JAMIA MILLIA ISLAMIA, NEW DELHI

FACULTY OF LAW

JURISPRUDENCE-I

MEANING AND CONCEPT OF JURISPRUDENCE

Submitted To: Submitted By:

Dr. Eakramuddin Rishu Kumar Singh

(Associate professor) B.A.LL.B. (Hons.) Sf

Faculty of law, Jamia Millia 4th Semester

Islamia, New Delhi

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Contents
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 3
Meaning of Jurisprudence ............................................................................................................................ 3
Definitions of Jurisprudence ......................................................................................................................... 4
Idealistic Definitions.................................................................................................................................. 4
Positivists definition .................................................................................................................................. 6
Definition of Historical school of Jurisprudence ..................................................................................... 10
Sociological school of Jurisprudence ...................................................................................................... 10
Aspects of Jurisprudence ............................................................................................................................ 10
Significance of Jurisprudence: .................................................................................................................... 11
Scope of Jurisprudence ............................................................................................................................... 12
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................... 14
Bibliography ................................................................................................................................................ 15

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Introduction
The study of jurisprudence stated with the Romans. The definition given by the Roman jurists
are vague and inadequate, but they put forth the idea of a legal science. Every jurist has its own
notion of the subject matter and the proper limits of jurisprudence depend upon his ideology and
the nature of society. The word jurisprudence used is different languages in different senses. In
French it refers “case law”. These have been a shift during the last one century and jurisprudence
today is envisaged in broader sense than it had understood earlier.
Jurisprudence signifies knowledge of law and its application. Jurisprudence also has some
practical value. Nowadays progress in science and mathematics has been largely due to
increasing generalisation which has unified branches of study previously distinct unified
branches of study previously distinct, simplified the task of both scientist and mathematician and
provide them to solve by one technique a whole variety of different problems. Generality can
also be understood as improvement in law. One of the tasks of jurisprudence is to construct and
elucidate concepts serving to render the complexities of law manageable and more rational. 1 In
this way, theory can be useful to improve practice. Jurisprudence has an educational value. The
logical analysis of legal concepts that sharpens the logical technique of a lawyer. Jurisprudence
can be helpful to the people to find answers to new legal problems must be found by a
consideration of the present social needs and not in the wisdom of the past. Jurisprudence is the
grammar of law. It throws light on the basic ideas and the fundamental principles of law. By
studying jurisprudence a lawyer can find out the actual rules of law. Jurisprudence provides a
guidelines to the judges and the lawyers in ascertaining the true meaning of the laws passed by
the legislatures by providing the rules of interpretation.2 The study of jurisprudence also helps in
rationalising the thinking of the students.

Meaning of Jurisprudence
Different meanings have been assigned to the term „Jurisprudence‟ by different writers. The
word is derived from the Latin word “Jurisprudentia” which again is made of two words „Juris‟
meaning legal and „Prudentia‟ means knowledge. In simple words, it can be said that
„Jurisprudence‟ is the name given to a certain type of investigation into law, an investigation of

1
JG Riddall, Jurisprudence (OUP, UK, 2nd edn.,2009).
2
Dr. Avtar Singh and Dr. Harpreet Kaur, Introduction to Jurisprudence (Lexis Nexis, 5th
edn.,2020).
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an abstract, general and theoretical nature, which try to find essential principles of law and legal
systems. So it deals with knowledge of „law‟ and not „the law‟. The task of jurisprudence‟
consists of the examination of realm of law and the formulation of valid propositions.3 In France,
jurisprudence is called „La Philosophie De Droit‟ that is the philosophy of rights, that is of law-in
the abstract sense of the term „law‟. In Germany we have the term „Rechtsphilosphie‟ that is the
philosophy of rights that is of law in the abstract sense. In India we may well have the term
„Vidhi Shastra‟ that is the knowledge of law in the abstract sense of the term law.

The term jurisprudence is used to mean three things:

i. First it is used to mean “legal order”. It represents the regime of adjusting relations and
ordering conduct by the systematic application of the force of organized political society.
ii. Secondly, jurisprudence means the whole body of legal Percepts which exists in a
politically organized society.
iii. Thirdly, jurisprudence is used to mean all official control in a politically organized society.
This led to actual administration of Justice as contrasted with the authoritative material for
the Guidance of Judicial action.

Definitions of Jurisprudence
Idealistic Definitions
Romans and other ancient Jurists defined jurisprudence in its idealistic nature. Roman Justinian‟s
defined jurisprudence in the light of its idealistic nature.

Salmond’s Definition of Jurisprudence

Salmond defines jurisprudence as the science of the first principles of the civil law. 4 Thus he
points out that jurisprudence deals with a particular species of law e.g. civil law or law of the
state. The civil law consists of rules applied by courts in the administration of justice. He agree
with Gray in upholding that jurisprudence is concerned with only jurists law and is not
concerned with the laws of theologians and moralist although they also govern the conduct if
man in society.
According to Salmond, jurisprudence in the specific sense includes theoretical jurisprudence;
therefore, it deals not with concrete details but with its fundamental principles and conceptions.
3
V.D. Mahajan, Jurisprudence & Legal Theory (EBC, 5th edn.,2020)
4
Dr. N. V. Paranjape, Studies In Jurisprudence & Legal Theory (Central Law Agency, 2019)
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General jurisprudence as visualized by Salmond deals not with the study of legal system in
general but with the general and fundamental elements of a particular legal system. Furthermore
Salmond has divided jurisprudence into following categories:-
A. LEGAL EXPOSITION: the purpose of which is to set forth the contents of an actual legal
system as existing at any time, whether past or present.

B. LEGAL HISTORY: The purpose of which is to set forth the historical process whereby any
legal system came to be what it is or what it was.

C. THE SCIENCE OF LEGISLATION: purpose of which is to set forth the law, not as it is or
has been, but as it ought to be. It deals not with the past or present of any legal system but with
its ideal future.5
He further divides jurisprudence in the specific sense into:-
I. ANALYTICAL JURISPRUDENCE: the purpose of which is to analyze, without reference
either to their historical origin or development to their ethical significance or validity-the first
principles of law.
II. HISTORICAL JURISPRUDENCE: the purpose of which is to deal with the general
principles governing the origin and development of law, it is the history of the first principles
and conceptions of the legal system.

III. ETHICAL JURISPRUDENCE: the purpose of which is to deal with the law from the point
of view of its ethical significance and adequacy. it is concerned not with the intellectual content
of the legal system or with its historical development but with the purpose for which it exists and
the measures and manner in which that purpose is fulfilled.6
According to Salmond, complete scientific treatment of any body of law involves the study of
these categories of jurisprudence.
Salmond‟s definition has been criticised on the ground that he has narrowed down the field of
jurisprudence by saying that it is a science of civil law, and hence covers only particular legal
system. With the emergence of functional approach, the province or scope of jurisprudence

5
Dr. N. V. Paranjape, Studies In Jurisprudence & Legal Theory (Central Law Agency, 2019)
6
Mayank Madhav, Jurisprudence-I (Singhal Law Publications, 3rd edn.,2018)
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cannot be limited. The study of jurisprudence is not confined to the study of law as administered
by courts of justice. It also takes note of the facts of social life of societies.7

Criticism of Salmond’s definition of Jurisprudence

Salmond did not define the expression Justice. Keeton says what has been just at one time has
frequently not been so considered at another.

Criticism by Dean Roscoe Pound

Dean Roscoe Pound has criticized the definition of Salmond as reducing law to a mass of
isolated decisions and the jurisprudence in that sense to be an organic whole. Further, it is
criticized claiming Salmond‟s definition applies only to lax law not to Statute.
John Chipman Gray’s Definition of Jurisprudence
According to Gray, “the Law of the State or of any organized body of men is composed of the
rules which the courts, that is the judicial organ of the body lays down for the determination of
legal rights and duties.
Criticism of Gray’s definition of Jurisprudence:
Gray‟s definition is criticized claiming he is not concerned with the nature of law rather than its
Purposes and Ends. Further it does not consider the statute law.

Positivists definition
Austin’s definition of Jurisprudence

Austin refers to jurisprudence as the “philosophy of positive law”. By positive law or jus
positivism he means the law laid down by a political superior for controlling the conduct of those
subject to his authority. “Positive law” as used by Austin is thus identical with “civil Law”. The
term “Philosophy” used by Austin in describing jurisprudence is somewhat misleading.
Philosophy deals with the most general theories about things, human and divine, while
jurisprudence restricts itself to the general theory of man-made law.8
Austin‟s most important contribution to legal theory, according to Friedmann was his
substitution of the command of the sovereign (i.e the state) for any ideal justice in the definition

7
Dr. Avtar Singh and Dr. Harpreet Kaur, Introduction to Jurisprudence (Lexis Nexis, 5th
edn.,2020).
8
JG Riddall, Jurisprudence (OUP, UK, 2nd edn.,2009).
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of law.9 The first jurist to make jurisprudence as science was John Austin (1790-1859) who is
often described as the father of English Jurisprudence. In 1832 John Austin published his
monumental work entitled “province of Jurisprudence determined” which treated jurisprudence
as a science of law concerned with analysis of the concepts or its underlying principles.
Austin defines „Jurisprudence‟ as „science of law‟ which deals with analysis of the concepts or
its underlying principles. For Austin the appropriate subject of jurisprudence is positive law i.e.
law as it is. To him jurisprudence is not a moral philosophy but it is a systematic study of actual
law as distinguished from moral, ideal or natural law.

Austin further divides jurisprudence into two classes‟ viz. general and particular jurisprudence.
1. General Jurisprudence: According to Austin general jurisprudence is the philosophy of
positive law. it is concerned directly with principles and distinctions which are common to
various systems of particular and positive law and which each of those various systems
inevitably involves, let it be worthy of praise or blame or let it accord or not with an assured
measures or test. Thus, for Austin general jurisprudence means the science concerned with
exposition of the principles, notions and distinctions which are common to the different systems
of law. The concept of rights and duties, ownership, possession, personality, property etc comes
under the province of general jurisprudence. General jurisprudence is an attempt to expound the
fundamental principles and broadcast generalization of two or more systems.10

2. Particular Jurisprudence: Particular jurisprudence according to Austin is the science of any

such system of the positive law as now actually obtains or one actually obtained in a specifically
determined nation or specifically determined nations. Particular jurisprudence says Austin, is the
science of any actual system of law or of any portion of it. The only practical jurisprudence is
particular.
General and particular jurisprudence differ from each other not in essence but in their scope. The
field of general jurisprudence is a wider one. It takes its data from the systems of more than one
state while particular jurisprudence takes its data from a particular system of law. Its principles
are colored and shaped by the concrete details of a particular system. However, in both cases, the
subject of jurisprudence is positive law.

9
Dr. Avtar Singh and Dr. Harpreet Kaur, Introduction to Jurisprudence (Lexis Nexis, 5th
edn.,2020).
10
V.D. Mahajan, Jurisprudence & Legal Theory (EBC, 5th edn.,2020)
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Austin‟s classification of jurisprudence into general and particular has been criticised by
Salmond, Holland and other jurists. Salmond points out that the error in Austin‟s idea of general
jurisprudence lies in the fat that he assumes that unless a legal principle is common to many legal
systems; it cannot be dealt with in general jurisprudence. There may be many schools of
jurisprudence but there are not different kinds of jurisprudence. Jurisprudence is one integral
social science. The distinction between general and particular jurisprudence is not proper. It is
not correct to use such terms as Hindu jurisprudence, Roman jurisprudence or English
jurisprudence. Jurisprudence is a social science which deals with social institutions governed by
law. It studies them for the point of view of their legal significance.11
Jurists of historical school also denied the existence of general jurisprudence. According to the,
law, like language, grows and evolves. In this process of evolution it is conditioned by local
factor e.g. political, geographical, religious, historical etc. these local factors differ from country
to country. Since such local factors differ from country to country, consequently only particular
jurisprudence is possible.
Holland consistent with his definition of jurisprudence as a science rejects the distinction
between general and particular jurisprudence. He says if jurisprudence is rightly called a science,
like all sciences, it must be general and it is meaningless to call it particular. He further
emphasizes and illustrates his view with the examples of geology. Geology is the science of
earth‟s composition and structure; it would be strange use of language to call the study of the
composition and structure of England as the science of geology.12
Te criticism of Holland is based on the assumption that law has the same characteristic all over
the world but that is opposed to human experience. Maitland points out that “race and nations do
not travel by the same roads and at the same time”. Lord Bryce writes, “The law of every country
is the outcome and result of the economic and social conditions of the country as well as the
expressions of its intellectual capacity for dealing with these conditions. Buckland observes “law
is not a mechanical structure like geological deposits; it is a growth and its true analogy is that of
biology”. Savigny says,” law grows with the growth and strengthens with the strength of people
and its standard of excellence will generally be found at any given period to be in complete
harmony with the prevailing ideas of the best class of citizens”. Puchta writes, “The progress in

11
Dr. N. V. Paranjape, Studies In Jurisprudence & Legal Theory (Central Law Agency, 2019)
12
V.D. Mahajan, Jurisprudence & Legal Theory (EBC, 5th edn.,2020)
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the formation of law accordingly keeps pace with the progress in the knowledge of the people of
the facts which they observe and hence it is that law has its provincialisms no less marked than
language.” Buckland points out that Austin and others who profess “general jurisprudence” do
not adhere to it in practice.13
Gray accepts Austin‟s classification of jurisprudence into general and particular jurisprudence,
though he prefers the term „comparative jurisprudence‟ in place of general jurisprudence. Allen
also agrees with Austin. He says there are certain elements inherent in the conception of law as a
phenomenon of social life e.g. preservation of order-dispensation of justice, delimitation of
rights, ownership, possession, etc. therefore existence of general jurisprudence is possible.
Particular jurisprudence is only a method by which it works. The adjectives of general and
particular demand an explanation of the substantive view of jurisprudence and are according to
Allen „the scientific synthesis of the essential principles of law. Stone Jullius however objected
to Allen‟s observation and comments that Allen does not explain what these essential principles
are and how to designate them. Paton says there may be few rules that may be universal but there
may be universal principles of jurisprudence. The task of jurisprudence is to study the religious
law, legal institution and life of society. Jurisprudence studies the methods by which social
problems are evolved. So, jurisprudence must not concentrate on universal rules of law but
merely on relationship between law, its concepts and life of society.14
To conclude, we can quote Dias and Hughes who says jurisprudence today is envisaged in an
immeasurably broader and more sweeping sense than that as Austin understood. Buckland
remarks “the analysis of legal concepts is what jurisprudence meant for students in the days of
my youth. In fact, it meant Austin. He was a religion; today he seems to be regarded as a disease.
He cannot be replaced on his pedestal; the intensely individualistic habit of mind of his day is out
of fashion.
Criticism on Austin’s Definition: Salmond’s criticism: The error in Austin‟ s idea of general
jurisprudence lies in the fact that he assumes that unless a legal principal is common to many
legalv systems, it cannot be dealt with in general jurisprudence. There may be many schools of

13
JG Riddall, Jurisprudence (OUP, UK, 2nd edn.,2009).
14
Dr. Avtar Singh and Dr. Harpreet Kaur, Introduction to Jurisprudence (Lexis Nexis, 5th
edn.,2020).
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jurisprudence but not different kinds of it. Holland‟s Criticism: Holland‟s points out that it is
only the material which is particular and not the science itself.

Definition of Historical school of Jurisprudence

The chief exponent of the Historical school is Von Savigny. Historical Jurisprudence examines
the manner or growth of a legal system. It deals with general principles governing the origin and
development of law and also the origin and development of legal conceptions and principles
found in the Philosophy of law.15

Sociological school of Jurisprudence

The sociological school commenced in the middle of nineteenth century, according to
sociological school the common field of study of the Jurist is the effect of law and society on
each other. This approach takes law as instrument of social progress.
Aspects of Jurisprudence
The following three main aspects of jurisprudence have developed.
a) Natural Law
Nature law arose as a theory about the unchangeable laws of nature that all of our legal
institutions should look to try to match, with notable theorists in this area of study including Lon
Fuller. It is important to appreciate that this theory of jurisprudence is usually most effectively
summarized by the maxim that 'an unjust law is not a true law' and is also most closely
associated with morality and with the 'intentions of God'. This is because natural law theory
seeks to effectively identify a moral compass to guide the state's lawmaking power when it is
exercised for the good of society. But it is also necessary to look to recognize as to what is
considered morally right and wrong will clearly very distinctly from place to place and also in
terms of time as society develops.16
b) Analytic Jurisprudence
Analytic jurisprudence is concerned with the curious nature of academics carrying out their
studies in this area asking questions like 'What is law?'; 'What is the relationship between law
and power/sociology?'; and, 'What is the relationship between law and morality?' - with notable

15
Dr. N. V. Paranjape, Studies In Jurisprudence & Legal Theory (Central Law Agency, 2019)
16
JG Riddall, Jurisprudence (OUP, UK, 2nd edn.,2009).
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theorists in this area of study including H. L. A. Hart and John Austin. Therefore, this area of
legal theory looks to utilize a neutral point of view and descriptive language when looking to
refer to aspects of legal systems by asking what something 'is' rather than what it ought to be. 17
c) Normative Jurisprudence
Normative jurisprudence recognizes what law ought to be in an ideal world and overlaps this
idea with both moral and political philosophy, in relation to as to whether the law should be
obeyed, why law-breakers should be punished, the use of regulation, and as to how the judiciary
should reach its judgments with notable theorists in this area including John Rawls.18
Consequently, on this basis, it is to be appreciated that legal theory in this area is concerned with
much more than merely analytical aspects, as the normative theories look to be more evaluative
by asking the questions about what lies behind the law so as to gain a far greater understanding
of what makes the law.
Significance of Jurisprudence:
 This topic has its own intrinsic value and interest because it is the subject of research and
serious scholarships. Researchers in law contribute to the development of society by having
repercussions on legal, political and social thought. One of the tasks of this topic is to
construct and explain concepts that serve to make the complexity of the law simpler and
more rational. The belief in this topic is that theory can improve practice.
 The case law also has a pedagogical value. It helps with the logical analysis of legal
concepts and sharpens the lawyer's logic techniques. The jurisprudence study helps combat
the lawyer's professional approach to formalism, leading to excessive focus on legal norms
for their own good and ignorance of the social function of the law.
 The study of the law helps to put the law in the right context, taking into account the
needs
of society and noting progress in related and relevant disciplines.
 Case law can teach people to be proactive, at least on and around them, and recognize
that the answers to a new legal problem should be found in light of the company's
existing social needs and not the wisdom of the company.
 Jurisprudence is the eye of law and the grammar of law because it sheds light on the

17
V.D. Mahajan, Jurisprudence & Legal Theory (EBC, 5th edn.,2020)
18
Dr. N. V. Paranjape, Studies In Jurisprudence & Legal Theory (Central Law Agency, 2019)
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fundamental ideas and principles of law. If a lawyer understands the nature of the law, its
concepts and its differences, it can discover the true rule of law. It also helps to know the
language, the grammar, the basics of the treatment and the hypotheses on which the subject
is based. For a lawyer, therefore, a logical education is required, which results from the
study of law.
 It trains the critical faculties of the mind of the students so that they can dictate fallacies
and use accurate legal terminology and expression.
 It helps a lawyer in his practical work. A lawyer always has to tackle new problems every
day. This he can handle through his knowledge of Jurisprudence which trains his mind to
find alternative legal channels of thought.
 Jurisprudence helps judges and lawyers to determine the true meaning of the legislation
passed by the legislator by providing the rules of interpretation. Therefore, the study of law
should not be limited to the study of positive laws, but must also include a normative study,
i.e., the study should consider the improvement of the law in the context of the prevailing
socio-economic and political philosophies of time, place, and circumstances.
 Professor Dias said that “the study of jurisprudence is an opportunity for the lawyer to
bring theory and life into focus, for it concerns human thought in relation to social
existence.”19
Scope of Jurisprudence
There is no unanimity of opinion regarding the scope of jurisprudence. It may be discussed
under the following three heads.
Early Period
In the early period, jurisprudence has been so defined as to cover moral and religious percepts
also and that has created confusion.
Austinian Period
It was the Austin, who distinguished law form morality and theology and restricted the term to
the body of rules set and enforced by the sovereign or supreme law-making authority within
the realm. So, the scope of jurisprudence was limited to the study of the concept of positive
law only.20

19
Dr. Avtar Singh and Dr. Harpreet Kaur, Introduction to Jurisprudence (Lexis Nexis, 5th
edn.,2020).
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Modern Period
At present, there is a tendency to widen the scope of jurisprudence. The present view is that the
limited. It includes all concepts human order and human conduct is state and society. View of
P.B Mukherji: Jurisprudence includes political social, economic and cultural ideas. It covers the
study of man in relation to state and society. View of Lord Redcliffe: Jurisprudence is a part of
history, a part of economics and sociology, a part of ethics and a philosophy of life.
Jurisprudence widely understood as the science of law is a field of knowledge that is considered
to be as big and law and bigger. It analyses the various notions and reasons behind the
development of law and seeks to provide an explanation thereof. The scope of Jurisprudence has
been aptly put forth by Karl Lewellyn to be „as bigger as law and bigger‟. The scope of
Jurisprudence has been dealt with in the following sub-heads:
The changing frontier of jurisprudence
It has crossed the scope of jurisprudence advanced by Bentham and Austin i.e. law as it is. It also
deals with the ideal element and purpose of law within its scope. It combines all the approaches
and schools of jurisprudence. It has become integrative jurisprudence. Modern jurisprudence
trenches on the fields of the social sciences and of philosophy; it searches into the historical past
and attempts to create symmetry of a garden out of the abundant chaos of conflicting legal
systems. Jurisprudence is a particular method of study, not of the law of one country but of the
general notion of law itself.
It encompasses within its scope the legal theory
The jurisprudence is specifically related to Common Law countries and Anglo-American legal
systems. Legal Theory is associated with continental legal system. In the course of time,
jurisprudence has widened its scope so as to cover also the area covered in Legal Theory. The
main exponent of this tendency is Freidman and his book is Legal Theory.21
Living Law Concept & Social Engineering
It aims at the practical study of law in addition to the study of formal law or law on paper.
Ehrlich‟s Living Law concept related law with actual life of society and thereby encouraged the
scientific study of law in the context of society. In Pakistan, the importance of Living Law
becomes pressing because there is a big different between the formal law and the norms

20
Dr. N. V. Paranjape, Studies In Jurisprudence & Legal Theory (Central Law Agency, 2019)
21
JG Riddall, Jurisprudence (OUP, UK, 2nd edn.,2009).
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prevalent in the society. An example of the gap between the actual practice in society and formal
law can be indicated by the Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961 where the laws have been further
amendments to make the crime punishable with stringent punishments, but the object of the law
is not achieved.
Jurisprudence of Interests by Inhering:
Jurisprudence is no more restricted to the abstract. It deals with the different problem-solving
measures keeping in view the objective of law. Jurisprudence of interest by Inhering: The study
of Roman Law taught him that its wisdom lay not so much in the logical refinement of the
concepts as in the molding of concepts to serve practical purposes. Inhering in his work, Der
Geist des remoisten Rechts (Law as a Means to an End) i.e. the Purpose of Law highlights that
all exercises of human will have some purpose.22 He points out that law is a part of human
conduct and the purpose is main spring of law which serves the needs of the society. The
problem of society is to make difference between selfish interests and the good of the society.
This balance of interests, according to him is achieved by the Principles of Social Motion.
Conclusion
Jurisprudence as a central feature of most developed human societies, has been an object of
philosophical reflection since the beginning of Western philosophy in ancient Greece. In the 21st
century, its concerns continued to be shaped by the major figures of the modern era especially
Hobbes, Bentham, Hart, and Kelson and the schools of realist jurisprudence. Whether new
paradigms in legal philosophy will emerge, marking a break from the themes of the modern era,
will ultimately depend on how law and legal institutions evolve in the future. Jurisprudence
become the most important part of the legal system. The rules by which the rights of parties in a
lawsuit are determined by a judge's application of relevant statutes or legal principles to the facts
of the case that have been found to be true by the jury. The final judgment or decree rendered by
a court based upon the verdict reached by the jury. Legal principles that provide the basis for the
decision rendered by a judge in a case tried without a jury or with an advisory jury after certain
facts have been established. Under rules of federal civil procedure, conclusions of law made in
such cases must be stated separately from the findings of fact.

22
Dr. N. V. Paranjape, Studies In Jurisprudence & Legal Theory (Central Law Agency, 2019)
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Bibliography
Books:-
 Dr. N. V. Paranjape, Studies In Jurisprudence & Legal Theory (Central Law Agency,
2019).
 JG Riddall, Jurisprudence (OUP, UK, 2nd edn.,2009).
 Dr. Avtar Singh and Dr. Harpreet Kaur, Introduction to Jurisprudence (Lexis Nexis, 5th
edn.,2020).
 V.D. Mahajan, Jurisprudence & Legal Theory (EBC, 5th edn.,2020).
 Mayank Madhav, Jurisprudence-I (Singhal Law Publications, 3rd edn.,2018).

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