of foreign culturally informed parental style, ethnic capital and student perceived
self -efficacy.
Independent Sub-Variables
Foreign culturally influenced parental style. Foreign culturally influenced
parental style is characterized as transmitting values of immigrant optimism, pro-
academic valuing, education monitoring, and supervision by strict enforcement of rules,

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demanding obedience, making sacrifices for children, unilateral decision making, and
respect for authority.
Community ethnic capital. Community ethnic capital is defined as the aggregate
economic resource and skills of the parents and of the ethnic group of the parental
generation with whom the family associates (Borjas (1995). Community ethnic capital is
also determined by size and quality of the family’s ethnic network (Cardack &
McDonald, 2004). Ethnic capital is associated with connections to people who are
college-educated or well-employed (Lee & Mayun, 2009) and by the number of ethnic
peers and parents’ networks who share similar pro academic values (Le Croy, Krysik, &
Craig, 2008).
Perceived self-efficacy. Perceived self- efficacy mediates between perception
and performance (Hansen & Wanke, 2009). Perceived self- efficacy is measured in
confidence judgments, which is the extent to which students are confident they can
achieve success at performing a particular task (Bong & Skaalvik, 2003). Self-efficacy
is the belief of what individuals can do with the skills they have (Bandura, 1971).
The Instrument
A survey is the chosen method of data collection because a survey instrument is
designed to facilitate accuracy of data to be collected relative to the independent variables
and its sub-variables, and the dependent variable. Questions for the instrument were
adopted from Buri’s (1991) Parental Authority Questionnaire (PAQ) for which
permission was obtained (see Appendix H). Questions also reference various instruments
in peer reviewed journals on ethnic capital and self-efficacy scholarship (Abada, Hou, &
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Ram, 2009; Bandura et al., 1986; Buri, 1991). The instrument and related citations are
located in Appendix F.
Within the context of the developed instrument, it is difficult to establish the
reliability and validity of questions adopted from Buri’s Parental Authority Questionnaire
because the questions were taken out of their original context (Cooper & Schindler,
2006). Psychometric properties of the newly assembled instrument were thus established
in the context of the sample and testing procedures and are presented in the instrument
reliability and validity section that follows (Cooper & Schindler, 2006).
Demographics. Demographics were measured as the following: (a) the name of
respondents’ school, (b) gender coded as female = 1; male = 0, (c) year of entry into high
school, and (d) expected graduation date. These measures were coded on nominal scales.
Ethnicity was measured by respondents selecting among generational stage options.
These measures were also coded on categorical nominal scales. Referencing Abada,
Hou, and Ram’s instrument, African American generational stage was scored in
measurements of (a) first generation, (b) second generation, and (c) third generation.
Achievement status. Data for Achievement Status was scored in continuous
interval scales and coded on 3 scales of (a) under 40 credits (b) 40-44credits (c) above
44-62 credits. Achievement status was the dependent variable in the investigation. Data
for GPA, a possible ancillary dependent variable, was scored in continuous interval scales
and coded on 5 scales of 55%-64; 65 -74; 75-84; 85-94; and 95-100%. The scores above
85% were considered high grade point averages.
Parental style. The Parental Authority Questionnaire developed by Buri (1991)
was adopted in this study to measure parental style or disciplinary practices. The adopted
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instrument measures parental style or disciplinary practices in three subscales of
permissive, authoritarian and authoritative. Ratings are scored in categorical ordinal
scales from 1 strongly disagree to 5 strongly agree. .
Self-efficacy. Bandura et al.’s (1986) instrument for measuring self-efficacy was
referenced for assessing the self-efficacy perceptions of students in the study. Self-
efficacy is scored on four measures (a) self-efficacy for academic achievement to master
course work of different disciplines, (b) self-efficacy for self-regulated learning such as
organizing an environment for learning, and (c) planning and organizing academic
activities. A Likert type categorical ordinal scale of the following: 1 strongly disagree to
5 strongly agree is used to score each item.
Ethnic capital. The study’s instrument referenced Abada, Hou, and Ram’s
(2009) instrument, used to provide scores on ethnic capital, in their study on ethnic
differences in educational attainment among the children of Canadian immigrants. The
instrument scores five measures of ethnic network (a) mothers’ friends by ancestry, (b)
father’s friends by ancestry, (c) average education of father’s friends, and (d) average
education of mother’s friends. The questionnaire also documents the (e) average income
level of mother’s friends and (f) average of respondent’s household income. Data on
ethnic network are scored on categorical nominal scales. Data on educational level are
scored on categorical ordinal scales with ratings ranged from 1 for no high school to 5 for
College degree. Data for income levels are scored on continuous interval scales from $0
for unemployed; $0-$20,000 increasing in increments of $20,000 to beyond $80,000.

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Validity
In constructing an instrument, designers use procedures to ensure that the
instrument meets the psychometric requirement of validity. The instrument must meet
validity conditions to guarantee that the instrument has the capacity to produce valid
scores for measuring what it is designed to measure (Creswell, 2005). The types of
validity accounted for is based on subject matter scores or population (Cone & Foster,
2006). Since constructs were the subject matter being measured, then content and
construct validity were the types of validity for which the study needed to give account
(Cone & Foster, 2006).
Content validity. Prior to administering the survey, the instrument was evaluated
for content and construct validity. Content validity measures the extent to which items
collectively sample a universe of content specific to each variable (Cone & Foster, 2006).
The independent and dependent variables are operationally defined in close alignment
with empirical literature to facilitate accurate measures and satisfy content validity
requirements (Cone & Foster, 2006). Based on empirical research data presented in the
literature review, constructs pertinent to the study; foreign culturally influenced parental
style, ethnic capital, academic self-concept, and academic achievement were accessed.
Grounding operational definitions of these measures in empirical theory satisfies
construct validity requirements (Cooper & Schindler, 2003).
To further account for content validity, instruments with the capacity to accurately
measure the operationalized constructs were located from empirical literature. Selected
instruments are seamlessly reflective of the operationalized constructs and so have the
potential to elicit effective responses to the research questions. Items are carefully
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selected for their relevance and potential to adequately address the behaviors to be
analyzed (Cone & Foster, 2001). Content validity requirements are addressed because
the final instrument consists of well- designed questions of items chosen from several
published instruments and because of item selection on the basis of relevance to address
constructs studied. Drawing on existing measures enhanced content validity of the
instrument (Cooper & Schindler, 2003).
In correlational studies evaluation of instrument content by content experts is one
method of establishing content validity (Cone & Foster, 2006). Two education
researchers, subject matter experts, from the Education Department of the University of
Phoenix continued the validation process by content validating the instrument for form,
readability, wording, and theoretical content. This practice ensured consistency between
constructs tested and operational definitions (Black, 1999). In this way the scores would
sample behaviors that are accurately representative of the larger population and thus lend
generalizability to the study’s findings (Cone & Foster, 2006).
Prior to administering the survey instrument, the validity of its content for
measuring content domains accurately, was ratified (McMillan, 2008). The instrument
was pilot tested on 10 African American students for lucidity of item content and
instructions. Based on feedback from the pilot, two demographic questions were
eliminated and the content of others adjusted before administering the survey. The
instrument was therefore established as having the capacity to elicit meaningful responses
warranted by the study.
Construct validity. Construct validity is attained to the extent that constructs to
be measured by the instrument are theoretically sound having been grounded in empirical
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theory. The level of validity was accounted for in the previous section. Construct validity
is also a measure of an instrument’s competence. Theorists Cooper and Schindler (2003)
suggest if a derived measure could be confirmed with a standardized measure, convergent
validity would exist. The Generational Motivational Questionnaire (GMQ) samples
questions from the established questionnaires, for example, Buri’s (1991) Parental
Authority Questionnaire. Assessing an instrument’s content and construct validity helps
a researcher to determine the accuracy with which an instrument is able to measure the
intended constructs.
Internal and External Validity.
Internal validity. Validity can be threatened by internal and external issues.
Issues of internal and external validity should be addressed to eliminate threats to validity
of content. Threats to internal validity may arise because of happenings like sickness,
family emergencies, or participant mood. The factors may not be controlled for, yet they
may affect the way participants respond to questions on the variables under investigation
(Creswell, 2005). Although the factors cannot be eliminated without biasing student
response, participants were treated in a dignified manner to reduce participant anxiety or
discomfort as a control for internal validity. Because of the lack of control over some
events like the ones described above, internal validity could not be absolutely guaranteed
in the study. Other threats to internal validity such as sample size and selection bias were
suitably addressed.
Threats to internal validity may arise when procedures used threaten the ability to
draw correct inferences from the study. Sampling procedures may introduce biases that
may threaten internal validity. Choosing participants for their ability to skew the study’s
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result in a particular direction is one procedure that could pose a threat to internal validity
(Creswell, 2005). To address the threat to internal validity posed by selection bias,
schools and students were selected on the basis of availability and willingness to
participate in the study. Schools were not chosen on the basis of being better or lower
performing schools.
Too small of a sample size is an added threat to internal validity as the sample
data may not have sufficient power to detect a real effect (Neuman, 2003). To
circumvent the threat of too small a sample size, a power analysis was conducted using
logistics regression as described in the sampling frame section. Power was set at .80 and
the expected effect size was set at .15. For the main research question with five
independent variables, the sample size necessary to likely determine a statistical
difference is 88 participants where alpha = .05. There is an 80% probability that 88
participants will be sufficient to find a statistical relationship (effect size of .15) between
variables where alpha = .05 (Faul et al., 2007). The size of the selected sample, 273
African American 12th grade students, exceeds the required sample size. The threat to
internal validity that could be posed by a sample size that was too small was thus
eliminated.
External validity. Threats to external validity may compromise the accuracy of
inferences that could be made from the sample, relative to other persons, settings, and
future and past situations (Creswell, 2005). External validity refers to the degree to
which the study’s results could be generalized to similar populations (Neuman, 2003).
External validity in the study may be limited because of the use of convenience sampling.
Convenience sampling may not allow for a sample that is representative of the total
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population of African American 12th grade high school students. Biases in the
population may not be evenly spread to reduce sampling error as in the case of random
sampling. However, the difference between sample estimates and estimates of the total
population was reduced by obtaining a sufficiently large sample of the intended
population as described above (Creswell, 2005). While generalizability may be limited,
the study still holds the potential to add to existing research (Neuman, 2003).
Having established requirements for the instrument’s validity to a significant
degree, the ability to draw accurate and meaningful conclusions of the academic
achievement of African American high school students is enhanced (Creswell, 2005).
Stakeholders like policy makers, parents, and educators of African American students
will then have greater confidence in the legitimacy of inferences made from the aggregate
scores of the sample studied, and the relationship between generational immigrant stage
and the academic achievement of African American high school students (Creswell,
2005).
Reliability
Reliability refers to the consistency of measurements to supply accurate results
even when time and circumstances vary (Cooper & Schindler, 2003; Odom & Morrow,
2006). In the absence of random or situational errors the reliability of an instrument is
established. Random or situational errors are factors that by chance influence the
accurate measurement of the variable. These factors could be participant mood, or outside
noise for instance. Reliability is appraised in terms of the stability, equivalence and
internal consistency of an instrument in measuring the same construct or variable each
time (Cone & Foster, 2006; Cooper & Schindler, 2003; Morrow, 2006).
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Stability and equivalence. An instrument is evaluated as having stability if
repeated administrations of the instrument with the same person consistently provide
similar results (Cooper & Schindler, 2003). Measures on the Generational Motivation
Questionnaire were evaluated for stability using a test-retest strategy to assess stability of
scores when run on different occasions (Creswell, 2005). The test-retest strategy was
utilized in the administration of the survey to five African American students on two
separate occasions (Salkind, 2003). Since time delays could introduce differences in
situational factors and so influence reliability of measures, the retest was administered
two weeks after the initial test (Cooper & Schindler, 2003). The test-retest strategy
assessed the stability of the instrument to produce consistent scores.
The questionnaire was evaluated simultaneously for equivalence. Equivalence
estimates are aimed at identifying for elimination, errors introduced as a result of
differences in questionnaire items (Cooper & Schindler, 2003). Two different versions of
the same test were administered. The strategy is also referred to as the alternate forms
test-retest strategy or parallel form reliability (Creswell, 2005). On the first occasion of
the test-retest sequence; the test answer options were aligned from left to right. An
alternate form of the test was given on the second occasion; the choices were aligned
from right to left. The results of the two tests were assessed for reliability of responses.
As a consequence of the outcomes, three questions were eliminated from the
questionnaire because results were not reliable.
Internal consistency. The measures were examined for reliability at the level of
internal consistency. Internal consistency defines the degree of homogeneity or co-
relationships that exist between the items on an instrument (Cone & Foster, 2006). An
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instrument is estimated as having internal reliability when there is homogeneity between
questionnaire items. The remaining questions on the GMQ instrument were evaluated for
internal consistency reliability. For analysis of the reliability of the GMQ, Cronbach’s
alpha was used. Cronbach’s alpha is one way of calculating the consistency with which
each item measures a given variable construct (Salkind, 2003). A reliability coefficient is
calculated based on the average inter-item correlation (Creswell, 2005). For the
reliability analysis, see Table 4 of Chapter 4.
Cone &and Foster (2006) suggested researchers find papers that have assessed
reliability or validity of a measure. The GMQ instrument is comprised of a significant
portion of Buri’s (1991) PAQ. For the Buri (1991) PAQ the authors reported the
following: “Good internal consistency coefficients ranging between .74 and .87 and two-
week test-retest reliability coefficients ranging between .77 and .92, and presented
evidence of construct and criterion-related validity” (Alkharusi, Aldhafri, Kazem,
Alzubiadi, & Al-Bahrani, 2011, p. 1194).
Academic self-efficacy measures as articulated in Multifaceted impact of self-
efficacy beliefs on academic functioning by Bandura et al., (1996), are co-opted into the
GMQ (See Appendix E) to evaluate the academic self-concept of the students. Bandura
et al. (1996) attested the measures of academic self -efficacy were evaluated for
reliability by “the squaring multiple correlations of factor scores. The theorists recorded
that coefficients of .70 or better are indicators of stable factors. The declared estimated
reliabilities were .87 for academic self-efficacy” (p. 1212).
Having satisfied psychometric requirements, the GMQ has established its capacity
to produce valid scores to effectively measure the constructs that constitute the dependent
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variable and the independent variable and sub-variables to accomplish the study’s
purpose. Accurate and meaningful conclusions can be drawn from elicited data about
possible correlations between immigration stage and achievement status of African
American high school students, in keeping with the study’s purpose. Stakeholders can
confidently engage with conclusions drawn and recommendations made on the basis of
the findings for the purpose of application.
Data Analysis
Correlation statistical tests were utilized to investigate and explain probable
relationships between the variables, of generational immigrant stage and achievement
status of African American students (Cone & Foster, 2006). Statistical tests allowed for
an unbiased assessment of the relationship between dependent and independent variables
and the degree of that relationship (Creswell, 2005). As is generic of correlational
designs, the intent of the study was to discover associations rather than establish
causation. In the analytic process generational immigrants were treated as comparative
groups of first, second and third generations. The independent variable was not
manipulated, but was obtained directly from respondents’ answers. In the study three
statistical techniques, analysis of variance (ANOVA), regression, and multiple regression
analyses were used to analyze data collected by the GMQ to determine if any
relationships existed between variables identified in H10,H20, H30, and H40.
Hypothesis 1. An analysis of variance (ANOVA) will be utilized to investigate
and explain probable relationships between the variables, of generational immigrant stage
and achievement status of African American students. An ANOVA is appropriate
because it is a parametric statistic for measuring differences between groups when the
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dependent variable is scored in continuous scales (Cone & Foster, 2006). In the study the
dependent variable academic achievement was continuously scaled. The independent
variable, generational immigrant stage, was assessed in three distinct groups or stages of
generational maturity: 1st Generation, 2nd Generation, and 3rd Generation.
Both parametric t test and ANOVA are suitable for group comparisons required in
hypothesis one. T tests are suitable for group comparisons, but Type 1 errors may be
increased when the t test is used for comparing more than two groups (Steinberg, 2008).
ANOVAs can make multiple group comparisons concurrently and are therefore suitable
for determining variances in achievement among three generational immigrants groups
(Steinberg, 2008). ANOVAs provide the added advantage of calculating the statistical
significance of the variance while controlling for Type1 errors of t tests. One drawback
is that ANOVAs assume normal distribution of scores and homogeneity of variance, but
as suggested by Cone and Foster (2006) violations of assumptions are accounted for. See
Chapter 5. The results for ANOVAs are valid when assumptions are mildly transgressed.
In cases of relatively large populations, violations are acceptable in instances of non-
normal populations (Steinberg, 2008).
Hypothesis 2. As for Hypothesis 1, a one way ANOVA was used to assess the
validity of the null in Hypothesis 2. ANOVAs are used when the dependent variable is
scored in continuous scales and there are multiple independent variables. The dependent
variable, academic achievement, was scored in continuous scales. The independent
variable, parental style, was classified as a multiple independent variable as it articulated
in terms of foreign influenced authoritarian parental style, authoritative and permissive

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parental styles. Other criteria for the use of ANOVAs established for Hypothesis 1,
applies to the use of ANOVA for the analysis of Hypothesis 2.
Hypothesis 3. Multiple regression analysis will be performed to assess possible
correlations between ethnic capital and the achievement status in Hypothesis 3.
Regression analysis is used to analyze relationships between one continuously scaled
dependent variable and multiple independent variables that are continuously scaled (Cone
& Foster, 2006). The dependent variable, academic achievement, was scored in
continuous scales. Regression analysis is appropriate when independent variables are
combined (Cone & Foster, 2006). The independent sub variable of ethnic capital was
evaluated on multi levels (3), each of which amounted to independent variables in
themselves (ethnic network, ethnic economic resource, and ethnic education resource).
The multiple variables that comprise the ethnic capital sub variable were mostly scored
on continuous scales, which is a requirement for multiple regression (Creswell, 2005), as
opposed to the multiple independent variables scored on categorical scales in H1 and H2.
In those instances ANOVA would be appropriate. Parametric multiple regressions
statistics are appropriate for the analysis of Hypothesis 3, because the single dependent
variable was continuously scored as well as the multiple independent variables (Cone &
Foster, 2006). Multiple regression analysis also satisfies the requirement of Hypothesis 3
since multiple regression analysis has the capacity not only to identify the presence of
statistically significant relationships between dependent and independent variables but
also the strength of the relationships between the variables (Cooper & Schindler, 2003).
Hypothesis 4. Regression analysis was used to test the correlation between
African American immigrant students’ perceptions of self-efficacy and achievement

98
status. The self-efficacy sub variable was scored on continuous ordinal scales. The
Krusal-Wallis test is appropriate for data scored on ordinal data scales as the independent
sub variable is. The use of a parametric or non-parametric test is determined by the
character of the dependent variable. As previously noted, the dependent variable,
academic achievement, was continuously scaled, requiring analysis by parametric
statistics (Cone & Foster, 2006). Regression analysis is a parametric procedure used to
make associations between one dependent and one or more independent variables. In the
case with one independent variable and one continuously scaled dependent variable,
simple regression analysis was used as opposed to multiple regressions for the testing of
Hypothesis 4 (Cone & Foster, 2006). A matrix which presents a summary of the
statistical tests related to each hypothesis is located in Appendix G.
Chapter Summary
Chapter 3 consisted of descriptions of the research method and design utilized in
the study to investigate the relationship between the generational immigrant stage and
achievement status of African American high school students that put them on target for
graduation. The population studied and its associated geography and methods of data
collection, and analysis were part of the chapter’s presentation. Chapter 3 also explained
the processes of instrument validity and reliability used to ensure adequate and accurate
gathering of data. The documents requesting participation in the study, the survey
instrument, research questions and hypotheses were described in the chapter. In keeping
with this quantitative correlation explanatory study, correlation statistics were used to
analyze the data. Chapter 4 reports the results, both in summary and in detail.
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Chapter 4: Analysis and Results
The purpose of the quantitative, correlation explanatory study was to investigate
and explain the relationship between generational immigrant stage and the achievement
status among African American students that put them on track for graduating from high
school. The independent variable of generational immigrant stage was more clearly
analyzed through three associated independent sub-variables of foreign culturally
influenced parental style, ethnic capital, and immigrant student self-efficacy perceptions.
A quantitative correlational design was adopted for its suitability to expedite the
determination as to whether one or more of these variables covary with the achievement
status of African American high school students with an immigrant background. As is
common to quantitative designs, correlation designs have the capacity to establish
association and explain relationships between variables by making determinations of the
degrees of covariance between these variables (Creswell, 2005).
The discourse in the preceding chapters consisted of a delineation of the research
problem and the background of the problem. The research questions, hypotheses and
theoretical framework that gave focus to the study of the problem were similarly
described. The literature review in Chapter 2 presented potent research that continued to
ground the study in its historical foundations. Extensive scholarship analyzed in the
chapter also provided an explanatory platform which served to justify and substantiate the
study’s independent variable and associated sub variables for their effect on student
behavior and academic outcomes. To discuss methodology, Chapter 3 included the
appropriateness of the method and operationally defined variables on which data were
collected. The target population and convenience sampling method were detailed along
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with procedures for collecting data from participants. The method of establishing
reliability and validity of the survey instrument and a matrix summarizing the descriptive
and inferential statistical procedures of data analysis concluded the chapter.
The purpose of Chapter 4 is to account for the results of the statistical procedures
for gathering and analyzing the data. Data collection procedures, preparation of data for
analysis, analysis of each variable, and the computing of statistics to determine the
association among the variables are delineated in the chapter. The correlation was
measured by drawing parallels between 12th grade African American immigrant
students’ high school credits that positions them for graduation, with their generational
status. Graduation projections were further correlated to accompanying sub variables of
student generational status; parental style, ethnic capital and academic self-concept of the
respective generation.
Data Collection
In keeping with the purpose of the study, data on the dependent variable relative
to number of high school credits and grade point average of 296 twelfth grade students in
3 districts in NYC were gathered over an eight-week period in the mid-spring of 2012.
The study was cross sectional as data were collected at one point to make group
comparisons the research questions necessitated (Cooper & Schindler, 2006). Students’
high school credits were gathered from 12th graders, of three generations of African
American students across five schools in New York City netting a sample of 296
participants. The data gathered also consisted of student self-reports of demographic
data, and data relative to the dependent variable and sub variables; parental style, ethnic
capital, and academic self-concept. Surveys were used to collect data for the study, (See
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Appendix D). Two individuals assisted in the data collection process. Assistants were
apprised of the purpose of the study, types of data to be collected, and the protocol to be
followed for collecting these data. Having previously assisted in the data collection
process, assistants then replicated the practices as they distributed and collected survey
responses to participants in other schools. The team leader then placed completed
surveys in a locked suitcase and returned them to the project leader at the end of the day.
Demographics
The survey instrument, a generational motivation questionnaire, was administered
to African American 12th grade high school students in each of the five schools. The
surveys were administered in phases over an 8-week period. In keeping with
conventional ethical standards, prior to participating in the study, signed consent was
obtained from students who were 18 and older (Appendix A). For students under the age
of 18, a signed consent form was obtained from their parents along with signed assent
from the students themselves (Appendices B and C). Responses from participants who
were not African Americans were rejected from the sample before coding.
Sample Size
Approximately 50% of the 500 surveys distributed to the target population were
returned. A total of 296 12th graders participated in the study, but 23 surveys had to be
discarded because of incomplete responses. The return rate of surveys exceeded the
calculated minimum sample size of 88. Having established power at .80 and an effect
size set at .15 with statistical significance or alpha = .05, there was an 80% probability
that 88 participants would be sufficient to find a statistical relationship between the one
dependent variable, one independent variable, and three sub-independent variables (Faul
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et al., 2007). The sample size analyzed was 273, yielding estimates with confidence
intervals that did not exceed 5 percentage points.
Preparation for Data Analysis
After data collection, surveys were transported from the data collection site in a
locked suitcase. On arrival at home, surveys were coded immediately. Participant survey
codes were transferred to attendant consent forms. Consent forms were then separated
from surveys and stored separately in a locked cabinet. After data extraction, surveys
were placed in a locked cabinet separate from the consent forms. Coding helped to
protect participant identity and expedited the grouping of data for analysis. Data were
coded using alphanumeric coding. The five participating schools were alphabetically
coded HsJ, HsM, HsB, HsP, and HsBr. Qualifying surveys (those containing a response
to every item) were numerically coded by adding a numeral to the related high school
code (HsB1, HsB2…). The data were uploaded to a Microsoft Excel file for initial
analysis. The last phase involved the transposing of the data to an SPSS 20 format for
further analysis.
Findings
The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20 was used to
further code and tabulate scores collected from the survey, and provide summarized
values. Where applicable, central tendency, the median and mean, variance, and standard
deviation provided summarized values. Demographic statistics included count and
percent statistics to analyze demographic data. Inferential statistics as analysis of
variance (ANOVA), regression, multiple regression, and multivariate analysis of variance
(MANOVA) were used to test four research questions and hypotheses and draw
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conclusions based on the sample tested. See Chapter 3 for the assumptions underlying
the statistical tests of hypotheses.
Prior to analyzing the hypotheses and data screening were performed on the
variables to ensure they met appropriate statistical conventions. To initiate the process,
variables were first evaluated for normality, linearity, and homogeneity and or
homoscedasticity. The inferential statistics mentioned above were used to assess whether
or not the independent variable and independent sub variables were associated with the
dependent variable. Four hypotheses were constructed in order to make determinations
of associations between the variables in the study (Table 2).
H1. Generational immigrant phase is not significantly related to the achievement
status, as defined by high school credits of African American immigrant students that put
them on target for graduation.
H2. Exposure to foreign culturally influenced parenting style has no significant
effect on the achievement status, as defined by high school credits of African American
immigrant students that puts them on target for graduation
H3. Ethnic capital has no significant effect on the achievement status, as defined
by high school credits of African American immigrant students that put them on target
for graduation.
H4. There is no relationship between African American immigrant students’
perceptions of self-efficacy and their achievement status, as defined by high school
credits that put them on target for graduation.

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Table 2
Study Variables and Statistical Test Used to Evaluate Research Questions
Hypothesis Dependent Variable Independent Variable Statistical Test

1 Achievement Status Immigrant Phase ANOVA
2 Achievement Status Parental Style ANOVA
Ethnic Network
3 Achievement Status Ethnic Economic Resource Multiple Regression
Ethnic Education Resource
4 Achievement Status Self-efficacy Regression
Reliability analysis. Prior to hypothesis testing, reliability analyses were run to
determine if three independent variables (Parental Style, Ethnic Network, & Self-
efficacy) were sufficiently reliable. Reliability analysis allows one to study the properties
of measurement scales and the items that compose the scales (Tabachnick & Fidell,
2007). Alpha produces a coefficient that indicates the consistency of measures on an
instrument to produce reliable sores (Creswell, 2005). Cronbach’s alpha reliability
analysis procedure calculates a reliability coefficient that ranges between 0 and 1. The
reliability coefficient is based on the average inter-item correlation or the internal
consistency of the mean of the items. Scale reliability is assumed if the coefficient is
>=.70. Results from the test indicated that Ethnic Network (8 items) and Self-efficacy
(12 items) were sufficiently reliable (Cronbach’s alpha =.740 & .883 respectively).
Cronbach’s alpha for Parental Style (9 items) was α = .591, and did not meet scale
reliability requirements sufficiently (Table 3).

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Table 3
Summary of Reliability Analysis of Independent Variables
Dependent Variable n # of Items Cronbach's alpha

Parental Style 235 9 .591
Ethnic Network 262 8 .740
Self-efficacy 273 12 .883
Hypothesis 1
For testing, Hypothesis 1 data were analyzed using analysis of variance
(ANOVA). The dependent variable, Achievement Status, was measured by the number
of high school credits completed. The independent variable for Hypothesis 1 was
generational immigrant stage and was categorized into three groups: 1st Generation, 2nd
Generation, and 3rd Generation. Immigrant Stage was measured using three questions
regarding the birth origin of the participant and their parents. Participants were classified
as 1st generation if they and their parents were born outside of the United States.
Participants were classified as 2nd Generation if the participant and at least one parent
were born in the U.S. Participants were classified as 3rd Generation if both parents and
the participant were born in the U.S. (Kao & Tienda, 1995; Pong, Hao, & Gardner, 2005).
Descriptive statistics for achievement status by immigrant phase and overall achievement
status across all participants are displayed in Table 4.
Table 4
Descriptive Statistics of Achievement Status by Immigrant Phase
Immigrant Std.
n Mean Skewness Kurtosis Min Max
Phase Deviation
1st Generation 155 46.34 6.466 0.559 1.084 28 69
2nd Generation 23 43.04 3.686 0.272 -0.403 36 50
3rd Generation 66 43.48 5.633 0.975 3.213 29 65
Overall 244 45.26 6.187 0.732 1.496 28 69
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Data cleaning. Before testing each hypothesis, data were screened for missing
data and univariate outliers. In Hypothesis 1, the distributions were evaluated and six
cases with univariate outliers were found and eliminated. For Hypothesis 1, missing data
were investigated using frequency counts and thirty cases of missing data that existed
within Achievement Status, were removed. For Hypothesis 1, responses from 273
participants were collected; yet 244 were entered into the ANOVA model (n = 244).
Tests of normality. Normally distributed scores ensure the variable of focus is
being measured and not outliers. Determinations of normality allow for reliability of
findings (Steinberg, 2008). In the analysis of Hypothesis 1, the dependent variable
(Achievement Status) was assessed for assumptions of normality. An Achievement
Status frequency histogram was used to provide visual evidence of normality in
frequency bars compared to the superimposed normal curve (see Figure 3).
Figure 3. Frequency histogram of the achievement status variable.

107
Normality is assessed by the shape of the curve and is established in the absence
of kurtosis and skewness (Steinberg, 2008). A visual analysis of the dependent variable
indicates failure to meet the assumptions of normality as indicated in the presence of
positive skewness in the histogram. The distribution was then tested to assess for
significant skewness. Non-normality was also indicated as the statistical evaluation of
the z-skew coefficients of the distribution indicated the distribution did exceed the critical
value of ±3.29 at the p < .001 level (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). Evaluating the
distribution for Kurtosis using the same method also found the distribution to be
significantly kurtotic (z-kurtosis = 4.826). Given the sufficiently large sample sizes, the
central limit theorem asserts that sampling distributions are normally distributed despite
the shape of the variable’s actual distribution. The distribution was assumed to be
normally distributed (Steinberg, 2008).
Homogeneity of variance. When making group comparisons, using ANOVA
detected correlations may be due to extraneous variables or variation in subject
characteristics (Cone & Foster, 2006). The establishment of homogeneity or equality of
variance is a precondition for ANOVA (Cone & Foster, 2006). Levene’s test was
performed to determine if the error variance of the dependent variable was homogenous
across groups. Outcomes from the test indicated that the distribution of the dependent
variable did not meet the assumption of homogeneity of variance. The distributions
therefore did not meet the assumptions of ANOVA. Hypothesis 1 was analyzed using the
associated nonparametric assessment: the Kruskal-Wallis test that assumes homogeneity
of variance (Cone & Foster, 2006). Results did not differ across the parametric
(ANOVA) and nonparametric (Kruskal-Wallis) tests.

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Results of ANOVA of hypothesis 1. Using SPSS 20.0 ANALYZE/GENERAL
LINEAR MODEL/UNIVARIATE (ANOVA), a significant difference in completed high
school credits (Achievement Status) was found between immigrant phases; F (1, 136) =
1.836, p = .001 (two-tailed). Similar results from the nonparametric Kruskal-Wallis test
were found; χ2 (2) = 13.961, p = .001. The null hypothesis was rejected in favor of the
alternative hypothesis. The rejection of the null hypothesis indicates that achievement
status is significantly different across generational immigrant phases. Table 5 displays a
model summary of the ANOVA analysis for Hypothesis 1.
Table 5
Model Summary Generated from ANOVA Analysis of Hypothesis 1
Type III Partial

Mean Observed
Source Sum of df F Sig. Eta
Square Powerb
Squares Squared
Corrected Model 502.415a 2 251.207 6.879 .001 .054 .920
Intercept 271268.129 1 271268.129 7428.778 < .001 .969 1.00
Immigrant Phase 502.415 2 251.207 6.879 .001 .054 .920
Error 8800.319 241 36.516
Total 509089.0 244
Corrected Total 9302.734 243
Note. a. R Squared = .054 (Adjusted R Squared = .046)
b. Computed using alpha = .05
As indicated by Figure 4, Achievement Status for 1st Generation Immigrants (M
= 46.34, SD = 6.466) was significantly higher than 2nd Generation (M = 5.315, SD =
0.594) and 3rd Generation (M = 5.315, SD = 0.594). These results indicate a difference
in achievement status between generational immigrant phases. The primary difference
occured between first and second generation students. The significant difference in
performance between the first and second generation was not replicated between the
second and third generations.

109
Figure 4. The means plot indicates a significant difference in Achievement Status across
Immigrant Phase.
Hypothesis 2
For Hypothesis 2, ANOVA was used to test for a significant correlation between
Foreign Culturally Influenced Parenting Style and Achievement Status, as defined by
high school credits of African American immigrant students that puts them on target for
graduation. The dependent variable, Achievement Status, was continuously scaled and
measured by the number of high school credits completed. The independent variable for
Hypothesis 2, parenting style (Parental Style) was categorized into three groups;
Authoritarian or Foreign Culturally Influenced parental style, Authoritative parental style,
and Permissive parental style. Parental Style was measured using nine 5-point Likert-
type scales where respondents marked 1 for Strongly Disagree, 2 for Disagree, 3 for
Neither Disagree nor Agree, 4 for Agree, and 5 for Strongly Agree. Composite variables
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for the three types of parental styles were calculated by summing case scores and
dividing by the number of construct items (three) for each style, thus creating an average
score for each parenting style for each participant. Each participant was classified as the
style that had the highest average score for that participant. Descriptive statistics for
Achievement Status by Parental Style group, and overall Achievement Status across all
participants, are displayed in Table 6.
Table 6
Descriptive Statistics of Achievement Status by Parental Style
Descriptive Statistics of Achievement Status

Immigrant Phase n Mean Std. Deviation Skewness Kurtosis Min Max
Foreign Influenced 8 45.63 2.615 0.802 -1.196 43 50
Authoritative 120 45.47 6.865 0.794 1.001 29 69
Permissive 64 44.31 5.108 1.144 4.262 33 66
Overall 192 45.09 6.207 0.930 1.837 29 69
Data cleaning. Before the hypothesis was tested, the data were screened for
missing data and univariate outliers. The distributions were evaluated and six cases with
univariate outliers were found. Missing data were investigated using frequency counts
Thirty 30 cases that existed within Achievement Status score and 52 cases within
Parental Style score were located and removed, resulting in a removal within the
distributions of a total of 82 cases. For Hypothesis 2; 280 responses from participants
were collected and 192 were entered into the ANOVA model; n = 192.
Tests of normality. Hypothesis 2 was analyzed following the pattern established
in the analysis of Hypothesis 1; basic parametric assumptions were assessed relative to
the normality of the dependent variable (see Figure 3). Although the distribution was
found to be significantly non-normal due to the Central Limit Theorem, the assumption
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could be made that the sampling distributions were normally distributed, meeting our
normality criterion. By the central limit theorem, the variables were assumed to be
normally distributed because of the use of a sufficiently large sample size.
Homogeneity of variance. Levene’s test was run to determine if the error
variance of the dependent variable was equal across groups. Results from the test
indicated that the distribution of the dependent variable did not meet the assumption of
homogeneity of variance, specifically. Levene’s F (2, 189) = 5.482, p = .005. Since the
distributions did not meet the assumptions of ANOVA, Hypothesis 2 was analyzed using
the associated nonparametric assessment, Kruskal-Wallis Test. Results did not differ
across the parametric (ANOVA) and nonparametric (Kruskal-Wallis) tests.
Results of hypothesis 2. Using SPSS 20.0 ANALYZE/GENERAL LINEAR
MODEL/UNIVARIATE (ANOVA), no significant difference in completed high school
credits (Achievement Status) was found between parenting style groups; F (2, 189) =
.751, p = .473 (two-tailed). Similar results from the nonparametric Kruskal-Wallis test
were found; χ2 (2) = 1.098, p = .577. The null hypothesis was retained, indicating that
achievement status was not significantly different across parenting style groups. Table 7
displays a model summary of the ANOVA analysis for Hypothesis 2.
As indicated by Figure 5, Achievement Status for Foreign Influenced style parents
(M = 45.625, SD = 2.615) was not significantly different than Authoritative style parents
(M = 45.467, SD = 6.865) or Permissive style parents (M = 44.312, SD = 5.108). These
results indicate there was not a statistically significant difference in achievement status
between parenting styles.

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Table 7
Model Summary Generated from ANOVA Analysis of Hypothesis 2
Type III Sum Partial Eta Observed

Source df Mean Square F Sig.
of Squares Squared Powerb
Corrected Model 58.003a 2 29.002 .751 .473 .008 .176
Intercept 123083.334 1 123083.334 3186.900 < .001 .944 1.00
Parental Style 58.003 2 29.002 .751 .473 .008 .176
Error 7299.492 189 38.622
Total 397689.000 192
Note. a. R Squared = .008 (Adjusted R Squared = -.003)

Figure 5. The means plot indicates a nonsignificant difference in Achievement Status
across Parental Styles.

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Hypothesis 3
Hypothesis 3 was tested using multiple regression analysis, having satisfied the
preconditions of normality, linearity, homoscedasticity and multicollinearity. Multiple
regression analysis was used to assess if a significant correlation existed between ethnic
capital and achievement status, as defined by high school credits of African American
immigrant students that puts them on target for graduation. The dependent variable,
Achievement Status, was measured by the number of high school credits completed. The
independent sub variable Ethnic capital was constructed from three predictor variables
including Ethnic Network, Ethnic Economic Resource, and Ethnic Education Resource.
The combined predictors in the ethnic capital sub variable require the use of regression
analysis. Equations that arise with the use of regression procedures indicate the most
effective way to combine predictors. Multiple regression is the form of regression used
with multiple predictors (Cone & Foster, 2006).
The independent variable, Ethnic Network, focused on the ethnicity of parents
and parents’ friends. Ethnic Network was constructed from three items on the
Generational Motivation Questionnaire (GMQ) and was measured on a 3-point scale
where 1 was Mostly African American, 2 was An Equal Mix of African American and
Non-African American, and 3 was Mostly Non-African American. A composite variable
was calculated by summing case scores and dividing by the number of construct items
(3), thus creating an average score per participant. The composite scores were used as an
independent sub variable (Ethnic Network) in the multiple regression analysis of
Hypothesis 3. The second element of predictor variable, Ethnic Capital, (Ethnic
Economic Resource) evaluated the yearly income of the participant’s household and that
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of the mother’s friends. Ethnic Economic Resource was measured on a continuous scale
where 1 = $0-$20,000, 2 = $20,001-$40,000, 3 = $40,001-$60,000, 4 = $60,001-$80,000,
5 = $80,001-$100,000, and 6 = Over $100,000.
The third predictor variable (Ethnic Education Resource) assessed the education
level of the participants’ parents and of their mother’s friends. Ethnic Education
Resource was measured on an ordinal scale where 1 was Did not attend high school, 2
was Attended high school, but did not graduate, 3 was Graduated from high school, 4
was Attended college, but did not graduate, and 5 was Graduated college. Hypothesis 3
was assessed using a model containing three predictor variables (Ethnic Network, Ethnic
Economic Resource, & Ethnic Education Resource) and Achievement Status.
Descriptive statistics for the variables are displayed in Table 8.
Table 8
Descriptive Statistics of Achievement Status and Ethnic Capital
Descriptive Statistics for Hypothesis 2

Variable n Mean Std. Deviation Skewness Kurtosis Min Max
Ethnic Network 241 1.717 0.593 0.608 -0.447 1 3
Ethnic Economic Resource 238 3.147 1.615 0.269 -1.096 1 6
Ethnic Education Resource 261 3.797 1.197 -0.525 -0.719 1 5
Achievement Status 244 45.26 6.187 0.732 1.496 28 69
Data cleaning. For hypothesis three, the data cleaning process was established
following the pattern for hypotheses 1 and 2. Six cases with univariate outliers and 88
cases of missing data were detected. Before testing the hypothesis, the univariate outliers
and cases of missing data were removed from the distribution, leaving 186 usable data
cases.
Tests of normality. Prior to the planned analysis of Hypothesis 3 by regression
procedure, data scores were assessed using basic parametric assumptions of normality,
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linearity, homoscedasticity and multicollinearity. The dependent variable and one
independent sub variable (Achievement Status and Ethnic Network) of Hypothesis 3
were assessed for the basic parametric assumptions of normality. An Ethnic Network
frequency histogram provided visual evidence of normality. See Figure 6.
Figure 6. The frequency histogram of the Ethnic Network variable shows normality.
The independent variable, Ethnic Network, was then analyzed for normality and
generally met the assumptions of normality. The histogram shows a slight positive
skewness. Evaluation for skewness based on the evaluation of the z-skew coefficients,
indicated the distribution was not significantly skewed as the distribution did not exceed
the critical value. Evaluation for kurtosis using the same method also did not find the
distribution to be significantly kurtotic (z-kurtosis = -1.40). The predictor variable was
assumed to be normally distributed.

116
Homoscedasticity of variance. The establishment of homoscedasticity indicates
that variance of residuals are equally spread to ensure that the regression model
accurately identifies the relationship between variables (Reichenbächer & Einax, 2008).
Homoscedasticity is the assumption that the standard deviations of errors of prediction
are approximately equal for all predicted dependent variable scores (Tabachnick & Fidell,
2007). Homoscedasticity is assessed through visual evaluation of the residual
scatterplots. When the band enclosing the residuals is approximately equal in width at all
values of the predicted dependent variable then homoscedasticity is assumed. As
depicted in Figure 7, homoscedasticity of Achievement Status was assumed.
Figure 7. Scatterplot of the Achievement Status variable shows homoscedasticity.

117
Multicollinearity. The presence of multicollinearity or correlations among
independent variables may confound the multiple regression analysis intended for this
hypothesis (Creswell, 2005). The three subdivisions or levels of the independent sub
variable of ethnic capital made the assessment necessary. Assumptions of
multicollinearity between variable levels were tested for correlations by using collinearity
statistics (Tolerance & Variance Inflation Factors). No correlations were found among
the independent sub variables and the presence of multicollinearity was not assumed.
Results multiple regression analysis. Multiple regression analysis was
performed to assess the impact of ethnic capital on achievement status. Results indicated
no significant correlations existed between a model containing three predictor variables
(Ethnic Network, Ethnic Economic Resource, and Ethnic Education Resource) and
Achievement Status; r = .250, R2 = .063, F(6, 67) = 0.745, p = .616 (two-tailed). See
Table 9.
Table 9
Model Summary Generated from Multiple Regression Analysis of Ethnic Capital and
Achievement Status
Standard
R R2 F Sig
Error
Omnibus Model 0.079 0.006 -0.010 0.377 .770
Unstandardized Standardized
Coefficients Coefficients
Std.
B Beta t Sig.
Error
(Constant) 45.544 2.185 20.842 < .001
Ethnic Network -0.355 0.798 -0.033 -0.444 .657
Ethnic Economic Resource -0.234 0.294 -0.062 -0.796 .427

Ethnic Education Resource 0.301 0.405 0.057 0.743 .459
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The contribution of each independent variable, when the others were controlled
for, was evaluated using the standardized Beta for each coefficient. No predictor
variables in the model made a statistically significant contribution to the prediction of
Achievement Status. Thus, the multiple regression model, R2 = 0.006 (0.6%), does not
reliably explain the variance observed in achievement status based on ethnic capital.
Hypothesis 4
Hypothesis 4 used regression analysis to test the correlation between African
American immigrant students’ perceptions of self-efficacy and achievement status, as
defined by high school credits of African American immigrant students that puts them on
target for graduation. The criterion variable, Achievement Status, was continuously
scaled and measured by the number of high school credits completed. The independent
sub variable for Hypothesis 4 was African American immigrant students’ perceptions of
self -efficacy (Self -efficacy).
Self-efficacy questions were measured on a 5-point Likert-type scale where 1 was
Strongly Disagree, 2 was Disagree, 3 was Neutral, 4 was Agree, and 5 was Strongly
Agree. A composite variable was calculated by summing case scores and dividing by the
number of construct items (12), thus creating an average score per participant.
Composite scores were used as the predictor variable (Self-efficacy) in the regression
analysis of Hypothesis 4. Table 10 shows descriptive statistics for the variables.
Table 10
Descriptive Statistics of Achievement Status and Self-efficacy–Hypothesis 4
Variable n Mean Std. Deviation Skewness Kurtosis Min Max

Self-efficacy 272 4.24 0.508 -0.670 0.502 2.5 5
Achievement Status 244 45.26 6.187 0.732 1.496 28 69
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Data cleaning. Data cleaning referenced the aforementioned process utilized for
other hypotheses. Seven cases with univariate outliers were found and removed as well
as 36 cases of missing data that existed with the distributions. A collection of 280
responses from participants were gathered for Hypothesis 4 and 237 were entered into the
regression model; n = 237.
Figure 8. Frequency histogram of the predictor variable Self-efficacy. Despite
significant skewness and slight kurtosis, a normal distribution of variables was assumed.
Tests of normality. The independent sub variable, Self-efficacy, was analyzed
for normality and the histogram suggests slight kurtosis (see Figure 7). The distribution
was tested for skewness, as recommended by Tabachnick and Fidell (2007), and was
found to be significantly kurtotic. Despite findings of slight kurtosis and significant
skewness of the criterion and predictor variable’s distributions, by the Central Limit
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Theorem, the variables were assumed to be normally distributed as in aforementioned
cases.
Results regression analysis of hypothesis 4. Regression was performed using
SPSS 20 to assess the impact that self-efficacy has on achievement status, as defined by
high school credits of African American immigrant students that puts them on target for
graduation. Results indicate a statistically significant correlation between achievement
status and participant self-efficacy, r = .135, r2 = 0.018, F (1, 235) = 4.370, p = .038.
Table 11 displays descriptive and inferential statistics for each predictor variable.
Table 11
Model Summary of Regression Analysis of Hypothesis 4
Standard
R R2 F Sig
Error
Omnibus Model 0.135 0.018 6.164 4.370 .038
Unstandardized Standardized
Coefficients Coefficients
Std.
B Beta t Sig.
Error
(Constant) 38.165 3.462 11.023 < .001
Predictor Variable 1.689 0.808 0.135 2.090 .038
Additional Analyses
Additional questions arose regarding relationships among the dependent and
independent variables, and sub variables. Additional analyses were conducted in order to
address these questions. The additional questions were a) Did perceived self-efficacy
levels differ among Immigrant Phase generations; b) Which parental style was more
descriptive of each generation; and c) Was there a similarity of ethnic capital (ethnic
network, ethnic education resource, and ethnic economic resource) for each generation?
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Additional analysis 1. An analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to test
whether self-efficacy differed based on African American immigrant status. See Chapter
3 for assumptions for the use of the ANOVA. The dependent variable, Self-efficacy, was
continuously scaled and measured in the same manner as reported in the analysis of
Hypothesis 4. The independent variable, Immigrant Phase, was measured in the same
manner as reported in the analysis of Hypothesis 1. Additional analysis 1 findings. No
significant difference in Self-efficacy was found between immigrant phases; F(2, 269) =
.306, p = .737 (two-tailed). The result indicates that self-efficacy did not differ
depending on immigrant status. Table 12 displays a model summary of the ANOVA
analysis.
Table 12
Model Summary Generated from ANOVA Analysis of Additional Analysis 1
Type III Partial

Mean Observed
Source Sum of df F Sig. Eta
Square Power b
Squares Squared
Corrected Model 0.159a 2 0.079 0.306 .737 .002 .098
Intercept 2808.470 1 2808.470 10818.993 < .001 .976 1.000
Immigrant Phase 0.159 2 0.079 0.306 .737 .002 .098
Error 69.829 269 0.260
Total 4967.417 272
Note. a. R Squared = .002 (Adjusted R Squared = -.005)
Additional analysis 2. A Chi-square test for independence was used to test
whether parental style differed significantly by immigrant status. The dependent
variable, Parental Style, was categorized into three groups as listed in the analysis of
Hypothesis 2. The independent variable, Immigrant Phase, was measured in the same
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manner as reported in the Hypothesis 1 analysis. Additional analysis 2 findings. Using
SPSS 20.0 ANALYZE/DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS/CROSSTABS (Chi-square), no
significant association between Parental Style and Immigrant Phase was indicated, χ2(4)
= 3.373, p = .497. A cross tabulation of parenting style and immigrant status is presented
in Table 13. The table presents both frequencies and percentages within each immigrant
phase. In all three generations of immigrant phase, authoritative parental style
represented approximately two-thirds of cases with less than 10% of each immigrant
phase falling into the authoritarian style.
Table 13
Cross tabulation of Frequencies (% within Immigrant Phase) of Parental Style and
Immigrant Phase
Immigrant Phase
Parental Style 1st Generation 2nd Generation 3rd Generation Total
Authoritarian 4 2 3 9
(2.9%) (9.1%) (4.8%)
Authoritative 85 15 42 142
(62.5%) (68.2%) (67.7%)
Permissive 47 5 17 69
(34.6%) (22.7%) (27.4%)
Additional analysis 3. A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was used
to investigate differences in ethnic capital by immigrant generation. MANOVA was
conducted as opposed to an ANOVA. Like ANOVAS, MANOVAS are used with
continuously scaled dependent variables. However, MANOVAS can be conducted on
more than one continuously scaled dependent variable at a time as opposed to ANOVA
which is conducted on one dependent variable at a time. A MANOVA was selected since
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it removed the tedium of carrying out multiple tests with each individual dependent
variable as an ANOVA procedure would have required.
The dependent variables were the three components of ethnic capital, Ethnic
Network, Ethnic Economic Resource, and Ethnic Education Resource. Ethnic Network
was measured continuously with an average score as described in the analysis of
Hypothesis 3. Ethnic Economic Resource was measured continuously on a 6-point scale
and Ethnic Education Resource was measured ordinally, as previously described in the
analysis of Hypothesis 3. See Table 14.
Table 14
Descriptive Statistics of Three Dependent Variables grouped by Immigrant Phase
Immigrant
Variable n Min. Max. Mean Std. Dev. Skew Kurtosis
Phase
Ethnic Network 136 1.00 3.00 1.77 0.657 0.471 -0.885
1 st Ethnic Economic
136 1.00 6.00 2.97 1.596 0.404 -1.025
Generation Resource
Ethnic Education
136 1.00 5.00 3.72 1.209 -0.517 -0.623
Resource
Ethnic Network 20 1.00 3.00 1.62 0.510 0.963 1.381

2nd Ethnic Economic
20 1.00 6.00 3.75 1.552 0.088 -1.005
Generation Resource
Ethnic Education
20 2.00 5.00 4.10 1.021 -0.548 -1.225
Resource
Ethnic Network 57 1.00 2.33 1.61 0.407 0.008 -0.910

3rd Ethnic Economic
57 1.00 6.00 3.56 1.570 -0.117 -0.955
Generation Resource
Ethnic Education
57 1.00 5.00 3.95 1.156 -0.541 -0.984
Resource
A MANOVA procedure was conducted to investigate immigrant phase
differences in a model containing three constructs of ethnic capital. The analysis was
conducted to determine how the three groups differed on the three dependent variables.
The independent variable Immigrant Phase (1st, 2nd, & 3rd Generation) and the three
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dependent variables were Ethnic Network, Ethnic Economic Resource, and Ethnic
Education Resource. Results indicated there was no statistically significant difference
among the three generations of immigrants on the combined dependent variable; F(6,
416) = 2.000, p = .065, Wilks Lambda = .945, partial eta-squared = .028. When the
results from the dependent variables were considered separately, only Ethnic Economic
Resource reached statistical significance. Ethnic Network and Ethnic Education
Resource did not differ significantly among the three groups of Immigrant Phase; only
Ethnic Economic Resource was significant. Probability values for each were Ethnic
Network (p = .165), Ethnic Economic Resource (p = .018), and Ethnic Education
Resource (p = .254). See Appendix G for a table demonstrating the test of between-
subjects effects derived from the MANOVA analysis and Appendix H for other details of
the MANOVA analysis.
Summary of Results
The statistical analysis indicated an association between generational immigrant
stage and its sub variable of student perceived self-efficacy and the dependent variable of
academic achievement of African American students that put them on target for
graduation. Null hypotheses 1 and 4 were rejected in favor of the alternative hypotheses
H1a and H4a. The analysis, however, revealed no statistically significant relationship
between foreign culturally influenced parental styles, and ethnic capital of 12th grade
African American students that put them on target for graduation. Null hypotheses 2 and
3 were therefore retained. Although no statistically significant relationship was found
between ethnic capital and the academic achievement of this group, further analysis
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revealed that on the level of ethnic resource, the independent sub variable Ethnic Capital
was significantly associated with the outcome of Achievement Status.
Chapter Summary
Chapter 4 consisted of a detailed explanation of the data collection and analysis
process and results. Data were collected via student self-reports and analyzed using the
statistical method described in Chapter 3. Results were itemized in accordance with the
hypotheses developed to answer each research question and explained. Data collected
from 273 12th grade immigrant African American students were statistically analyzed to
determine if academic achievement was associated with immigrant generational stage and
its sub-variables. Statistical analyses were numerically presented and graphically
illustrated in tables, scatterplots, and graphs. The analysis favored a rejection of null
hypotheses 1 and 4 and an acceptance of the null hypotheses 2 and 3. Chapter 5 provides
a detailed discussion of findings, with an emphasis on how the results of this study
conform with or deviate from similar studies on academic achievement of African
American students. Implications for leadership and other stakeholders are also discussed.
Conclusions drawn based on outcomes of analysis and recommendations and suggestions
for the direction of future research, or logical next steps based on current findings
conclude Chapter 5.
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Chapter 5: Conclusions and Recommendations
Problem Statement
The study was conducted to address the problem of the unacceptably low
graduation rates of African American high school students. In New York City, nearly
15% of the 25,560 African American students in the class of 2007 dropped out of high
school (NCES, 2010b). Only 50% of that cohort of African American students graduated
from high school on time (NCES, 2010b). Dropping out or failure to complete high
school on time has critical consequences for the individual and the community. Reduced
earnings over a lifetime, confinement to low skilled low paying jobs, little opportunity for
advancement, unstable marriages and even imprisonment are the legacy of the
underachiever (Archambault, et al., 2009; Craig, & Krysik, 2008; Zhang et al., 2007).
Those failing to graduate high school are a major burden on the rest of the society. The
problem of African American high school under-achievement, puts an entire race at risk
for disenfranchisement, and potentially threatens the security, economic stability and
social wellbeing of a whole nation.
Chapter 5 presents a review of the problem and purpose of study, the research
methods employed in the investigation, and an interpretation of data findings. The
chapter will also include a discussion of the limitations, and implications of these
findings in view of the literature. Recommendations for leadership and stakeholders and
for future research founded on the results will conclude the final chapter.
Purpose and Research Methods
A quantitative correlational study was conducted to determine whether a
correlation exists between immigration stage and achievement status of African

127
American high school students. For the purpose of the study, the dependent variable was
achievement status and the independent variable was African American immigrant
generational stage. Generational immigrant stage was weighted for the sub-variables of
foreign culturally influenced parental style, ethnic capital, and perceived self-efficacy.
A population of 12th grade immigrant African American students was chosen to ascertain
possible relationships that may account for variations in academic outcomes between
African American generational immigrant students. Data were gathered from a subgroup
of 273 African American students from 5 New York City high schools and analyzed to
make determinations of variables associated with academic achievement for
enlightenment on the academic achievement of African American students in general.
Analysis of variance (ANOVA), regression, and multiple regression analyses were
conducted to determine possible associations between generational immigrant stage and
academic achievement of 12th grade African American students. Similar associations
were sought between the dependent variable and foreign culturally influenced parental
style, community ethnic capital, and perceived self-efficacy.
Four research questions and related hypotheses were advanced to investigate
anticipated outcomes of correlation between immigration stage and achievement status of
African American high school students. Intergenerational comparisons were conducted
to evaluate the legitimacy of the research questions and related hypotheses. The findings
and their interpretations follow.
Research question and hypothesis 1. What is the relationship between
generational immigrant stage and achievement status, as defined by high school credits,
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of African American immigrant students? The assumption of the null hypothesis (H10)
was no significant statistical relationship exists between generational immigrant stage and
achievement status defined by high school credits of African American immigrant
students. Analysis by ANOVA found statistical grounds for rejecting the null hypothesis.
Results indicated a positive relationship between immigrant stage and academic status of
African American students defined by high school credits. A significant difference in
achievement status (completed high school credits) was found among immigrant stages.
The null hypothesis was rejected, therefore, in favor of the alternative hypothesis.
Interpretation. Consistent with a large body of literature, findings of the study
indicated that first generation immigrant students had more encouraging academic
outcomes than their native peers (Abada, Hou, & Ram, 2009; Pong, Hao, & Gardner,
2005; Thomas, 2009). Achievement Status for 1st generation was statistically
significantly higher than for 2nd and 3rd generation African American-native students.
First generation students had more favorable academic results relative to students of
second and third generations.
Variations in performance between first and second African American immigrant
students and third generation African American native students are consistent with
findings of immigration scholars. Immigration scholarship proffers that given time and
maturity, the educational outcomes of the immigrant generational students decline
(Fuligini, 1997; Lee & Harris, 2006; Pong, Hao, & Gardner, 2005; Zhou, 2006).
Although study outcomes affirm the basic hypothesis offered by immigration scholars, it
brings other claims into dispute. The claim that both first- and second-generation
immigrants outperformed their third generation and beyond peers was not apparent in the
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study. Second generation immigrants did not statistically outperform their third
generation peers. An alteration to the hypothesis is warranted in relation to African
American high school students in New York City. Any intervention based on the theory
as it exists should therefore be approached cautiously.
No support was found for the claim that second-generation immigrant students
performed better than their first generation counterparts (Feliciano, 2001; Fry, 2007;
Thomas, 2009). The bicultural advantage of the second-generation immigrant student,
articulated by immigration researchers Feliciano (2001) and Fry (2007) was not detected
in the study. An alteration to the hypothesis is necessary. The outcomes of first
generation African American immigrant students were demonstrative of a foreign cultural
advantage. The detected dialectical relationship between cultural maintenance and
greater academic consequences contradicts the assumptions of linear assimilation models.
Linear assimilation models predict increase in education outcomes with generational
maturity and increased Americanization (Pereira, Harris, & Lee, 2006). The incongruity
between the study’s outcomes and the predictions of the linear assimilation models
necessitates amendment of straight-line assimilation models. Adjustments to the
immigration genre need to be made to reflect an ethnic cultural advantage relative to the
achievement of African American (immigrant) students.
Research question hypothesis 2. To what extent does foreign culturally
influenced parenting style affect the achievement status, as defined by high school
credits, of African American immigrant students? The question was aimed at finding if
an association exists between foreign culturally influenced parenting style and
achievement status of African American immigrant students that put them on target for
130
graduation. The null (H20) was retained as no statistically significant relationship was
found between foreign culturally influenced parental style and the achievement status, of
these high school students. ANOVA analysis found that achievement status was not
significantly different across any parenting style group (foreign culturally influenced
parental style, authoritative, or permissive parental style).
Interpretation. The existence of a relationship between foreign culturally
influenced /authoritarian parental style, and the achievement status of African American
Immigrant students, was not supported. Foreign culturally influenced parental style is not
a predictor of African American immigrant or of African American native students’
success. Results are counterintuitive following on the findings of Hypothesis 1, and
inconsistent with the reports of some theorists. The outcomes render questionable
suggestions in Spera (2005) and by Rudy and Grusec (2007) that as practiced among
African Americans, foreign culturally influenced authoritarian style parenting led to
greater cognitive and cultural competence and engagement for achievement. Similarly
debatable are claims of advancement of academic success of Chinese immigrants and by
extension those of similar cultural orientation catalyzed by authoritarian
parenting/foreign culturally influenced parenting (Barry, Bernard, & Beitel, 2009; Pong,
Hao, & Gardner, 2005). The theoretical dictates of the aforementioned theorists cannot
be appropriated therefore, in strategizing for effective academic outcomes for this group.
The results also conflicted with expectations of the proposal, and are therefore targeted
for further research.
Further, the ANOVA testing also established that foreign culturally influenced
parenting was not associated with academic achievement of African American immigrant
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student, with any other parenting style. Brown and Iyengar’s (2008) supposition, that
parental style has an influence on student achievement, remains without foundation in the
study. Neither authoritative parental style nor any identifiable parenting style delineated
in the study was predictive of academic achievement among the group of African
American students studied. The findings call for an overhaul of Brown and Iyengar’s
hypothesis and an adjustment to other theories based on similar premises, as these
theories cannot be relied upon as predictors of success among African American students.
Research question and hypothesis 3. What is the relationship between ethnic
capital and the achievement status, as defined by high school credits, of African
American immigrant students? The null hypothesis (H30) was accepted that Ethnic
Capital has no significant effect on the achievement status, as defined by high school
credits of African American immigrant students that put them on target for graduation.
Multiple regression analysis did not establish a statistically significant linear relationship
between community ethnic capital levels and academic achievement of the African
American immigrant students in the study. No significant correlations between a model
containing three predictor variables (Ethnic Network, Ethnic Economic Resource, &
Ethnic Education Resource) and Achievement Status were found across the generations.
Interpretation. Ethnic capital does not accurately explain the variance observed
in achievement status among the immigrant generations since Ethnic Capital has no
significant effect on the achievement status across the groups of African American
students in the study. As in Hypothesis 2, the post-analysis findings for Hypothesis 3
seem inconsistent with reported findings in the literature on ethnic capital. Borjas (1995)
who coined the phrase “ethnic capital”, claimed student outcomes are affected by
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parental income and skills (SES), and also by the net income and skills (SES) of the
ethnic group of the parental generation. Sabatier and Berry (2008) claimed ongoing
contacts with ethnically dense networks empower students to achieve. Results of the
investigation were contradictory to Borjas’ (1995), and Sabatier and Berry’s (2008)
predictions, as well as to similar reports of other researchers noted in the literature review
(Goya & Ryabou, 2009; Sabatier & Berry, 2008; Tyler & Lofstron, 2006). Ethnic capital
theory as exists cannot predictably guide efforts to effect change in academic fortunes of
African American students without suitable adjustments.
Statistical analysis performed to test Hypothesis 3 also showed that no element of
the ethnic capital variable was statistically significantly related to academic achievement
among the group of African American students surveyed. Contrary to assumptions of
conventionally accepted theories, ethnic economic resource or SES is not related to the
study participants’ academic achievement. Tyler and Lofstrom’s (2006) hypothesis that
student educational outcomes are affected by the dynamics of family SES should be
viewed with caution relative to the group studied. Crosnoe and López Turly (2011)
reported that group socioeconomic differences responsible for differences in academic
achievement, should be similarly viewed. The SES–academic success paradigms offered
by Tyler and Lofstrom (2006) and Crosnoe and López Turly (2011) are not consistent
with the assessed reality of African American students. Wholesale acceptance of theories
relative to the contribution of economic resource (of parents and ethnic associates) to
academic success could stymie attempts of education policy makers to fix the African
American student education problem, because of limitations in applicability.

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A MANOVA was conducted to investigate immigrant phase differences for the
ethnic capital variable. Results indicated there was no statistically significant difference
within the three generations of immigrants on the combined constructs of the ethnic
capital sub variable. Within-group findings are not only confirmative of the previous
across-group findings, but also continue to confound reports of the abovementioned
ethnic capital theorist and researchers, and the claim of researchers (Abada , Hou, &
Ram, 2009; Piedras & Engstron, 2009). Inconsistencies between theory and findings
relative to the ethnic capital variable and education outcomes of participants expose
deficiencies in the capacity of conventional theories to articulate solutions for the
predicament of African American high school students’ academic underachievement.
Education reformers should be hesitant to apply the conventional ethnic capital model in
their theorizing for education reform with particular reference to African American
students.
Statistically significant differences were discovered among the three generations
of immigrants on the Ethnic Economic Resource variable when components of the ethnic
capital variable were analyzed separately. Results indicate Ethnic economic resource
(resources of parents and ethnic associates) was significantly associated with generational
stage. Descriptive statistics showed African American-native students and second
generation African American immigrant students possessed statistically significantly
higher levels of ethnic economic resource than their first generation immigrant peers.
More positive academic results were realized by first generation immigrant students than
their more economically resourced second and third generation peers. Though not
statistically detectable, a slightly inverse relationship seems to exist between economic

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resource and immigrant student outcomes (see Table 14). Immigrant generational
maturity is accompanied by an increase in economic resources and a non-statistically
determined decline in academic achievement. First generation African American
immigrant students exhibited the ability to transcend circumstances of comparatively
limited economic resources to achieve respectable academic results. The underlying
dynamics are not captured by conventional theory. Ethnic capital theory should be
amended to reflect the facilitative function of the drive, optimism and work ethic
possessed by African American immigrants who are closer to ethnic cultural roots.
Possessed by ethnical culturally rooted African American, these attributes hold more
relevance for academic achievement than ethnic capital in the context of African
American-native students.
Research question and hypothesis 4. What is the relationship between African
American students’ self-efficacy perceptions and achievement status, as defined by high
school credits, of African American immigrant students that put them on target for
graduation? The question was aimed at establishing possible associations between
students’ perceived self-efficacy and the achievement of African American immigrant
students. Regression analysis was employed to test for possible correlation between
African American immigrant students’ perceptions of self-efficacy and achievement
status. Results indicated a statistically significant correlation existed between
achievement status and participant self-efficacy. The null hypothesis was therefore
rejected.
Interpretation. The positive correlations indicated that African American
immigrant students with better academic achievement have higher levels of perceived
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self-efficacy. Findings affirm reports in the research literature on self-efficacy. Bong
and Skaalvik (2003) offered that self-efficacy beliefs influence the development of
academic competence. Bandura et al., (1996) similarly advanced that students’ perceived
self-efficacy beliefs about their ability influence their motivation for academic
achievement. These theories can be upheld as they are supported in the academic
outcomes of African American students.
What Weiner (2010) explained as phenomenal causality, or similar expectations
for success, may have informed perceived efficacy for the current successful academic
performance of first generation immigrants. First generation immigrants’ efficacy for
achievement may have emerged from experiences of academic mastery in the pre-
migration stage in their country of birth. The hypotheses of Bong and Skaalvik (2003)
and Bandura et al., (1996) were upheld.
Additional analysis showed self-efficacy did not differ with generations. Students
possessed similar levels of efficacy, indicating the performance of students with less
favorable outcomes did not align with their efficacy estimates. The findings confirmed
Albert Bandura’s (1971) social learning theory that exhibited behavior is learned through
vicarious experiences, modeling, and observation and reinforcement. Behaviors
incompatible with efficacy beliefs may be acquired vicariously from behaviors modeled
by certain group members. Modeled behaviors may introduce new patterns of behavior
or weaken the immigrant learner’s resolve to perform a particular behavior in keeping
with known efficacy for that behavior (Bandura 1971; Bandura, Adams, & Beyer, 1977).
No adjustment to Bandura’s social learning theory is needed as the theory accurately

136
accounts for the divide between the perceived self-efficacy for academic output in the
context of lower academic performance among African American students.
The self-efficacy hypothesis of Shields, Brawley, and Lindover (2006), premises
that self-efficacy beliefs could mediate over certain attributions to influence goals and
expectations of mastery outcomes. The hypothesis is irrefutable given the outcomes of
students in the study. Upon arrival in the U.S., African American children and their
parents are Americanized into demographics of inferiority and low SES (Emeka, 2004).
In this context, contact with peer networks that have been stereotyped into reductionist
statuses is likely (Negy, Shreve, Jensen, & Udin, 2003). Despite intentionality,
unmediated associations will establish models for behavior that could negate ethnic
norms of behavior for educational success (Madyun, 2011). The beginnings of the
process may be accountable for the comparative diminished academic outcomes between
first and subsequent immigrant generation students. Shields, Brawley, and Lindover’s
(2006) self-efficacy hypotheses provides a fit frame against which to design strategies
that promote enhanced efficacy predictive of academic success among African American
students.
Limitations affecting findings and possible interpretations. Inevitably
limitations will accompany choices made in the planning and initiation stages of a study.
Among the limitations that had implications for fidelity to the study’s purpose was the
lack of variety of participating schools. Fewer than expected principals from targeted
schools gave consent, although 30-40 high school principals were contacted via emails,
phone calls, faxes and personal visits to schools (see Appendix E). The capacity to make
interschool comparisons and generalize results was reduced. Some principals felt that
137
teaching time would be infringed upon in the conduct of a survey. The better performing
schools were the schools that consented to participate in the study. Four out of 5 of these
schools had a 94% and above graduation rate. Given the 804 high schools in New York
City, more schools could have also been involved in the study thus imputing greater
representative quality onto the study.
Some students, in schools where African Americans were fewer in numbers
relative to the total population, did not want to identify as African Americans supposedly
because they did not want to stand apart from their cohort. The situation also may have
arisen because of the negative stereotypes associated with this demographic, with which
students preferred not to be associated by identification. Adopting the protocol of
allowing all 12th grade students to fill out surveys seemed to resolve this issue
sufficiently. Responses of non-African American students were subsequently extracted
from the returned surveys. Accuracy of measurement of the dependent variable and
hence of findings might be affected by the lack of access to school artifacts to verify
student reports on high school credits. Legal constraints prohibited access to archival
data for verification of student reports. Student self-reports were assumed to be correct.
The reliability coefficient for the measures of the parental style variable did not
meet scale reliability. The limitation may have resulted in an erroneous acceptance of the
null. To compensate for this limitation in future research a higher inter-item reliability
coefficient could be attained for a more reliable assessment of the parental style variable,
by increasing the number of questions measuring that variable (Creswell, 2005).
Limitations, notwithstanding, the study’s outcome yielded invaluable insights for
addressing the underachievement of African American learners.

138
Implications for Leadership
Shifting from generic leadership competencies to more cultural-context based
leadership competencies, is critical for the improvement of the academic fortunes of
African American students. African American students who operate closer to their ethnic
cultural base, experience more successful educational results, as evidenced in first
generation academic outcomes. Distancing from ethnic cultural origins may yield less
favorable academic results as evidenced by the fate of second and third immigrant
generations. Accelerating the assimilation process to facilitate the values of mainstream
culture should not be done at the expense of ethnic culture. Instead, there should be in
schools, a move towards a dignified accommodation to, and valuing of, immigrant
students’ ethnic cultural values. More definitive multicultural environments should be
generated in schools, to provide ethnic cultural platforms to empower the academic
achievement of African American immigrant students.
Leaders should co-partner with teachers to undertake action research to facilitate
an appreciation of the ethnic cultural values of African American immigrant students and
to learn how such knowledge could be leveraged for enhanced outcomes. Leaders can
also opt to build relationships with schools with similar populations who have been
successful consistently. Observation of proficient performances may vicariously boost
student self-efficacy beliefs for improved academic results (Mills, 2009).
Leaders need to effectively manage not only the physical logistics of the school
but the cultural ones. Leaders should create a culture of inclusion and promote policies
aimed at empowering immigrant parents by raising their critical awareness for successful
accommodation of their children into schools (Egbo, 2008). Parents and community
139
members should be enlightened about school culture and its expectations, as well as how
to integrate them into their own expectations to realistically support student achievement
(Rothstein-Fisch & Trumbull, 2008). In the process, home-school relationships should be
redefined where immigrant parents make significant contributions to the shaping of
school culture. Deep community partnerships thus fostered will result in increased
knowledge of inter cultural behaviors, so that better relations between homes and schools
will evolve to directly improve student achievement.
Boards of education may need to overhaul their recruitment practices relative to
education workers employed to facilitate learning among African American students.
Just as educators need to have a distinctive education license to teach special education or
bilingual students, to teach or work among African American students, distinctive
licensing should be required. Superintendents, principals, teachers, speech therapist, and
other education workers should have special certification in the ethnic culture of African
Americans; a version that is closer to the center of the foreign cultural base. Teacher
training programs should be suitably adjusted.
Implications for supervisors. Supervisors need to develop ethnic culturally
informed curricula and should themselves act as custodians of the curricula so developed.
Supervisors should become adept at providing the staff development needed for the
successful enactment of the constructed curriculum and facilitate the institutionalization
of community-specific staff development so teachers could attain the cultural
competencies needed. Teachers would thereby be enabled to identify the disconnect
between cultural values of immigrant households and those of the school and be provided
with strategies to bridge the interstices (Rothstein-Fisch & Trumbull, 2008).

140
Implications for teachers. Reforms without deep engagement with the
mechanisms of limitation may be rendered ineffective. In enacting the curriculum to the
demographic of focus, teachers should strategize to avoid undermining students’
retention of immigrant culture. Teachers should plan to advance ethnic cultural values in
lesson planning by promoting immigrant values of optimism for students’ chances for
upward mobility, and optimistic expectations and beliefs that students can transcend
debilitating effects of their environments to achieve (Kao & Tienda, 1995). Immigrants’
strong work ethic or belief that hard work will be rewarded with achievement (Owens,
2008), and rules, discipline and a healthy respect for authority (Thomas, 2009) should
also be promoted. Consistent with their collectivist cultural orientation to community,
promotion of teacher and peer support will motivate student engagement for school
success (Rothstein-Fisch & Trumbull, 2008,). In order to raise students’ perceived
efficacy for achievement, teachers should arrange the curriculum to allow for experiences
of success. Teachers should plan the curriculum for occurrences of phenomenal causality
so that expectations for success may be fueled by many other experiences of success.
Student-perceived efficacy for future academic performance will be thus greatly
enhanced (Weiner, 2010).
Parents. African American students who operate closer to their ethnic cultural
base had more successful educational results were demonstrated in the study. Parents
should foster in African American students proven ethnic culturally normative behaviors
to promote the academic achievement of African American students. Parents should
embed and maintain in immigrant students, ethnic cultural values that are almost pristine
versions of the cultural originals. Parents should activate memory to mobilize foreign
141
home experiences for the promotion of ethnic identity and sense of shared heritage to
protect self-efficacy for good academic performance (Hansen & Wanke, 2009).
Reminding students of capable others or exposing students to capable others may also
boost students’ efficacy levels. The vicarious experiences of success thus enabled will
drive strong academic performance in line observed mastery as enunciated in social
cognitive theory (Hansen & Wanke, 2009). Parents should orient students to their ethnic
culture through discourse, and promote immigrant values of hard work, optimism, need
for observance of rules and a healthy respect for authority.
Community. Ethnic centers could be established where students could learn of
ethnic cultural values (for example in ethnic after school tutoring centers), as exists in
many Jewish communities. Possession of these values would empower students to rise
above debilitating neighborhood influences to achieve. Since self-efficacy beliefs are
domain specific, ethnic group leaders should work to enhance African American
students’ self-efficacy for graduating from high school. They could do so by arranging
for access to same race model achievers to build the self-efficacy of students in centers
for ethnic development. Efficacy for achievement may be birthed out of experiencing
academic mastery vicariously through similar others (Bandura et al., 1996). To enhance
optimism and efficacy beliefs for success, ethnic group leaders, like parents, should also
promote strong ethnic loyalties among students (Schweinle & Mims, 2009). The
resultant sense of shared heritage and membership in a group has the capacity to protect
against decline in efficacy levels (Schweinle & Mims, 2009). An optimal, centered,
balanced position must be found for such impartations to be effective and of relevance.
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Recommendations for Future Research
The purpose of the study was to investigate the academic achievement of 12th
grade African American students at various generational stages at schools with moderate
to high levels of academic achievement. One recommendation would be to replicate the
study among similar populations across schools with low, moderate and relatively high
levels of academic achievement. Variation in school configurations would present a
more heterogeneous population to allow for greater generalizability of findings. It would
be important to discover if with greater variation in population, foreign cultural parental
style and the ethnic capital variables are differently associated with academic
achievement.
The study could be replicated at the middle school level and at other grade levels
in high schools. An investigation of how these variables affect student outcomes at
tertiary levels as well should also be uncovered. The investigation was conducted in New
York City. California, Chicago, Illinois; Houston, Texas; and Phoenix, Arizona are
similar to New York City, New York as these cities have record low graduation rates and
relatively high freshman dropout rates for African American students. The study could
also be conducted in schools in these cities for comparison.
As opposed to the non-experimental study conducted, experimental quantitative
research should be conducted to move beyond associations between variables, towards
establishing causality. An in depth comprehension of how parental style, ethnic capital
and ethnic minority perceptions of self-efficacy affect immigrant students’ academic
performance may be gleaned in the conduct of qualitative research among similar
populations. Also since the reliability coefficient for the measures of the foreign
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culturally influenced parental style variable did not meet scale reliability, the null
hypothesis was accepted with caution. Further research should be conducted using
parental questionnaire items with a higher inter-item reliability coefficient for a more
reliable assessment of the parental style variable in the context of the hypothesis (H20).
A future study should be conducted to investigate how the competence of culturally
informed educators affect the performance of African American immigrant students
relative to the tested variables of foreign culturally influenced parental style, ethnic
capital, and perceived self-efficacy.
Contribution to the Literature
The investigation filled a fissure in immigrant scholarship by focusing exclusively
on African American immigrants. Given the concept of the immigrant paradox (Crosnoe
& López-Turley’s, 2011), the study took a unique path of focusing on immigrant African
American students as they evolved toward native status to address the problem of African
American students’ attrition rates. Considering the findings and relationships that were
predictive of the immigrant academic success ratings, a comparative trajectory for
African American-native students is assumed. The findings contributed to research by
offering an ethnic cultural platform for scaffolding learning to support successful
outcomes for these students.
Possibly demonstrated in the difference between first and second generational
outcomes is the effect of cultural distancing or distancing from cultural origins. The
study added to research by demonstrating that fresher cultural memory or staying close to
one’s ethnic cultural base as opposed to cultural distancing predicted better academic
performances among African American students. To facilitate more favorable academic

144
results for African American students, education leaders would need to promote certain
ethnic cultural values. The leader’s role would be that of an advocate- diplomat who can
skillfully balance the ethnic cultural demands of the students’ context with the demands
of supervisory education organizations. The study contributes to leadership by
identifying the need for official certification in cultural competencies relative to operating
context, among competencies possessed, as a prerequisite for impressive results.
Summary
Chapter 5 provided an overview of the methods employed in the statistical
analysis of data relative to the testing of research questions and related hypotheses and
the results. Accounting for the results based on foundational predictions at the proposal
stage and from the theoretical framework followed. Explanations were enhanced by
confirming or disconfirming comparisons with the theorized positions expounded in the
literature review. Discussion of conclusions, limitations and implications for leadership
and other stakeholders then ensued. Recommendations for future research founded on
these findings concluded the final chapter.
Conclusion
A quantitative, correlational explanatory study was employed to determine
whether a correlation exists between immigration stage and achievement status of
African American high school students. Outcomes from the study indicated significant
correlations between the dependent variable of academic status that positions African
American immigrant students for graduation and the independent variable of generational
immigration stage. The study results confirmed that generational immigrant stage is
predictive of achievement of African American students’ acquisition of high school

145
graduation status (as measured by the number of high school credits). The study also
confirmed that perceived self-efficacy is also predictive of the attainment of high school
graduation status (as measured by high school credits) of African American immigrant
students. Validations were made as correlations were found between the dependent
variable, and the independent sub variable of perceived self-efficacy. Although the
variables of foreign culturally influenced parental style and ethnic capital were
considered, they did not correlate with increased chances of graduating from high school
for this demographic group. No statistically significant relationship was found between
the dependent variable and the independent sub variables of foreign culturally influenced
parental style and ethnic capital.
Research findings corroborated similar outcomes in generation immigrant
scholarship such as reports of more favorable academic outcomes for earlier immigrant
generations relative to subsequent generations (Abada, Hou, & Ram, 2009; Feliciano,
2001; Fuligini, 1997; Kao & Tienda, 1995; Pong, Hao, & Gardner, 2005; Thomas, 2009).
Research outcomes also corroborated associations between self-efficacy beliefs and
academic results chronicled in established literature (Abada, Hou, & Ram, 2009; Bandura
et al., 1996; Bandura et al., 1977; Bong & Skaalvik, 2003; Williams & Williams, 2010).
The findings from the study relative to the association between ethnic capital and
academic achievement was contradictory to findings established by Borjas (1995),
Crosnoe and López Turley (2011); Piedras and Engstron (2009); and Tyler and Lofstroms
(2006). Associations between foreign culturally influenced or authoritarian style and
African immigrant achievement reported by Domenech et al., (2009) and Rudy and
Grusec (2007) were similarly confounded.

146
Indications of the study are that discontinuity of cultural values, that may occur as
immigrant generations age and values of the host culture become embedded in students,
result in diminished motivation and engagement for more positive educational outcomes.
In the process of socialization, immigrant students are pushed towards standardization
and away from ethnic values and positions. Total abandonment results in contracted
outcomes because without a supportive ethnic cultural value system, African immigrant
students may not be able to transcend the discrimination and nullifying barriers that stand
in their path to academic success.

147
References
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Appendix A: Summary of Generational Immigrant Academic Results
Ethnic Immigrant
Researcher Findings among Immigrant Generations Implications for the Study
Group
Valverde Hispanics Mexican born Limited English First generation immigrants may
(1984) Proficiency students (LEPs) out perform better academically than
performed native born non-LEP their native assimilated peers
s
Kao and Hispanics, 1st and 2nd performed better than third Socialization practices of foreign
Tienda Asians and and beyond. African American positive born parents may be an asset to
(1995) African educational outcomes was dependent on positive educational outcomes of
American the foreign birth/generational status of African American students.
immigrant the parents
students
Fuligini East Asians, 1st and 2nd performed better than third Support system that promotes
(1997) Latinos, Filipinos and beyond even when English was not parental valuing of education could
and Europeans the only language spoken in the home. result in increased levels of
Role of value of education, shared with performance for African American
parents and peers credited for the students.
relatively high levels of academic
achievement students
Feliciano Asians English bilinguals less likely to drop out The bi-cultural advantage. Even the
(2001) of school. presence of a foreign relative made a
Asians difference in outcomes.
Pong Hao Asians, Whites Among Asians and Whites there was Foreign cultural retention is
and Gardner and Hispanics little difference in the academic outcomes associated with better academic
(2005) 1st and 2nd generation. Both 1st and 2nd achievement.
generations performed better than third
generation and beyond students
2nd and 3rd generation Hispanics
performed at similarly lower rates than
1st.
In homes where English was not the main
language spoken student outcomes were
more positive.
Zhou Asians 1st and 2nd performed better than third Among African American students
(2006) and beyond generational immigrant status may
be signifier of relatively better
achievement outcomes among this
group under investigation.
Pereira, Asians 1st and 2nd performed better than third Among Asian students generational
Harris, & and beyond immigrant status did matter
Lee, (2006) 2nd performed better than 1st
166
Ethnic Immigrant
Researcher Findings among Immigrant Generations Implications for the Study
Groups
Fry Whites, Asians , Foreign-born teens experienced less The quality of schooling experienced.
(2007) Latinos academic success than their native born And the urban location of the school
peers. The 2nd generation achieved more may have consequences for African
than 1st and 2nd generation students. American student outcomes
Second generation immigrants are
products of United States schooling
Characteristics of the cities in the states
that receive immigrants impacted student
achievement.
Thomas African Americans Second generation advantage. Students Foreign born parenting may be
(2009) with both parents foreign born had a important to positive African
decided advantage. American academic achievement.
167
Appendix B: Informed Consent–Participants 18 Years of Age or Older
Title: Generational Immigrant Stage and Achievement Status of African American Students
Dear Student:
My name is_____________and I am a student at the University of Phoenix working on a

doctoral degree. I am conducting a research study entitled Generational Immigrant Stage and the
Achievement Status of African American Students. The purpose of this study is to investigate the
relationship between generational immigrant stage and the achievement of African American
students.
Your participation in the study will involve completing a survey which may last for 15-20
minutes. In the interest of facilitating the purpose of the study I will also like to be granted
permission to access your graduation status data. Confidentiality is assured as names will be
coded and will only be viewed by this researcher. A coded list of consent forms bearing names of
participants, and completed surveys will be kept in locked cabinet in the researcher’s home to
which only the researcher has access. Extracted information will be stored in encrypted computer
files on a personal computer used solely by the researcher. Information so obtained will be
incinerated at the end of the study. In this research, there are no foreseeable risks to you.
Your participation in this study is voluntary. If you choose not to participate or to

withdraw from the study at any time, you can do so without penalty. To expedite withdrawal you
should contact me through the email address provided. Upon receipt of the request your survey
will be pulled from the study along with your consent letter and both will be incinerated. You will
then be informed via mail or email (used to communicate your request to the researcher) of the
action taken and the date on which the action was taken. The withdrawal process will then be
Although there may be no direct benefit to you, your participation in the study may
contribute to efforts to increase the high school completion rates of African American students.
Information obtained from the study may also lead to a better understanding of how to improve
the academic outcomes of African American high school students and to the bridging of the
achievement gap.
While the results of the research study may be published your identity will remain
confidential and your name will not be disclosed to any outside party. This researcher is
scheduled to possibly begin the project on March 26, 2012.
168
Voluntary participation: The following information is provided to help you decide whether
you wish to participate in this voluntary study.
As a participant in this study, you should understand the following:
1. You may decline to participate or withdraw from participation at any time without
consequences.
2. Your identity will be kept confidential.
3. The researcher will structure a coding process to assure that anonymity of your name is
protected.
4. Data will be stored in a secure and locked area. The data will be held for a period of
three years, and then destroyed.
5. The research results will be used for publication.
If you have any questions concerning the research study, please contact me
at____________@email.phoenix.edu.
By signing this form you acknowledge that you understand the nature of the study, and the
means by which your identity will be kept confidential. Your signature on this form also indicates
that you are 18 years old or older and that you give your permission to voluntarily serve as a
participant in the study described.
Signature of the participant ______________________________________ Date

_____________
Signature of the researcher _____________________________________ Date

_____________
169
Appendix C: Parental Consent Letter
Title: Generational Immigrant Stage and Achievement Status of African American Students
Dear Parent/ Guardian,
I am requesting permission for your child’s participation in a study entitled “Generational

Immigrant Stage and The Achievement Status of African American students”.
I propose to conduct this study among African American 12th grade high school students.
On this basis your son/daughter is eligible for participation. In the interest of facilitating the
purpose of the study I will like to be granted permission to include your son/daughter as a
participant in the study. I will also like to be granted permission to access the graduation status
data of your child. Confidentiality is assured as names will be coded and will only be viewed by
this researcher. A coded list of consent forms bearing the names of participants and completed
surveys will be kept in a locked cabinet in the researcher’s home and to which only the researcher
has access. Extracted information will be stored in encrypted computer files on a personal
computer used solely by researcher. There are no risks to your child and information so obtained
will be incinerated at the end of the study.
Your child’s participation in this study is voluntary. You may choose to withdraw your
child from the study at any time, without penalty. Upon withdrawal you should contact the
researcher through the email address provided. Upon receipt of the request, your child’s survey
will be pulled from the study along with your consent letter, and both will be incinerated. You
will then be informed via mail or email (used to communicate your request to the researcher) of
the action taken and the date on which the action was taken. The withdrawal process will then be
Although there may be no direct benefit to your child, your child’s participation in the
study may contribute to efforts to increase the high school completion rates of African American
students. While the results of the study may be published your child’s identity will remain
confidential and his/her name will not be disclosed to any outside party.
Voluntary participation: The following information is provided to help you decide

whether you wish to participate in this voluntary study.
170
1. Your child may decline to participate or withdraw from participation at any time
without consequences.
2. Your child’s identity will be kept confidential.
protected.
three years, and then
destroyed.
By signing this form you acknowledge that you understand the nature of the study, and
the means by which your child’s identity will be kept confidential. Your signature on this form
also indicates that you give your permission for your child to voluntarily serve as a participant in
the study described.
This researcher is scheduled to possibly begin this project on March 26, 2012.
Participation involves the completing of a 15-20 minute survey.
Your approval will therefore be appreciated. If you have any questions or concerns,
please contact the researcher at ___________________ @email.phoenix.edu. I look forward to
your approval.
Sincerely,
Parent or guardian _______________________Date________________________
Name of Student ____________________________________

171
Appendix D: Informed Consent – Participants Under 18 Years of Age
Title: Generational Immigrant Stage and Achievement Status of African American students
Dear Student,
My name is _______________ and I am a student at the University of Phoenix working

on a doctoral degree. I am conducting a research study entitled Generational Immigrant Stage and
the Achievement Status of African American Students. The purpose of this study is to investigate
the relationship between generational immigrant stage and the achievement of African American
students.
Your participation in the study will involve completing a survey which may last for 15-20
minutes. In the interest of facilitating the purpose of the study I will also like to be granted
permission to access your graduation status data. Confidentiality is assured as names will be
coded and will only be viewed by this researcher. A coded list of consent forms bearing names of
participants, and completed surveys will be kept in locked cabinet in the researcher’s home to
which only the researcher has access. Extracted information will be stored in encrypted computer
files on a personal computer used solely by the researcher. Information so obtained will be
incinerated at the end of the study. In this research, there are no foreseeable risks to you.
Your participation in this study is voluntary. If you choose not to participate or to

withdraw from the study at any time, you can do so without penalty. To expedite withdrawal you
should contact me through the email address provided. Upon receipt of the request your survey
will be pulled from the study along with your consent letter and both will be incinerated. You will
then be informed via mail or email (used to communicate your request to the researcher) of the
action taken and the date on which the action was taken. The withdrawal process will then be
Although there may be no direct benefit to you, your participation in the study may
contribute to efforts to increase the high school completion rates of African American students.
Information obtained from the study may also lead to a better understanding of how to improve
the academic outcomes of African American high school students and to the bridging of the
achievement gap.
172
While the results of the research study may be published your identity will remain
confidential and your name will not be disclosed to any outside party. This researcher is
scheduled to possibly begin the project on March 26, 2012.
Voluntary participation: Your parents have been provided with the following information
to help them decide whether they want you to participate in this voluntary study.
If you have any questions concerning the research study, please contact me through your
parents at ______________ @email.phoenix.edu.
1. You may decline to participate or withdraw from participation at any time without
consequences.
2. Your identity will be kept confidential.
protected.
three years, and then destroyed.
By signing this form you acknowledge that your parents have explained to you and you
therefore understand the nature of the study, the potential risks to you as a participant, and the
means by which your identity will be kept confidential.
I, __________, understand that my parents / guardians have given permission for me to

take part in a study about completion of high schools by African American students under the
direction of _______________
I am taking part because I want to. I have been told that I can stop at any time I want to,
and nothing will happen to me if I want to stop.
Student’s Signature/Date
173
Appendix E: A Letter to the Principal
The Principal,
Address.
Dear Mr. / Ms. XYZ,
I will like to conduct a study entitled “Generational Immigrant Stage and The Achievement Status of African
American students” in your school. Enclosed please find the protocol and a copy of the New York State D3epartment
of Education Institutional Review Board’s permission to conduct the study. Also find enclosed University of Phoenix
Institutional Review Board’s approval of the study, dated….
I propose to conduct a study on the population of 12th grade African American student population of your
school. African American 12th grade students will be the targeted group since the study aims to determine variables
associated with the achievement status of these students that puts them on track for graduating from high school among
this “at risk” population.
Confidentiality is assured as names and addresses will only be viewed by this researcher only and these will
be shredded at the end of the study. A coded list of consent forms bearing names of participants, and completed
surveys will be kept in locked cabinet in the researcher’s home to which only the researcher has access. Extracted
information will be stored in encrypted computer files on a personal computer used solely by the researcher.
Information so obtained will be incinerated at the end of the study. In this research, there are no foreseeable risks to
students.
Further, although high rates of participation will be greatly encouraged, students will participate on a
voluntary basis. Students will sign consent letters to participate in the study and have the option to withdraw at any
point. While providing this researcher with data relative to measuring and weighting the variables relative to the study,
the study also will potentially provide valuable insight that may contribute to the discourse of bridging the achievement
gap and enhancing the academic fortunes of this demographic.
This researcher has scheduled to possibly begin this project on March 26, 2012. Your cooperation will be
appreciated. If you have any questions or concerns, please contact me at_______________ @email.phoenix.edu. I will
serve as the contact person for this project.
Sincerely,
………………Investigator
174
Appendix F: Generational Motivation Questionnaire
Notice your name appears nowhere on this form. Your confidentiality is being protected by instead using a coded
number. All analysis and reporting will be performed in groups or total sample surveyed. At no time will your name be
reported or used in the analysis or reporting of results. Thank you for taking this time to help us better understand
generational motivation.
Survey Code ____________
Name of High School currently attending :
Month and year you expect to graduate 20____ ----------
I am African American Yes No
My gender is Male Female ----------
I entered high school in (Month and Year) 20_____ ----------
My high school grade point average (GPA) is________ Don't Know
I have completed________________ high school credits. Don’t know
I was born in don't know Africa Caribbean America Other
My father was born in don't know Africa Caribbean America Other
My mother was born in don't know Africa Caribbean America Other
My mother's father was born in don't know Africa Caribbean America Other
My mother's mother was born in don't know Africa Caribbean America Other
My father's father was born in don't know Africa Caribbean America Other
My father's mother was born in don't know Africa Caribbean America Other
Graduated Attended Graduated

My father ... don't know Attended High School College College
HighSchool
Attended Graduated Attended Graduated

My mother ... don't know
HighSchool High School College College
175
Disagree
Strongly
Strongly
disagree
Neutral
Please answer the following questions
Agree
agree
using the scale to the right >>>>
Answer each statement below by checking one box

1 2 3 4 5
per sentence (row).
1. I have the ability to do well in my schoolwork.
2.I put forth my best effort in most of my classes
3. I know how to study for each of my classes.
4. I am a good student.
5. I am confident that I will reach my academic goals.
6. I expect that I will graduate from school.
7. I expect that school will be rewarding to me.
8. I have the skills I need to do well in school.
9. I am as capable of succeeding as most students.
10. I expect to gain a great deal from my school

experience.
11. I am the type of person who does well in school.
12. School is a good experience for me.
13. My parents/guardians are actively involved in

making sure I get the most out of my education
14. I often hear my relatives and their friends speak of

America's opportunities.
15. I often hear my relatives and their friends speak of

the benefits of earning an education.
16. One or more of my parents have made sacrifices for

me to have educational and/or career opportunities.
17. Completing schoolwork each day is important to me.
18. Most evenings my parents push me to complete my

schoolwork.
19. I am proud of my African American heritage.
20. If I could be any ethnicity I want, I would choose

African American.
176
The following questions refer to the person in your home that fulfilled the mother-figure role.
The person I am rating is my biological mother.
The person I am rating is my grandmother.
The person I am rating is someone else.
Check if there was NO mother-figure in your home (If so, answer for the father-figure in your home)
Please answer these questions about your years growing up using the following scale.
1=Strongly Disagree, 2=Disagree, 3=Neither Disagree nor Disagree, 4=Agree, and 5=Strongly Agree
When my mother told me to do something she expected me to do it immediately without asking questions. 3A

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree
As I was growing up, once family policy had been established, my mother discussed the reasoning behind the policy
with the children in the family. 4F

1 2 3 4 5
My mother has always encouraged verbal give-and-take whenever I felt family rules/restrictions were unfair. 5F

1 2 3 4 5
My mother always felt her children need to be free to make up their own minds and to do what they want to do, even
if this does not agree with parent wants. 6P

1 2 3 4 5
As I was growing up my mother did not allow me to question any decision she had made. 7A

1 2 3 4 5
While growing up, mother directed activities & decisions of the children through reasoning & discipline. 8F

1 2 3 4 5
My mother felt wise parents should teach their children early just who is boss in the family. 12A

1 2 3 4 5
177
As I was growing up, my mother seldom gave me expectations and guidelines for my behavior. 13P

1 2 3 4 5
Most of the time I was growing up my mother did what the children wanted when making family decisions. 14P

1 2 3 4 5
Most of my mother's friends and relatives ... (check one of the following)
Did not attend high school _____________
Attended high school, but did not graduate
Graduated from high school ____________
Attended college, did not graduate _______
Graduated college ____________________
Please estimate the yearly income for your household. (check one)
$0-$20,000 ______ $20,001-$40,000 _______

$40,001-$60,000 ______ $60,001-$80,000 _______
$80,001-$100,000 ______ Over 100,000 _______
Mother's friends are ... (check one of the following)

Mostly Non African American ___________
Mostly African American ______________
Equal Mix of African American & Non ____
Other (please explain) _________________________________
___________________________________________________
Most of my friends are ... (check one of the following)
Non African American ________________
African American ____________________
Equal Mix of African American & Non _____________________
___________________________________________________
Father's friends are ... (check one of the following)
Mostly Non African American ___________
Mostly African American ______________
Equal Mix of African American & Non ____
___________________________________________________
(Abada, Hou, & Ram, 2009; Bandura et al., 1986; Buri, 1991)
178
Appendix G: Summary of Statistical Tests and Variables by Hypothesis
Hypotheses Dependent Variable Independent Variable Statistical Analysis
H1o: There is no The Achievement Generational ANOVA

relationship between Status Of African Immigrant Stage
generational American Student Scoring scale –
immigrant status and Scoring scale – categorical nominal
academic continuous ordinal
achievement status
of 12th grade
African American
immigrant students
in selected high
schools in NYC.
H2o:Exposure to The Achievement Parenting Style: ANOVA

foreign culturally Status Of African Scoring scale –
influenced parenting American Student categorical ordinal
style has no effect Scoring scale -
on academic continuous ordinal
achievement status
of 12th grade
African American
immigrant students
in selected high
schools in NYC.
H3o: Ethnic capital The Achievement Ethnic Capital: Multiple

has no effect on the Status Of African Scoring scale – Regression
academic American Student categorical nominal,
achievement status Scoring scale - continuous ordinal
of 12th grade continuous ordinal and continuous
African American interval
immigrant students
in selected high
schools in NYC.
179
H4o: There is no The Achievement Self- Efficacy: Regression

relationship between Status Of African Scoring scale -
student self-efficacy American Student nominal categorical
perceptions and the Scoring scale -
achievement status continuous ordinal
of 12th grade
African American
immigrant students
in selected high
schools in NYC
Appendix H: Permission to Use Questionnaire
Ingrid:
Thank you for your interest in the Parental Authority Questionnaire (PAQ). Please feel free
to use the PAQ for any not-for-profit purposes. For further information about the PAQ (for example,
scoring details, norms, reliability measures, validity), please see the following journal articles:
Buri, J. R. (1991). Parental authority questionnaire. Journal of Personality

Assessment, 57, 110-119. [10.1207/s15327752jpa5701_13]
Buri, J. R. (1989). Self-esteem and appraisals of parental behavior. Journal of

Adolescent Research, 4, 33-49. [10.1177/074355488941003 ]
Buri, J. R., Louiselle, P. A., Misukanis, T. M., & Mueller, R. A. (1988). Effects
of parental authoritarianism and authoritativeness on self-esteem.
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 14, 271-282.
[10.1177/0146167288142006 ]
I wish you the best with your research project.
John R. Buri, Ph.D.

Professor
Department of Psychology
University of St. Thomas
180
Appendix I: Test of Between Subjects Effects Derived From MANOVA Analysis
Table I-1: Test of Between Subjects Effects Derived From MANOVA Analysis
Type III
Mean Partial Eta Observed
Source Sum of df F Sig.
Square Squared Powerd
Squares
Corrected Ethnic
Model Network 1.255a 2 0.63 1.820 .165 0.017 .377
Ethnic
Economic 20.652b 2 10.33 4.109 .018 0.038 .723
Resource
Ethnic
Education
5.987c 2 1.92 1.379 .254 0.013 .295
Resource
Intercept Ethnic
Network 334.489 1 334.49 969.77 <.001 0.822 1.000
Ethnic
Economic 1411.534 1 1411.53 561.76 <.001 0.728 1.000
Resource
Ethnic
Education
1849.008 1 1849.01 1329.66 <.001 0.864 1.000
Resource
ImmigrantEthnic
Phase Network 1.255 2 0.63 1.820 .165 0.017 .377
Ethnic
Economic 20.652 2 10.33 4.109 .018 0.038 .723
Resource
Ethnic
Education
3.835 2 1.92 1.379 .254 0.013 .295
Resource
Error Ethnic
Network 72.433 210 0.35
Ethnic
Economic 527.667 210 2.51
Resource
Ethnic
Education 292.024 210 1.39
Resource
Note. a. R Squared = .017 (Adjusted R Squared = .008)
b. R Squared = .038 (Adjusted R Squared = .028)
c. R Squared = .013 (Adjusted R Squared = .004)
d. Computed using alpha = .05

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GENERATIONAL IMMIGRANT STAGE AND THE ACHIEVEMENT STATUS OF

AFRICAN AMERICAN HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS

THAT PUT THEM ON TARGET FOR GRADUATION

A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree

Doctor of Educational Leadership

All rights reserved

INFORMATION TO ALL USERS

correlational explanatory investigation into possible associations between immigration

self-efficacy. Data collected were analyzed using analysis of variance, multiple

academic outcomes is indicated by the results of the study. Certification in cultural

competencies relative to the operating context is therefore a prerequisite for educational

leaders working among this demographic.

provided during those rough stints.

this group of young people.

I acknowledge my mentor Paul Shuler who gave unconditional support and

Your sincerity and confidence in me were significant enablers in my process.

I acknowledge my committee members Lesley Harbin and Sushil Jindal for

List of Tables ................................................................................................................... xi

List of Figures ................................................................................................................. xii

Statement of the Problem ............................................................................................. 6

Purpose of the Study .................................................................................................... 8

Significance of the Problem ......................................................................................... 9

Nature of the Study .................................................................................................... 10

Research Questions and Hypotheses .......................................................................... 12

Theoretical Framework .............................................................................................. 15

Definition of Terms .................................................................................................... 17

Scope and Limitations ................................................................................................ 21

Chapter 2: Review of the Literature................................................................................ 26

Title Searches, Articles, Research Documents, and Journals .................................... 27

A Historical Perspective of African American Education ......................................... 27

Inadequacy of Education Reform Efforts .................................................................. 33

The Dependent Variable: Achievement Status .......................................................... 34

The Independent Variable: Immigrant Generational Status ...................................... 42

Appraisal of Immigrant Academic Scholarship ......................................................... 42

African American Immigrants’ Country of Origin .................................................... 45

Mediating Variables/Independent Sub Variables....................................................... 46

An Autonomous European-American Perspective .................................................... 49

A Collectivist Perspective .......................................................................................... 50

An Ethnic Congruent Parental Style .......................................................................... 52

Authoritarian/Foreign Culturally Influenced Parenting Style .................................... 53

Foreign Culturally Influenced Parental Style as a Sub-Variable ............................... 54

Foreign Culturally Influenced Parental Style/Acculturation and Dilution ................ 57

Independent Sub-Variable: Ethnic Capital................................................................. 59

Ethnic Networks ......................................................................................................... 61

Independent Sub-Variable: Self-Efficacy .................................................................. 64

Chapter 3: Method .......................................................................................................... 72

Research Method and Design Appropriateness ......................................................... 72

Research Questions and Hypotheses .......................................................................... 75

Sampling Frame ......................................................................................................... 78

Informed Consent ....................................................................................................... 79

Geographic Location .................................................................................................. 82

Independent Sub-Variables ........................................................................................ 84

The Instrument ........................................................................................................... 85

Internal and External Validity. ................................................................................... 90

Data Analysis ............................................................................................................. 95

Chapter 4: Analysis and Results ..................................................................................... 99

Data Collection......................................................................................................... 100

Demographics .......................................................................................................... 101

Sample Size .............................................................................................................. 101

Preparation for Data Analysis .................................................................................. 102

Findings .................................................................................................................... 102

Hypothesis 1 ............................................................................................................. 105