Muted Group Theory

Polarization of Societal Norms

Jonah Ravin

Abstract: In this dissertation, my main thesis will be that the conformity of individuals to

traditions as a form of self-preservation mutes their free will because they are forced to make

cruel decisions that they wouldn't otherwise make in order to protect themselves. In order to

prove this argument, I will examine the development of changing attitudes in the advertising

industry, and the way in which companies desired to sacrifice their diverse missions and values

to become more relatable to consumers by aligning with current societal norms. I will examine

this issue through the lens of Muted Group Theory. I will analyze the role of marginalised groups

in relation to contemporary social movements, utilizing evidence related to how minority groups

and institutions have altered their methods of communication as a form of self-preservation in

society, such as to articulate their interests and make them perceivable to the dominant group. I

will illustrate my arguments in the context of the literature texts, Things Fall Apart by Chinua

Achebe and the short story “The Lottery” by Shirley Jackson. In my discussion, I will also

develop Henry Katz’s views on masculinity and violence and will propose some solutions for

some of the dilemmas presented.

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 I. INTRODUCTION

A. Broad Statements

Minority groups are strategically marginalized in society through social norms.

Language, as a man-made construction, has the ability to strategically liberate and subordinate

groups. as shown in the form of contemporary social movements. The Muted group theory has

addressed this issue by analyzing the use of language in subordinated groups. Feminest scholars

of muted group theory have claimed that the tool of language is not available to everyone

equally, and thus it has been used to discriminate by strategically restricting subordinated groups

from positions of power and leadership. Social anthropologists Edwin and Shirley Ardener were

the first to develop muted group theory and they were subsequently followed by Cheris

Kramarae, who developed this theory further..

In the novel Things Fall Apart, the author sees to prove that the implications of customs

and traditions that have existed for generations are powerful enough to become deeply ingrained

in their society, as shown by the way in which people unconditionally conform to them. This is

also exemplified in the short story, “The Lottery,” which focuses on showing that group identity

is stronger than individual identity. Finally, the advertising industry also exhibits this tendency to

prey on people’s desire to conform to current social norms. This can be clearly shown as

companies have attempted to altere the physical attributes of certain products, such as Barbie

dolls, to reflect the progression of current feminist values in society

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 B. Research Questions

In my research, I seek to identify specific communication practices, in order to provide

examples of how language is used to liberate and subordinate specific groups. My research seeks

to provide evidence through both in a literature perspective, as well the role of women in

contemporary society, to prove that language is a man-made construction. I will also explore

how notions of toxic masculinity are responsible for violence in society. Finally, I will seek to

understand how companies change their products to align themselves with the current social

norms of society as a means of self-preservation, thus demonstrating and exemplifying the main

argument of muted group theory.

II. DEVELOPMENT

A. History of the Topic

Struggles over gender discrimination are at its core a struggle over language. For

example, before the 1970s, gender discrimination was a term that did not exist, even though the

act did. During slavery, African-American women were discriminated against and sexually

assaulted by their white masters. During industrialization, immigrant women were forced by

financial necessity to passively comply with the demands of their bosses. Even today, women are

subjected to work environments where their sex makes them the basis of ridicule, often in hopes

of driving them away from the workplace. These women faced hostile, abusive work

environments, and violent behavior, often discounted by others as simply having a bad boss or

further proof that they do not belong in the rough workplace (Palczewski 123).

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 After the second wave of women's movements, women developed a more effective way

to advertise language which allowed them to make their interests more comprehensible to the

dominant group. For exemple, the women’s center at Cornell University held its first public

speak out in 1975, where women had “united together to define these experiences as sexual

harassment and articulated this harm as a form of discrimination,” (Palczewski 78). This

example illustrates the complex ways language has the power to subordinate women in the

workplace. It demonstrates the theory that was first proposed by scholars and social

anthropologists Edwin and Shirley Ardener, who argue that people belonging to marginalized

groups must alter their style of language when communicating to the rest of society, or they are

at risk of their ideas being often overlooked by the dominant group. For example, women who

entered the workforce in the 1900s regularly experienced violence through a form of

interpersonal communication by their male bosses. Until they could find a more effective way to

advertise their goals by labeling this behavior as sexual harassment, nothing could be done to

stop it. (Palczewski 123). By coming together as a group and developing a vocabulary that

would allow them to advertise their interests, women were able to get the public to give attention

to their demands, thus achieving public interest that allowed people to “understand this behavior

as not just inappropriate but also illegal, and demand changes in social norms,” (Palczewski

123).

As feminist culture has changed certain attitudes and perceptions, minority groups have

developed new ways in which language can be used to liberate. For example, women developed

a method known as resignification: “the linguistic practice in which one rejects a term's existing

meaning's normative power exposes how the term's meaning is constructed and attempts to

change its connotation,” (Palczewski 156). This allowed women to vocalize their refusal to be

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shamed by the forms of language that subordinated and polarizing them into specific categories,

such as good and bad, or slut and pure, as “local activists embraced the term and planned the

Slut-Walks to show that they refuse to be victim shamed and slut-shamed,” (Palczewski 135).

Furthermore, this social movement remains an attempt for marginalized women to “disarm this

derogatory connotation by embracing the word and giving it positive connotations,” (Palczewski

124). In doing so, women did not refuse their placement in this group, but instead they sought to

“defuse its sting by wearing it as a badge to indicate sexual self-awareness and humanity,”

(Palczewski 124).

III. Literature Review

A. Muted Group Theory in Contemporary Social Movements

The origin of the social movement known as Slut-Walks demonstrates the ability of the

Muted Group Theory to suppress the well being of marginalized groups, which began when a

police officer at a York University panel on campus safety had made a comment saying that

victims of sexual assault should not have “dressed like sluts,” implying that women who do dress

a certain way are asking or deserve to be raped. The remark of this police officer was widely

criticized because it utilized a term that is known as the truncated passive, in which the use of a

“passive verb allows the agent of action to be deleted (or truncated) from the sentence,“

(Palczewski 37). His comment tactically blames the victim since the victim is the only one

present in this sentence; his remark strategically eliminates the agent that is accountable, the

perpetrators of sexual assault, from the sentence; his statement was criticized because passives

such as this exclude agents and remove the explicit responsibility of the consequences that the

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perpetrators exercise, therefore “leaving us with only the objects of the act that is described by

the verb, which foregrounds the victims in our mind, so that we tend to forget that some human

agent is responsible for performing the action” (Palczewski). It is a strategic way that man-made

language assisting in diminishing the accountability of oppressors through the use of “ agentless

passives that conceal and deceive when it doesn’t suit speakers purposes to make agency

explicit,” enabling protection of those who are perpetrators of sexual assault, as well reinforcing

the denial of responsibility.

This was further expanded on in the field of communication studies by Cheris Kramarae,

who maintains that language is “entirely a man-made construction where women’s words are

discounted in society and women’s thoughts are devalued (Kramarae 3). Man-made language in

the media “systematically aids in defining, depreciating, and excluding women,” which is

responsible for creating preconceived notions of men and women work, reinforcing gender-

specific job titles. For example, males being the dominant group have continued to remain the

gatekeepers, those who determine which books, essays, poetry, scripts, plays, film scripts, will

appear in the mass media. This is because women as a minority group are more subject to male

control and censorship, for “women are not as free or able to say what they wish because their

words and the norms for their use have already been formulated by the dominant group, men”

(Kramarae 5).

Women have been muted because their modes of expression have been ignored or

ridiculed. They are often silenced by not having a publicly understood vocabulary to express

their experience. According to Kramarae, “Muted women may even come to doubt the validity

of their experience and legitimacy of their feelings” (Kramarae 6). This male censorship has

resulted in limiting which jobs are available to women; for example, Kramarae notes that women

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have been locked out of the publishing business for 500 years due to the power of man-made

language to subordinate minority groups (Kramarae 35).

As the author states, language has the power to privilege some groups, while displacing

others. This exemplifies the Muted Group Theory, in which scholars believe that language does

not serve all people equally. This is because language is created through interaction; it is a social

product that is created, maintained, changed by its users, but not all users have equal access to

influencing the language. Those that belong to dominant groups within a culture have more

influence over the language, as the dominant cultures oppress minority groups through the use of

language. Women, therefore, are a minority group that is muted and dominated by male

perception in society.

B. Advertisement

The entire advertising industry functions by using women's gender identities to promote

their products. Advertising promotes a brand identity by drawing on social symbols relating to

gender stereotypes. Therefore, companies are selling an identity to consumers just as much as the

product itself, by appropriating feminist ideologies. The author of Gender and Communications

believes that through advertising “as women are encouraged to become physically smaller in

size, men are encouraged to become larger” (Kramarae 3). This attitude has been largely

perpetuated in advertising from the 1910s and 1920s, encouraging standards of beauty that are

impossible for women to obtain because they are always changing. For example, the physical

attributes of Barbie dolls have reinforced these traditional gender norms during this time period,

“for the thin, white, blonde barbie doll physique that is dressed in tight-fitting clothing captures

predominant expectations of women’s beauty” (Palczewski). This beauty ideal becomes

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sensationalized, even though it creates a standard for women that is impossible to achieve,

largely objectifying and body-shaming women. The white upper-class ideal of beauty is

impossible for most women, but the ideal particularly disciplines women who have disabilities,

darker skin, larger bodies, or limited money, since “women who do not comply with social

demands regarding beauty regularly experience humiliation, harassment, and discrimination”

(Palczewski 163).

As observed by the scholar Jennifer Abbasi in her journal article, “Girls as Young as 6

Want to Be 'Sexy,” she argues that gender stereotypes in which young girls become acquainted

with from an early age often influence them to conform to popular and current norms related to

beauty; for she states that gender is “strategically altered by social constraints, such as religion

and the media, which determines how they choose to objectify themselves (Abbasi). The issue

presented in her argument examines how girls objectify themselves by fulfilling social

expectations that have been dictated to them by outside factors such as religion and the media,

which they have internalized from a young age. It examines the theory of performativity to

identify a specific way in which society disciplines the performance of gender bodies, in which

“social norms create conscious attitudes and behaviors which influence how young girls choose

to objectify themselves as more sexy,” (Abbasi). Current expectations of beauty that are largely

reinforced in the media have constrained their gender identity, sexualizing their bodies based on

internalized social norms that have been ingrained in individuals from a young age

In more recent years however, an increased interest in feministic attitudes have become

the norm. In order to remain relevant to their consumers, most companies have attempted to

“become more IMC-centric, shifting their focus from an exclusive concern with sales to one that

embraces building relationships with consumers,” (Kramarae 35). In order to best appeal to their

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target consumers, many companies have attempted to adjust their own marketing strategy to

align themselves with current customs and social norms relating to gender. The ideologies that

companies employ to reach their consumers thus become a reflection of the current norms of

society, which have drastically changed over generations. As values of feminism have become

more popular with young women, it has proven itself to be a profitable identity for companies to

implement within the brand messages of products. Companies have attempted to increase

customer loyalty by establishing themselves as love marks, a system meant to ensure

“unconditional trust and respect for the brand” by appealing specifically to consumers, rather

than the brand itself,” (Kramarae 87). This has been achieved through their promotion of more

feministic values. It demonstrates how companies have attempted to protect their brand

reputation by appealing to the current feminists norms of society. Failure to align themselves

with current feministic values have often resulted in detrimental consequences for companies,

including the boycotting of business by consumers. (Kramarae 89).

This pattern in the advertising industry in recent years has led scholars to recognize a

form of socially responsible advertising they now refer to as “femvertising”, a term they use to

“describe mainstream commercial advertising that attempts to promote female empowerment or

challenge gender stereotypes,” (Fernández 77). Examples of companies femvertising their

products to appeal to consumers are apparent in the updated physical attributes of the same toy

line of Barbie dolls. As evidence, a toy company released a statement in 2000 to emphasize their

changing values, as they revealed “in acknowledgment that Barbie is not the norm and stirred by

slumping sales, the Mattel toy company redesigned the dolls to look more like the kids who play

with them” (Palczewski 163). As a result of this new attitude of femvertising, advertisers have

decided to redesign them to better reflect the feminist values of the current time, thereby

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attempting to change the messages in their products, Having this type of brand identity allows

companies to better market these toys to current consumers by implementing these feministic

messages. (Fernández 67).

As evidence, many organizations, such as Google, are also making the necessary

adjustments to advertise gender inequality within the culture of the workplace. An advertisement

by Google reveals how this company in recent years altered their mission to appeal to more

feminestic values, promising them opportunities to start a new career and fresh start, recognizing

that many of them could not work before due to the confines of gender roles; the existence of

these social norms previously confined them to their roles as housewives. In order to establish

brand loyalty in consumers, companies attempted to address the history of discrimination in the

workforce that largly restricted women from having the same experiences as men. For example,

in the commercial, Google attempted to emphasize their inclusivity, such as their promise of

maintaining entry-level positions, and focus on diversity. They also emphasize in the

commercial how they provide women important opportunities to make them successful, such as

the promise of furthering their education for women, and allowing the work atmosphere to feel

less corporal, and more like a family unit, by “ incorporating workers from a large number of

various backgrounds, from engineering to medicine, and seeking to educate other companies

about the impact of cultural inclusion, while helping them strive to achieve their passions.

(Culture inside Google).

Another company, Nike, is also addressing gender discrimination in their public image.

Their message, as seen in this advertisement, is meant to inspire women to defeat gender

inequality by striving to achieve their passions; they attempt to encourage women to not limit

themselves by the presence of men’s stereotypes. Current society has been able to make greater

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adjustments towards gender inequality because the progression of women's roles in advertising

has allowed citizens to successfully identify this as an issue (Nike Dream Crazier).

As the accepted attitudes and perceptions of women have changed over time, advertisers

in the industry realized that promoting this new culture of feminization is a valuable marketing

tool that is useful to develop a relationship with their consumers. If consumers do not ask critical

questions, however, they may see unremarkable cultural practices that society members have

been conditioned to believe since birth. However, if consumers apply a critical gendered lens,

they will begin to learn how the way in which gender is expressed through communication has

changed over time within the advertising industry. While attitudes and perceptions in the

industry previously validated societal norms pertaining to gender and sexuality, it has adapted

with society’s more recent interest of the feminist culture to attempt to build a relationship with

their consumer.

C. Things Fall Apart

The implications of generational traditions and rituals are explored in the text Things Fall

Apart. Social members demonstrate through the course of the novel their unwillingness to

change due the presence of ingrained social norms. For example, when the character Okonkwo

realizes that his tribe is unable to remain loyal to the old traditions of his tribe due to the

emergence of a new culture, he takes his own life to avoid facing these changes, In relation to rhe

muted group theory, this demonstrates the true nature of attitudes that incite violence and

discrimination; they will persist as long as members of society are unwilling to change and

deviate from social norms and traditions.

Linsay Cobb discusses the main characters in Things Fall Apart and their degree of

connection to society. Okonkwo is seen as powerful in society due to his deep connection and

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blind following of society’s rules, and his full acceptance of the clan's culture. His father, in

contrast, is seen as a weak member of society due to his separation from the traditions of society.

This connects to the muted group theory because it demonstrates how those who follow the

traditions of modern society, “such as the binary male/female stereotypes, are accepted in

society,” while those who behave in a way that deviates from the gendered social norms face

punishment (Cobb). The role of women in this society is confined through gender norms that

have been dictated by men, as their identity is restricted to being a housewife. Okonkwo

represents toxic masculinity, as he discriminates against those who are subordinate through

violence. His obsession with masculinity ultimately led to his ultimate downfall. He looks down

on others who are not as successful, and thus have little power in this society, as an indicator of

their diminished masculinity. He extends his perception of masculinity to his tribe through

discrimination in the form of harsh repercussions when someone cannot achieve his own

perception of masculinity, such as beating his child when he fails at his responsibilities which

are also used as indicators of his masculinity. When applied to The Muted Group theory, this

reveals how an individual's perception of toxic masculinity leads to behavior of discrimination.

(Cobb). Researcher Henry Kat contributed to this argument. He observed that men and boys are

responsible for the vast majority of violence because most are conditioned to adhere to gender

norms and utilize violence to prove they are real men or are at risk of being called homophobic

and sexist names. Katz uses the term “tough guise, asway to explain that many boys and men

become conditioned through gender norms regarding notions of masculinity, to shield their

vulnerability prove their manhood early on, so they avoid being ridiculed as names such as

“pussies, fags, as well as other sexist and homophobic insults that threaten their self-preserved

sense of manliness,” (Katz). The basic message about the violence that young men absorb from

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Hollywood is that social violence and discrimination is a legitimate tool for settling scores and

expressing manhood. Some other cultural arenas Katz mentions as powerful teaching forces

when it comes to violent masculinity are violent video games, pornography, popular men’s

sports, advertising, and political culture. Katz says that the pressure to conform to violent ideals

of manhood can be even more acute for working-class men and men of color because they “often

adopt a hyper-masculine, menacing persona to signal that they’re still men, regardless of what

else has been stripped from them.” (Katz). This is relevant to the Muted Group Theory because

it demonstrates how the media is a primary cause of this form of discrimination, which

conditions boys from an early age to act and communicate violently through discrimination, in

order to preserve their man-made notions of masculinity.

As argued by scholar Mary J. N in the journal article “Okonkwo's Reincarnation: A

Comparison of Achebe's Things Fall Apart and No Longer at Ease, the narrator's point of view

on the role of women in this text is that they are critically devalued in their society. The cultural

norms of women have been dictated by a society that solely values manliness. Women have no

rights in this society. Okonkwo especially does not see them as equal. One example of this is that

they are objectified to solely be a measurement of a men’s social status. This is evident, as it is

socially acceptable to have more than one wife at a time, with all the wives living together

tending to the same house. This shows that women are treated as a man's property. Another

example is that women are expected to adhere to strict gender roles that confine their purpose.

For example, women are expected to remain in the huts, cook dinner for the husband, and tend to

household responsibilities, where the men are the providers, who have to grow the yams, which

are considered exclusively as the men’s crops, and help the rest of the tribe. It is also socially

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acceptable for a man to beat their wives, further showing they are objectified as being the man's

property. (Okolie)

D. The Lottery

The short story “The Lottery,” examines the presence of traditions and societal practices

that have been ingrained in society through generations, and their potential to force others to

disregard moral judgment in favor of group conformity, as a way of protecting themselves. It

provides insight into implications of the muted group theory that exists in society; group

conformity is more powerful than individualism. People are unwilling to break from the

traditional social norms of society because they existed for so long. It exposes the existence of

blind conformity to tradition in this society. This reveals the circumstances that perpetuate the

muting of marginalized groups, people refuse to break from societal norms and traditional

values. For example, the character Tessi insists her children participate in this cruel ritual in

order to increase her chances of saving herself from being sacrificed. This demonstrates the way

in which group conformity becomes more powerful than individual identity; societal practices,

even as cruel as the ones practiced in this society, are powerful enough to make the dynamic of

the family become irrelevant, as shown by the way in which a “viciously selfish a mother can

act towards her own children as an attempt to save herself,” (Blake). This demonstrates the

implications of the Muted Group theory, as members conform to ingrained traditions of this

society as a form of self-preservation This further mutes the free will of individuals., because

members are forced to make cruel decisions that they wouldn't otherwise make in order to

protect themselves from being scapegoated in this society, such as the willingness to sacrifice her

own family to avoid being chosen.

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 As explored further by scholar Hobby Blake, The Lottery illustrates the literary technique

of scapegoating. It is a literary device used to demonstrate how the blind obedience of traditions

leads to the consequence of a corrupt society (Blake). Scapegoating can be seen in a

contemporary context. In the workplace, for example, women who complained of being sexually

discriminated against were often scapegoated as further proof that they do not belong in the

rough workforce The opening dialogue of this text is evidence of the way in which

discrimination of subordinate groups is so habitual that it has become engraved in society and a

natural part of their livelihood (Palczewski 282).

IV. DISCUSSION

A. Masculinity and Violence

According to researcher Mary Okoliein in her journal article, “Okonkwo's

Reincarnation,” the narrator's point of view on the role of women in Things Fall Apart is that

they are critically devalued in their society. The cultural norms of women have been dictated by

a society that solely values manliness. Women have no rights in this society. Okonkwo

especially does not see them as equal. One example of this is that they are objectified to “solely

be a measurement of a men’s social status,” (Okoliein). This is evident, as it is socially

acceptable to have more than one wife at a time, with all the wives living together tending to the

same house. This shows that women are dehumanized as a man's property. Another example is

that the women in this society are expected to adhere to strict gender roles that confine their

purpose. For instance, “the wives are expected to remain in the huts, cook dinner for the

husband, and tend to household responsibilities,” whereas men are the providers, who are

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responsible to grow the yams because it involves physical labor that is used to prove their

masculinity in society. (Okoliein). The experiences of women in this society have been socially

determined by men through the implications of ingrained social norms. In this society, it is

acceptable for women to be beat by their husbands for failing to perform the household duties

correctly. Women are stripped of the language needed to articulate their interests to the dominant

group, due to the existence of a patriarchal society that excludes, confines, and marginalizes

women in ways that limit their experiences.

Researcher Henry Kat contributed to this argument. He observed males are responsible

for the vast majority of violence because most are conditioned from a young age to adhere to

gender norms and utilize violence to prove they are real men. Katz uses the term “tough guise,’

to explain that many boys and men become conditioned through gender norms regarding notions

of masculinity, to shield their vulnerability by proving their manhood early on. For example, the

basic message about the violence that young men absorb from Hollywood is that social violence

and discrimination is a legitimate tool for “settling scores and expressing manhood,” (Katz).

Katz argues that the pressure to conform to violent ideals of manhood can be even more acute for

working-class men and men of color because they “often adopt a hyper-masculine, menacing

persona to signal that they’re still men, regardless of what else has been stripped from them,”

(Katz). This further explains the existence of the Muted Group Theory in relation to the powerful

implications of societal norms; they condition boys from an early age to act and communicate

violently in the form of discrimination against others to preserve their masculinity. The

reinforcement of such norms in everyday life forces males to act differently in an effort to protect

their sense of masculinity, utilizing methods of violence towards marginalized groups.

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B. Proposed Solutions

Healthy deliberation is necessary to combat the polarization of social norms; such

polarization that is created by a fear of dissent is primarily responsible for the muting of minority

groups in society. This forces institutions to remain neutral in order to protect themselves, thus

diminishing their level of diversity in society. The modern climate of polarization that largely

eliminates opportunities for participation in a healthy debate has restricted the contributions of

individuals to society, many of which belong to institutions that attempt to achieve solidarity by

ensuring strict uniformity in beliefs. This creates a fear in individuals to express dissent at the

risk of facing significant repercussions, as “institutions are imposing draconian punishments for

minor transgressions. Demands for conformity may permanently damage institutions that can

enrich society with their diverse missions and priorities… Everyone should encourage

constructive dissent, even when it seems frustratingly out of touch with the trauma and emotion

of the moment,” (Friedersdorf). The fear of individuals of causing unintended consequences for

themselves often forces them to attempt to remain neutral to avoid being scapegoated for societal

norms.

Friedersdorf argues that “Silence is violence… attempts to secure unanimity can

undermine the fight. Choosing neutrality in matters of oppression only reinforces structural

violence. [Neutrality means] that when demands for consensus are intense, people may clam up

or falsify their own beliefs,” (Friedersdorf). Opportunities for healthy deliberation are

nonexistent when institutions seek to establish uniformity, instilling fear in individuals fear being

scapegoated for the structural pitfalls of society. Thus, this common fear of being scapegoated

causes people to suppress their views under a shield of neutrality by remaining silent to protect

themselves. and their refusal to contribute to a healthy deliberation further enables societal

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violence by limiting constructive thinking and the ability to problem-solve, such as “depriving

Americans of insights on what sorts of protests are effective,” (Friedersdorf). This is only one

way in which “choosing neutrality in matters of oppression reinforces structural violence. To be

silent is to be complicit, to be neutral in the face of injustice is an act of injustice itself. Without a

healthy deliberative process, avoidable catastrophes are more likely.” (Friedersdorf). One

specific example that Friedersdorf uses to illustrate the scapegoating of individuals is the firing

of a public-school principal, who publicly expressed criticism of the Black Lives Matter

movement due to its coercive measures used to reach the public. Her criticism of this movement

however was very much protected under the first amendment, and thus the repercussions she

faced due to dissent from her views is “engaging in viewpoint discrimination. That is an

unlawful violation of her civil rights,” (Friedersdorf). As shown by the decision of the bookstore

chain, Tattered Cover, which established a fifty-year policy of neutrality to maintain a free

exchange of ideas that is protected from public scrutiny. Society's fear of constructive dissent

forces individuals with opposing viewpoints to remain neutral to protect themselves, thus

limiting the diversity of institutions.

Furthermore, the existence of social norms that reinforce ingrained attitudes of toxic

masculinity is responsible for the muting of women in society. This can be resolved by allowing

healthy deliberate to de-escalate the polarization of these social norms. This culture that

conditions masculine ideologies on boys from an early age has contributed significantly to

diminishing the opportunities of healthy deliberation, as men continue into adulthood to commit

violent acts to mask their vulnerability from society to maintain respect. Such attitudes do not

originate from peers alone, but more damagingly from those in greater positions of authority,

such as fathers, coaches, and older role models, who thus have a more powerful influence in

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shaping individuals to “measure up to a patriarchal ideology that says being a man is about

domination, power, aggression, and control… notions of manhood create a kind of all-pervasive

cultural script that says physical toughness, force, and violence are legitimate ways for men to

achieve and maintain power and control,” (Katz, 2013). He further argues that boys are

conditioned from a young age with the notion that “real men turn to violence not as a last resort,

but as the go-to method of resolving disputes – and also as the primary means of winning respect

and establishing masculine credibility,” (Katz, 2013). It is therefore evident that the violent

actions of men are caused by their unwillingness to participate in the healthy discussion because

the impulsivity of their emotions in their effort to mask these very same vulnerabilities from the

public overwhelms their sense of moral judgment.

Psychiatrist James Gilligan, who interviewed hundreds of violent criminals in American

prisons, “The more time I spent with him,” Gilligan writes about one of the hundreds of violent

criminals he has interviewed for his research, “the clearer it became that his character served as a

defense against the threat of being treated with scorn and disrespect, of being perceived as a

weakling, not a real man, someone who could be laughed at,” (Katz, 2013). One specific

example is the Columbine shooting, where killers Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold, were both

motivated by a culture that endorses masculinity and punishes signs of vulnerability; their

actions were guided by a conscious effort to reclaim respect by proving their masculinity

“through projecting an image of menace and toughness, instilling fear in others, and using

violence. to recapture the sense of respect that seemed to have eluded him their whole life.

Furthermore, he states that their actions were the “result of aggrieved, angry, and likely self-

hating young men who absorbed all the wrong lessons about what it means to be a tough, strong

man from the world around them,” (Katz, 2013). In this tragic event, healthy deliberation was

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diminished by a culture that embraces notions of toxic masculinity as a form of power, Due to

presence of this masculine culture, the actions of the perpetrators were guided by their emotional

fear of displaying traces of weakness that may undermine their sense of masculinity, rather then

rational judgment, as evidence by a series of written diaries that the perpetrators left behind

discussing their motivation to take revenge on society, where Harris wrote, “everyone is always

making fun of me because of how I look, how fucking weak I am and shit. Well, I will get you

all back. I hate people, and they better fucking fear me if they know what’s good for ’em,” (Katz,

2013). These forms of violence can only be stopped by examining this culture of masculinity in a

larger context, which requires healthy deliberation to sustain rational thinking that is not clouded

based on emotional judgment.

V. CONCLUSION

As the accepted attitudes and perceptions of women have changed over time, advertisers

in the industry realized that promoting this new culture of feminization is a valuable marketing

tool that is useful to develop a relationship with their consumers. If consumers do not ask critical

questions, however, they may see unremarkable cultural practices that society members have

been conditioned to believe since birth. However, if consumers apply a critical gendered lens,

they will begin to learn how gender is expressed through communication has changed over time

within the advertising industry. While attitudes and perceptions in the industry previously

validated societal norms about gender and sexuality, it has adapted with the more recent

development of the feminist culture to attempt to build a relationship with their consumer by

satisfying the uprising feminist culture.

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 In today's political climate, which has never before been so polarized, maintaining

opportunities for healthy deliberation is essential to achieve social change. The fear of dissent

threatens the diversity of societal institutions in their ability to maintain their unique goals and

values, where individuals become scapegoated for the systematic issues of society. The judgment

that is based on emotions rather than analytical thinking diminishes opportunities for a healthy

debate and is ultimately the cause of violent action. For example, this type of judgment that is

based on emotions rather than healthy deliberation has created a culture of toxic masculinity that

is reinforced through societal norms and is responsible for the strategic muting of minority

groups in society.

REFERENCES

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