Methods of Research

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Sources of Data and Tools of Research

SOURCES OF DATA AND TOOLS OF RESEARCH

This module, Sources of Data and Tools of Research Sampling
Techniques will provide concepts on what criteria can be used in assessing
the effectiveness of the research tool that a researcher wants to utilize.
Moreover, the College students will be able to be oriented and guided with the
different principles, techniques and procedure on how to use the different
research techniques
At the end of the week, college students should be able:
1. Differentiate documentary data from empirical data
2. Discuss the criteria for research tool;
3. Master the principles, techniques and procedure on how to do
the different research techniques

GENERAL CRITERIA FOR RESEARCH TOOL

DIFFERENT KINDS OF DATA IN TERMS OF SOURCES

Data in research is very important especially in conducting

quantitative research because these are the things where statistical tools
are used to come up with conclusion. In terms of sources data can be
categorized into two namely:

1. Documentary Data – these are the data which are considered

secondary and are obtained from offices, hospitals, agencies
and government offices . In short, these are the data or
information that a researcher does not have at hand in his
generation.
2. Empirical Data – Through different techniques like surveys,
questionnaires, personal interviews and observations the
researcher himself obtained this data.

In generating the said data, different research tools and techniques

are used. In order to make gathering of data effective especially with regards
to preparation and administration of tests, criteria for the said tools should
be considered and these are the following:

A. Validity
If a certain procedure actually accomplishes what it seeks to
accomplish or what it seeks to measure, especially for test an instrument

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 is said to be valid. It is considered as the most important characteristic of
a good research tool.

THREE KINDS OF VALIDITY

Validity can be done in three methods namely:
1. Face Validity –It is the weakest form of validity wherein two or
three experts are asked to look at the test items.

2. Content Validity –It is stronger than the face validity. Again, experts
are asked to evaluate the test but a more serious query is done to
find out if it really measures what should be really measured. After
the administration of test, the researcher himself can check the test
items that he prepared – whether what items should be reviewed
and revised again, what should be deleted and what should be
retained.

There are different ways of conducting item analysis and one

of them is the U-L Index Method.
The U-L Index Method
a. Arrange the corrected test from highest to lowest.
b. Separate two sub-groups of test papers: the upper and
lower group which consist of approximately 27% of the
total number of examinees (upper = 27%, lower = 27%)
c. For every correct answer for each item, mark l. (to be made
both in the upper 27% and lower 27%.
d. Tally the number of correct answers from each group
which earned points for each all the time.
e. Convert the tallies to frequencies and then to proportions.
For example:
60 students took the test. Upper 27% will be 16
students who had the highest score and lower 27% will
be 16 from the students who got low score in the said
test.

Upper I #1 I #2 I#3 I#4 I#5 I#6 I#7 I#8 I#9 I#10

and
so on

1 / / / / / / / / / /

2 / / / / / / / / /

3 / / / / / / / / /

4 / / / / / / / / / /

5 / / / / / / / / / /

6 / / / / / / / / / /
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Sources of Data and Tools of Research

7 / / / / / / / / /

8 / / / / / / / / / /

9 / / / / / / / / /

10 / / / / / / / / / /

And so / / / / / / / /
on

9 10 10 10 10 9 11 10 10 10

f. Compute the difficulty index in each item with this

formula:

Df = Pu + P 1
2
Where:
Df = difficulty index
Pu = proportion of the upper 27 percent group who got
the term right
P1 = proportion of the lower 27 percent group who got
the item right.

g. Compute discrimination index of each item with this

formula:

Ds = P u - P1

Where:
Ds = the discrimination index

Index of Discrimination Evaluation

Very good item.
.40 and up
Good item
.30 to .39
To be revised
.20 to .29
To be rejected
.19 and below
Items with difficulty indices within .20 and .80 and
discrimination within .30 and .80 are retained.

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 3. Construct Validity - By noting the group differences, changes,
correlations, processes, multi-trait, multi-method ways, and
through factorial validity construct validity can be measured. The
most powerful method of construct validation is factor analysis.
It is a method in statistics wherein the large number of measures
is reduced to a fewer number called “factor”. It is a process of
correlating each of the measures and inspecting which ones
cluster together.

B. Reliability
It is the point a research tool wherein the same or similar result
is gained whenever it is given. The accuracy of data, their stability,
repeatability, or precision is what we call reliability.

ESTIMATES OF RELIABILITY
1. Test-Retest Reliability – It is sometimes called as a coefficient of
stability. Test is reliable when it is administered to the same samples
on two different times and the said tests show a high degree of
correlation. It also suggest that the second score gained is not greatly
affected by the double exposure.

2. Equivalent Form Reliability

3. Split-Half Reliability – a popular reliability test wherein the test is
split into halves, scored separately and computation of correlation is
done between the two set of scores. To compensate for the fact that
the reliability has been estimated from a test one-half of the length
of the final form , the Spearman-Brown Prophecy Formula is used.

4. Reliability Based on Item Statistics – To overcome some of the

deficiencies of the split-half reliability, Kuder and Richardson
developed this . It is done by splitting the whole test into as many
parts as there are items in the test. Kuder-Richardson Formula is
used for the said estimates .

C. Sensitivity
It refers to the ability of research instrument to make separations
required for the research problem. There must be sensitivity in it when
a test can detect differences. When both validity and reliability in
measuring and discriminating differences are manifested in the test, it is
said that it possesses sensitivity.

D. Specificity
It is usually applicable to medical research wherein the tool used is
able to differentiate diseases which may be found and labeled negative
against those who don’t have the disease.

E. Positive Predictive
It refers to the capability of a medical research tool to note the
change and positive result which is significant of the disease.

F. Appropriateness
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Sources of Data and Tools of Research

If the respondent group can meet the demands of the instrument, a

research instrument is said to be appropriate.

G. Objectivity

The degree to which the measure is independent of the personal

opinions, subjective judgment, biases, and beliefs of the individual test
user. A respondent should be able to obtain a stable score , accurate and
free from influence of the personal variables of the examiner regardless
of the age, sex, appearance or examiner’s gestures.

DIFFERENT TOOLS OR RESEARCH TECHNIQUES USED IN GENERATING DATA

A. Questionnaire
It is the most commonly used tool in generating data. It is also called
as survey form. It is a paper and pencil gathering of data which consists
of set of questions which are distributed to respondents to answer and
through this a research study will be completed with the supplied
necessary information from the said respondents.

CRITERIA OF A GOOD QUESTIONNAIRE

1. With Clear and specific language. It should not be obscure in
meaning.
2. Items must represent a single idea
3. Items must be free from bias and assumptions
4. Must give the proper evaluation, scoring and interpretation
5. Must have the same scoring and the same options for a certain
purpose.

KINDS OF QUESTIONNAIRE
1. Open-ended questionnaire
Options on this type of questionnaire are not given, instead,
respondents will answer each question in his own way.
2. Close –ended questionnaire
It is a checklist type of questionnaire. In most cases,
throughout the whole questionnaire, same options are given as in
Likert Scale ( usually five-point Likert Scale)

ADVANTAGES:
1. It is easy to construct.
2. Distribution of questionnaire is easy and inexpensive.
3. Ease of tabulating the responses
4. Respondents’ replies are on his freewill.
5. Makes easy and convenient interpretation
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 DISADVANTAGES:
1. Respondent’s assertions cannot be verified.
2. Some information that is missing in the respondents’ answer
cannot be gathered.

STEPS IN PREPARING QUESTIONNAIRE:

1. Research on the similar studies that utilized questionnaires. You
can use them as a guide.
2. Talk to some people who can help you in constructing
questionnaires.
3. Master the guidelines through reading reference books and
interviewing people who are knowledgeable in making
questionnaires.
4. Write the draft of the questionnaire-checklist for your study.
5. Show your finished questionnaire to knowledgeable in
construction of questionnaire for correction, suggestion or
improvement. Then, do some editing.
6. Rewrite the questionnaire and consider the
corrections/suggestions given.
7. Conduct dry-run to at least 10 persons with similar
characteristics to your respondents.
8. Administer the questionnaire to your actual respondents.

B. The Research Interview

TYPES OF RESEARCH INTERVIEW
1. Structured Interview – There is a fixed list called interview guide
which contains the questions for the interview. The Interviewer or
the researcher asks the said questions I order and in verbatim. In
this type of interview, questions are not repeated and order should
not be deviated nor ask additional question to the
respondent/participant.

2. Unstructured Interview – The researcher still has the list of

questions but he is not obliged to ask questions following the
order. Moreover, he is free to repeat and ask additional questions.

ADVANTAGES
1. It is not expensive in terms of preparation of set of questions to
ask.
2. The researcher is able to witness personally the portrayed
emotion of the respondents.
3. Generation of more information is materialized.
4. Better information can be gathered and some points can be
clarified personally.

DISADVANTAGES
1. Selected respondents cannot be contacted due to some reasons
sometimes.
2. Some people find it uncomfortable to have a face-to-face
interview.
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Sources of Data and Tools of Research

3. Interview are time consuming.

4. Gathered information through interview is difficult to quantify.

STEPS IN CONDUCTING RESEARCH INTEVIEW

1. Planning. It includes the selection of the population and
samples(respondents) , the selection of the type of interview and
the preparation of the instrument.
2. Selecting the venue for the interview. Consider here the quietness
and convenience during the interview.
3. Establishing rapport with the interviewee.
4. Carrying out the actual interview in a friendly, polite and
conversational manner.
5. Recording the interview objectively. It can be recorded through
writing or with the use of tape and video recorder.
6. Closing the interview with gratitude and thankfulness expression
for the obtained information and sacrificed time by the interviewee.

C. Observation Method
It is a research technique wherein the researcher is watching the
actual research situation. It can be used in descriptive or experimental
investigation.
KINDS OF OBSERVATION
1. Participant and non participant observation
PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION - the observer/researcher has an
active part in the group activities being observed. He lives
and works with the group in a period of time.
NON-PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION – the observer/researcher
serves as a mere by stander who just observe the group which
is under his study.

2. Structured and unstructured observation

STRUCTURED – The items to be observed is listed and specified
for standard tabulation.
UNSTRUCTURED – the researcher don’t prepare the list of items to
be observed. Everything is included in the observation. It is
usually utilized in uncontrolled observation.

3. Controlled and uncontrolled observation

CONTROLLED – experimental and non-experimental variables are
controlled by the researcher, usually used in experimental
research /studies.
UNCONTROLLED – Variables within observation area are not
controlled. It is similar to unstructured observation and utilized
in participant observation.
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FOUR ELEMENTS TO REMEMBER IN USING OBSERVATION AS A
METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION
1. Decisions concerning the data (outcomes) and the what and
whom he would like to observe (the content).
2. Observation guide development (content)
3. The identification, recruitment and training of observers.
4. The respondent-observer interaction (either researcher will
watch the actual research situation or he will watch some
indirect version of it)

ADVANTAGES:
1. More accurate, more valid and more reliable information can be
gathered because the researcher can gather directly first-hand
information .
2. For greater accuracy and validity in description and
interpretation, the researcher can have a limitless observation of
his subjects in the study.
3. Information from non-verbal and inanimate objects can be
collected through observation.
4. Artificiality in description and interpretation can be avoided
because the subjects of the inquiry can be observed in their
natural setting

DISADVANTAGES:
1. Lack of control on the extrinsic variables which may affect the
validity of causes upon certain effects.
2. Smaller size of sample.
3. Difficulty in quantifying data for standard tabulation.
4. Hard to gain entry into the observation area.
5. Lack of obscurity which makes the observed subjects keep some
vital information.
STEPS:
1. Determine the observation objectives with corresponding
hypothesis.
2. Put the said objectives in the observation notebook.
3. Determine the objects/subjects to be observed as well as their
characteristics/profile.
4. In line with the target and observation objectives, observe the
specific behavior. (Dry run)
5. Specify the outcomes of observation.
6. Compare observation outcomes and targets or observation
objectives.
7. Compare results according to direct/indirect observation and
known/unknown observation.
8. Make conclusion on results and evaluation.
9. Make pilot studies.
10. Design data-gathering plan for the observation.
11. Invite selected sample to participate.
12. Implement the data-gathering plan
13. Analyze the gathered data.
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Sources of Data and Tools of Research

14. Prepare the final report.

D. The Measurement or Objective Method

A four-step process of measurement which includes
1. Drawing what needs to be measured with regards to the
research problem.
2. The selection of appropriate measurement techniques.
3. Development or selection of an instrument to be used.
4. The data collection and analysis.

OTHER MEASURING TECHNIQUES

1. Testing technique – A technique wherein queries to questions,
problem or task are answered by the respondent.
2. Projection technique – A technique wherein a stimulus is
presented to the respondent and his association to that stimulus
is received and interpreted in terms of some psychological
dynamics.
3. Socio-metric technique – Social interactions are measured using
this technique.
4. Rating Scale – It can be verbal or numerical scale. In verbal scale,
points within a continuum of four or five are assigned like in
Likert scale.
Options Assigned Points
Very Much Accepted 5
Much Accepted 4
Accepted 3
Moderately Accepted 2
Not Accepted 1
5. Inventory technique – Checklist application to measurement.
6. Scaling technique – A finite sample of concepts is ordered along a
continuum with other instances without measuring the variables
represented by the continuum quantitatively .

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References
Adanza, Estela G., et al., (2009), Methods of Research: A Primer, Manila: Rex
Bookstore
Calderon, Jose F. and Gonzales, Expectacion C., (2015), Methods of Research
and Thesis Writing, 2015 Reprint. Philippines: National Book Store
De Ocampo-Acero, Victorina, Leuterio, Florida C., (2006), Methods of
Research, Philippines: Rex Bookstore, Manila