Unit: 2 Approaches and methods of comparative education

Problem solving technique

There are many problems throughout the world, some that are very simplistic while others are

very complicated with many details. In order to be an effective problem solver, a person has to

have the ability to use prior problem solving skills on problems in the existing future (Ormrod,

2008).

. Meaning and Definition of Problem solving method

In a problem solving method, children learn by working on problems. This enables the students

to learn new knowledge by facing the problems to be solved. The students are expected to

observe, understand, analyze, interpret find solutions, and perform applications that lead to a

holistic understanding of the concept. This method develops scientific process skills. This

method helps in developing brainstorming approach to learning concepts

.1. Objectives of Problem-Solving: The specific objectives of problem solving in science are:

Willingness to try problems and improve their perseverance when solving problems. Improve

pupils’ self-concepts with respect to the abilities to solve problems. Make pupils aware of the

problem-solving strategies. Make pupils aware of the value of approaching problems in a

systematic manner. Make pupils aware that many problems can be solved in more than one way.

Improve pupils’ abilities to select appropriate solution strategies. Improve pupils’ abilities to

implement solution strategies accurately. Improve pupils’ abilities to get more correct answers to

problems. The appreciation of the existence of a problems and a desire to solve it. The
accumulation of the facts and data which are pertinent to the problem. Logical interpretation of

the data supported by adequate valid experience.

.2. Problem solving method:

Problem solving consists of using generic methods, in an orderly manner for finding solution to

problem. Some of the problem solving techniques are developed and used in biosciences,

computer sciences and social sciences. The process of working through detail of a problem to

reach a solution. Problem Solving may include mathematical or systematic operations and can be

a gauge of an individual’s critical thinking skills.

.2. Definitions

.1. According to M.N.Singh and Mahesway:

Problem solving is planned attack on difficulty for finding out satisfactory solution.

.2. According to C.V.Good:

In this method, teacher shows many problems in front of students, teacher provides a situation

for learning of a student.

.3. According to James M.Lee:

It is a teaching technique; by this technique, teacher and students solve the problem as an

attentive, alert for solving problem in the systematic way.

. Basic Function

 Seeking information

 Generating new knowledge

 Making decisions on the basis of knowledge and information.

.1. Explanation:

Problem solving is a technique to engage students actively in learning process. In short, it is

student-centered strategy. A problem is assigned to students and they are asked to find out the

solution. It may be technical or scientific. This strategy is most commonly used in science and

mathematics, in doing experiment and solving a question. It is also used in other subjects as well.

It is a general process, which is used to find out solution of problem that occurs in daily life. For

example; as long as you are breathing you can be problem solving. Sometimes the solution

comes out of the problem by itself. Purposeful mental activity helps to find out

solution.“Imagination is more important than knowledge” (Albert Einstein)

.2. Steps of Problem solving method:

 Clarify what the problem is

 Defining goals

 Brain storming

 Plan what you are going to do

 Try out plan

  Does not work

.3. Characteristics:

 They have an order. The student finds out solution of a problem through proper channel

 Promote problem solving by them

 Open discussion with all group

 Communication between student and teacher is important

 The problem must be related to daily life

 Problem solver have background knowledge

 It develops motivation to do new things

 It needs resource and proper instruments

 Students’ active participation is necessary

 Misunderstanding can create a great trouble and destroy all the procedure

.4. Advantages:

 This method is used to develop skills in learner, how to access the problem,

 how to find the solution, decision making , reasoning etc.

 It makes student active participant in performing a new task

 It develops a higher level of thinking skills, responsibilities

  resourcefulness, which are very important in independent study

 It develops a sense of open mindedness, judgement and scientific attitude.

 It motivate student to learn in order to reach the solution

 Develop a habit of teamwork and reasoning

 It clarify doubts, knowledge remains for a long time

 It is continuous engagement in learning process that overcome the disturbance and

misbehavior in the class

 It encourages to students to believe in self-ability and skills.

 https://nzmaths.co.nz/benefits-problem-solving

.5. Disadvantages:

 It is time consuming process

 Inappropriate use of algorithm

 Anything external get in the way of the problem solving procedure

 It can be difficult for student to get all the materials and resources

 required in solving problem

 It is not possible to apply this technique in every situation

 Evaluating, learning can be difficult

 Carelessness and misbehavior of individual is very common in group

 It requires a proper guideline from the teacher to solve a problem.

Case study approach

Introduction:

Comparative case study involves the analysis and synthesis of similarities, differences and

pattern across two or more cases that share a common focus in a way that produce knowledge

that is easier to generalize casual question.

How and why policies work or fail? [ CITATION Del14 \l 1033 ]

Definition:

A case study is an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon in depth and

written real life context especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are

not clearly evident. [ CITATION RYi09 \l 1033 ]

When case study is appropriate?

It focuses on casual question how and why. It cannot manipulate the behavior those involve in

study. Boundaries are not clear between phenomenon and context.

Application of case study:

  Use as a teaching method.

 Testing of schooling knowledge

 Provide professional environment

 Incorporate the ideas that students can learn by engaging with each other

 Case study is commonly used in social, educational, clinical and business research.

 Case studies also used for comparing, evaluating and understanding different aspects of

research problem. [ CITATION sho19 \l 1033 ]

When to do a case study?

When you want to take concrete, contextual in depth knowledge about a real world subject. It

helps us to explore meaning and characteristics of case.

Steps of case study:

1. Select a case:

Firstly you develop a problem statement and research question. After that you should select a

case that you want to focus on.

2. Build a theoretical framework:

Case study focuses on concrete details. They have some connection with theory in the field. It is

not just an isolated description but it is integrated into existing knowledge about topic.

3. Collect your data:

There are so many research methods which we can use to collect data. Case study focuses on

qualitative data using method such as interview, observation etc.

4. Describe and analyze the case:

In writing up case study you need to bring together all aspects of topics or subjects. How you

report your finding depends on type of research. Explore the case from different angles and

analyze its meaning. [ CITATION Sho19 \l 1033 ]

Conclusion:

Case study provides us much more detailed information about topic. It also allows one to present

data collected from multiple sources.

HISTORICAL APPROACH

In this approach we study the modern educational problems. It is important to note that, we

employ historical method not only to know the past in order do to understand the present better,

but so that we may improve the future by hinting at those factors which may be more useful. In

this approach we also try to understand all those geographical, social, racial, political, religious

and linguistic factors which influence the educational system of a country.

Scholars such as Nicholas Hans, Isaac Kandel, Schneider and Michael Sadler are known for

popularizing this method. They basically agreed that selective cultural borrowing was possible

and also emphasized that educational policies and practices have both cause and effect which is
found in each society's unique historical experience, that Horace man called the national

character. Most of these scholars suggested the development of a science of comparative

education in which one could use to discover the universal causes or determinants of educational

practices and also to establish terms of education.

Although the scholars who advocated for this approach did not offer a definite procedure to be

followed, it is generally agreed that three things, stand out;

 One should study each national system separately in its historical context, taking note of

differences in terminologies and methods of collecting and classifying data.

 One should also analyze the forces, and factors responsible for the noted differences that

are grouped into four categories i.e. natural, religious, social- economic and political.

 One should also adopt only those ideas and practices that best approximate and can be

adapted to the recipient country's historical context (METHODOLOGICAL

APPROACHES IN COMPARATIVE EDUCATION, 2013).

 ADVANTAGES OF HISTORICAL APPROACH:

 The method reveals the basis on which the modern education system is based.
 Knowledge gained at this point may help us in eliminating undesirable elements in the

system and further strengthening of the desirable ones.

 DRAWBACKS OF HISTORICA APPROACH:

 The data on which we base one study may not be reliable because in the collection of the

same, due care is often not observed. As such the conclusions derived may not be very

useful. One should therefore keep in mind that historical materials about education

systems of various countries are generally not very reliable. This in turn limits the utility

of historical data. Hence it suggests the need for more research do make the data more

reliable

 The other shortcoming is that, historians are generally not impartial in their accounts. In

most cases they want to conceal undesirable elements about the history of their own

country and look on facts relating to other countries with some perceived prejudice. In

this scenario the truth is not known. Consequently we cannot reach the right conclusions

using this approach.

 The third limitation of this approach is that, the past is unduly emphasized.

Consequently the study of comparative education can be said to be unbalanced.

Descriptive approach
Descriptive approach:-

The investigator will have to describe everything found on ground. Such things to be describe

include:

 Number of schools

 Students enrolment

 Number of teachers

 Number of school buildings including classrooms

 Number of subjects being offered[CITATION sli14 \l 1033 ]

Characteristics of descriptive approach:-

 Some characteristics of descriptive approach are:

Quantitativeness

Descriptive approach uses a quantitative research method by collecting quantifiable information

to be used for statistical analysis of the population sample. This is very common when dealing

with research in the physical sciences.

Qualitativeness
It can also be carried out using the qualitative research method, to properly describe the research

problem. This is because descriptive approach is more explanatory than exploratory or

experimental.

Uncontrolled variables

In descriptive approach, researchers cannot control the variables like they do in experimental

research. 

The basis for further research

The results of descriptive approach can be further analyzed and used in other research methods.

It can also inform the next line of research, including the research method that should be used.

Methods of descriptive approach

There are three main types of descriptive methods: observational methods, case-study methods

and survey methods. This article will briefly describe each of these methods, their advantages,

and their drawbacks. This may help you better understand research findings, whether reported in

the mainstream media, or when reading a research study on your own.

Observational Method

With the observational method (sometimes referred to as field observation) animal and human

behavior is closely observed.  There are two main categories of the observational method —

naturalistic observation and laboratory observation. The biggest advantage of the naturalistic

method of research is that researchers view participants in their natural environments.  This leads
to greater ecological validity than laboratory observation, proponents say.  Ecological validity

refers to the extent to which research can be used in real-life situations. Proponents of laboratory

observation often suggest that due to more control in the laboratory, the results found when using

laboratory observation are more meaningful than those obtained with naturalistic

observation. Laboratory observations are usually less time-consuming and cheaper than

naturalistic observations.   Of course, both naturalistic and laboratory observation are important

in regard to the advancement of scientific knowledge.

Case Study Method

Case study research involves an in-depth study of an individual or group of indviduals.  Case

studies often lead to testable hypotheses and allow us to study rare phenomena.  Case studies

should not be used to determine cause and effect, and they have limited use for making accurate

predictions. 

Survey Method

In survey method research, participants answer questions administered through interviews or

questionnaires.  After participants answer the questions, researchers describe the responses

given. In order for the survey to be both reliable and valid it is important that the questions are

constructed properly.  Questions should be written so they are clear and easy to

comprehend[ CITATION Jac09 \l 1033 ]

Philosophical approach in comparative education

1.0 Philosophy
"In a broad sense, philosophy is an activity people undertake when they seek to understand

fundamental truths about themselves, the world in which they live, and their relationships to the

world and to each other”(What is Philosophy, 2020).

1.2 Philosophical approach

"Of a relating to the study of basic ideas about knowledge, right and wrong, reasoning and the

value of things” (Merrium Webster, 2020).

1.3 How philosophical approach works in comparative education?

Every country beliefs in the specific school of thought or thoughts and they make their

curriculum according to that adopted philosophy. The schools or education systems mainly focus

on building the national character of students, which actually is based on the philosophy their

system advocates. The national character comprises of the complex result of racial intermixtures,

linguistic adaptations, religious movements and historical and geographical situations (Hans ,

1949).

The philosophical approach to comparative education is actually the comparison of the

philosophies adopted among different countries to build the national character of the students.

The first man to apply the philosophical approach to study the comparative education was a

Russian philosopher Serguis Hessen. He published his book in 1928 in which he chose four

philosophical problems (Hessen, 1928):

1) Compulsory education

2) The school and the state

 3) The school and the church

4) The school and the economic life

1.3.1 Major problems in applying philosophical approach

Serguis Hessen also mentioned two major problems that may cause hindrance in applying the

philosophical approach in comparing different education system (Hessen, 1928).

1. Difference in emphasis because of which it may be difficult to use the same criterion

(national ideology) for the comparison.

2. There are many countries without clear-cut national ideologies.

1.3.2 Significance of Philosophical approach

Philosophical approach is also used in comparative education because the philosophy is basically

one's belief about life hence it governs, provides the direction and control the society. As

education is an important subsystem, it controls the education.

International approach

International

It is concerned with the relationship between two or more nations.

Approach

It is means that the taking of initial steps towards a particular purpose.

. Definition:
This is an approach whereby all the variation existing from one is to another within the same

country are taken into consideration while comparing the system of education of a foreign

country with one’s educational system [ CITATION Gha14 \l 1033 ].

.2. Purposes of international approach:

 Education is a universally important part of the any country for their cultural, educational

and economic development[ CITATION Sha15 \l 1033 ].

 International approach is dedicated to the expanding the educational fundamental of

every country and establishing the common teaching methodologies ant practices that all

nations can use to spread the education.[ CITATION Sha15 \l 1033 ]

 In this approach students know about educational problems and how to develop a

solution of that particular problem.[ CITATION Sha15 \l 1033 ]

 It deals with relationship among the educational research, educational policies and

educational planning.[ CITATION Sha15 \l 1033 ]

.3. Scope of international approach:

There are several disciplines are integrated into international approach which can makes its

scope wide. This includes the following aspects of;

 Sociology

 Political science

 Global studies
  Human rights education

 Literacy

 Educational polices

.4. Process of international approach:

The process of international approach has three main steps which are as under;

 Research

 Comparative frame work

 Suggestions

.4.1. Research:

It is the basic and important step of international approach. When want to do a research on any

topic. In research we collect all the related and necessary data or information about our topic

after that research paper made [ CITATION Gha14 \l 1033 ].

.4.2. Comparative frame work:

In research frame work we researcher compare the fame work which is done in the light of

research paper. For example if anyone wants to compare an education system of two countries it

is means that they compare the educational system of both countries. After comparison they find

out some results [ CITATION Gha14 \l 1033 ].

.4.3. Suggestion:
At the end process of international approach they concluded some suggestions, direction and

solution are made for educational policy makers. The standardized statements are set for

education system. This is very helpful for better educational polices. Which is also called the

international standard of education [ CITATION Gha14 \l 1033 ].

.5. Uses of international approach:

 International approach guide the policy maker how to solve the problem and how we can

improve our education system more effectively.

 This approach give suggest ions to the policy maker how they can meet their selected

outcomes and international standards.

 It can change the programs of education.

 It increases the people knowledge, skills and that takes place international boundaries.

[ CITATION Gha14 \l 1033 ]

. Gastronomic approach:

This is the method whereby both the diet as well as eating habit of the people in a particular

country is related to the practices of their education system[ CITATION Cho16 \l 1033 ].

.1. Explanation:

In this approach we compare the eating habits of the students and check how eating habit impact

on learning. We can compare the two or more country food item which commonly eating by that

country citizens specially students.

Example:

If we want to compare the or know what type of food eating in china or Pakistan. Like in china

most of the students prefer to eat cold or uncooked food i.e. raw vegetables, ice-water, rare steak

etc. Now a day in Pakistani also prefer to eat fast food because during lock down fast food more

facilitate the people. Fast foods majorly affect the health of the people.

.2. Healthy food for students:

Following are the healthy food that kids need to eat;

 Milk

 Meat

 Vegetables

 Fish

 Beans

 All that is green

 Eggs

 Dates

.3. Conclusion:
At the end I can concluded my assignment international and gastronomic approaches we

compare the two or more country education system and food habits of the students because these

two factors affected the learning style of the students. But the gastronomic approach is not that

much popular among the modern education comparativists.

Methods of comparative education

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Brian Holmes Problem Method in Comparative Education

1. Introduction of Brian Holmes Brian Holmes was born in 1959 at San Francisco. He is a

cultural critic and artist who worked with artists and activists at Europe and America. He got his

doctoral degree in romance language and literature from University of California at Berkeley. He

died on August 13 in 2013.

1.1 Brian Holmes problem method Brian Holmes introduced a new methodology in 1960’s

which he called the problem solving approach.

1.2 Problem solving It is a process and skill that you develop over time and needed or required

when to solve immediate problems. This method was developed by Brian Holmes in 1964.

He borrowed his ideas from John Dewey an American educator which was based on the five

stages of reflective thinking which Brian applied to the study of comparative education to solve

educational problems (E.Popong, 2013).

2. John Dewey stages  Problem identification.  Problem analysis.  Proposed problem

solution.  Collection of data.  Comparison and conclusion.

Based on these stages Brian constructed his own stages for problem solving approach in

comparative education.

3. Stages of problem solving approach 3.1 Problem identification

Problem identification is the main step in problem solving approach in which a person can

identify problem, make goals like what type of solution he/ she wants. It requires talking with

others to know or identify problem because problem statement varies from person to person.

3.2 Explore problem This step requires to think deeply about problem from different angles. Ask

questions about problem like:

How this problem is affecting?

Who else is experiencing same problem?

What they can do to solve the problem?

These questions help to have a better and deep understanding of problem from different aspects.

3.3 Set goals

Identify goals of your problem. What type of solution you require at the end of these steps?

What you want to achieve? It will help you to take further steps for problem solving.

3.4 Look at alternatives This step requires to think deeply and look for possible solutions. Make

a list of solutions and select most appropriate solution according to your goals.
3.5 Implement a possible solution

This step involves planning of how to implement a solution and then implementing the

appropriate solution to problem that finally leads to solution of a problem.

3.6 Evaluate

In this step evaluate the effectiveness of your solution. Ask questions like how effective the

solution was? Did the solution leads you to your desired goal? If your goal is achieved then

solution is appropriate if not then repeat the steps again (E.Popong, 2013).

4. Advantages of problem solving approach It develops critical thinking in learners.

It leads to the solution of a problem.

Development of Long-Term Knowledge Retention

it is an effective teaching method for teaching higher order skills (guido, 2016). Use of Diverse

Instruction research

Development of Transferable Skills

Continuous Engagement

Improvement of teamwork

5. Disadvantages of problem solving approach Lack of resources

Sensitive data handling

Require specific technical skills

Costly process

Lengthy and exhausting

Noah and Eckstein scientific method

1. Introduction

The scientific method approach developed by Harold Noah and Marc Eckstein in (1960), when

they wrote a book entitled “toward, a science of comparative education”. Harold J. Noah (1925-

January 2019) was an American educator, whose research and writing have focused on

comparative education and economics of education. He was born in London, England and moved

to the United States in 1958. From the mid-1960s onward, Noah advocated the use of empirical

social science methods in comparative education. Much of this work was done in collaboration

with his long-standing coauthor, Max A. Eckstein[ CITATION lyn12 \l 1033 ].

1.1 Purpose of adopting any method

The feasibility of relying on a particular method as opposed to a multi-dimensional approach.

The feasibility of the nation-state as the dominant research framework as opposed to

international, regional, continental and word system analysis. The over reliance on quantitative

as opposed to quantitative and descriptive research and finally. The range of research concerns

that have traditionally dominated studies in comparative education.

1.3 Method by Noah and Eckstein

 Problem identification

 Development of hypothesis
  Definition of concept and indicator

 Selection of case for study

 Collection of data

 Manipulation of the data

 Interpretation[ CITATION fat19 \l 1033 ]

2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Noah and Eckstein

2.1 Advantages

 It is a systematic procedure that researcher follow.

 It is proof and verification.

 Found by reasoning and observation.

 Reliable at finding the truth.

 Scientists are impartial.

 Cautious- with theories that are backed up.

2.2 Disadvantages

 Nothing has full knowledge of the world.

 Senses can deceive us- science only provides us with an incomplete picture of the world.

 Scientists can never be completely unbiased.

 Science is not free from error.

 No way of knowing what is real some things could be illusions.

 Theories have to sometimes be interpreted[ CITATION fat19 \l 1033 ].