CHAPTER 3: UNDERSTANDING INDIVIDUAL ATTRIBUTES

3.1: Diversity and Surface Characteristics

 Each person has unique attributes

 characteristics of race, ethnicity, age, gender, and physical abilities, as well
as deep-level or internal characteristics like abilities, personality, self-
evaluations, and beliefs and values. Diversity is a state of having or being
composed of differing attributes.
 differences can contribute to misunderstandings, discomfort, poor
communication, and conflict= social categorization theory.
 characteristics to categorize others into groups, less we like, identify with,
trust, or feel comfortable with people from that group,
 positive potential of diversity= information processing and decision making,
offers more and different types of information, perspectives, experiences,
and social networks to aid in the decision-making process.
 research on diversity is inconclusive, negative attitudes and issues with
work group performance, while others suggest that it can contribute to
positive experiences such as better decision making and long-term
performance.
 conventional OB increasingly recognizes the value of diversity in
contributing to organizational goals, sustainable OB is more likely to
celebrate diversity and emphasize the uniqueness of people regardless of
their instrumental value.
 a sustainable perspective, treating all people from diverse backgrounds
with dignity is an inherent characteristic of true community, valuing and
embracing one another’s differences as part of the group.
 The visible surface characteristics of the individuals around us can shape
our initial perceptions of them.
 Stereotypes are general perceptions about a group of people with similar
characteristics.
 Many organizations encourage “affinity groups” based on specific
characteristics so that people in the minority have a group of people to
identify with and draw support from.
 surface characteristic Don Cherry is known for wearing flamboyant suits
  Valuing diversity helps minimize the negative effects of our natural
tendency to categorize people based on their characteristics
 less likely to experience discomfort or have biased judgments,
 Sustainable OB balances valuing uniqueness with honoring community.
 emphasizing differences can also lead to problems.
 connecting individuals with others who share the same characteristics
 unintended consequences of creating subgroups and furthering
stereotypes.
 SUBGROUPS= promoting their identity by finding faults with others, which
creates greater divisiveness and animosity toward others outside their
group.
 a sustainable approach attempts to break down categories, emphasizing
that, as human beings, we have many basic similarities—such as common
needs, shared interests, and group goals
 inclusiveness by including all types of people in decision making and
encouraging broad participation in organizational activities such as picnics
and softball teams.
 internal attributes might connect to needs within the organization.
 Not necessarily performance problems with people who share a lot in
common

3.2

 innermost layer of a person, tend to change little and consistently explain

behavior throughout life and work as adults.
 Abilities are innate capabilities to perform a specific task. particular abilities
can be developed, but either born with them or not
 Unlike skills that can be learned or acquired, abilities are stable traits that
are evident early in life and predict important life outcomes, such as
occupational achievement.
 Cognitive abilities are less visible than physical ones,
 Cognitive abilities are characteristics of a person’s intellect and its
functioning; they include reasoning, verbal and quantitative processing and
comprehension, memory, and spatial and perceptual recognition.
 contributes to learning, skill development, and adaptation to changing
conditions.
 Higher cognitive ability is also linked to lower counterproductive behaviors,
such as stealing or destroying property and verbally or physically abusing
others.
 at the core of everyone’s inner self is a set of personality traits.
 Personality is the unique and relatively stable pattern of behaviours,
thoughts, and emotions shown by individuals.
 It shapes what they are motivated to do and how they perform in
organizational roles.
 Type A personality who strive for achievement but can burn out themselves
and others
 those with an optimistic personality who have positive beliefs about the
future but potentially harmful unrealistic expectations;
 a Machiavellian personality who selfishly manipulate others but typically
perform poorly on the job and alienate co-workers
 broad categories
 Extraversion: sociable, talkative, assertive, adventurous
 Agreeableness: good-natured, cooperative, trustful, not jealous
 Conscientiousness: achievement-oriented, responsible, persevering,
dependable
 Openness to experience: intellectual, original, creative, imaginative,
cultured
 Emotional stability: calm, placid, poised, not neurotic
 the personality trait of conscientiousness has been shown to be a good
predictor of job performance as well as organizational citizenship behaviour
(OCB)
 work behavior that goes above and beyond normal role or job expectations
to help others or benefit the organization
 conscientious individuals are more likely to set goals that lead to high levels
of performance.
 dependable and to strive for accomplishments
 a person high in emotional stability is typically able to remain calm and
perform in stressful situations without feeling emotionally exhausted or
acting inconsiderately toward others.
 a person low in emotional stability (highly neurotic) is likely to be anxious,
nervous, moody, and self-absorbed.
  A neurotic personality is synonymous with negative affect, which is a state
of being angry, anxious, and pessimistic that has been shown to relate to
dissatisfaction with jobs and life.
 individuals with positive affect tend to be happy, enthused, and optimistic,
which are characteristics linked to extraversion.
 Extraversion is one of the most easily identifiable personality traits and is
particularly helpful for predicting success in jobs with a great deal of social
interaction, such as sales jobs or customer service positions.
 Extraverts are sociable and assertive; they initiate actions and often emerge
as leaders can dominate conversations or fail to listen to their employees
 openness is clearly beneficial.
 Openness to experience is also notable in that high levels relate to more
positive attitudes toward diversity.35
 Diversity within a team is a potential source of unique input, but it also can
generate problems if it leads to stereotyping and divisive subgroups.
 Agreeableness might be undervalued because it does not tend to predict
performance in most jobs, but having more agreeable members on a team
contributes to higher levels of cohesion, less conflict, and better overall
performance.
 abide by work rules and contribute to the organization positively outside of
what is formally expected by their job description. people who are
agreeable may not be perceived as leaders but may be effective in
leadership roles.
 Conventional OB is particularly interested in understanding how the Big
Five personality traits predict individuals’ behavior and enhance their
productivity.
 it is just as interested in how personality traits can nurture a sense of
collaboration and community.
 agreeableness= a team bond and in reducing conflict.
 sustainable perspective because it offers insight into the tasks and activities
that are intrinsically motivating for various
 members of the organization and it can promote self-understanding and
workplace harmony

3.3
 Core self-evaluation is a broad trait that integrates an individual’s sense of
self-esteem, generalized self-efficacy (self-confidence), emotional stability,
and locus of control.
 Locus of control is a person’s consistent belief about the sources of success
and failure. A person with an internal locus (source) of control believes that
his or her own behaviour and effort are the primary reasons for success or
failure, whereas people with an external locus of control point to
circumstances or sources outside themselves to explain life’s outcomes.
 internals tend to be self-starters who perform better in most activities,
including work.
 Internal locus of control is related to higher job performance and
satisfaction and lower job stress in both Western and non-Western
contexts.
 Self-esteem is an individual’s self-evaluation of worth.
 Individuals with low self-esteem may be motivated to prove themselves
worthy or to perform to make up for their sense of inadequacy, but
generally the outcomes of poor self-esteem are negative for the person and
the organization.
 a healthy self-esteem is associated with greater enjoyment of work, job
performance, and career satisfaction, and less psychological strain and
motivation to work out of guilt or anxiety.
 Self-efficacy is a person’s belief that he or she will be able to complete a
task successfully.
 high level of self-efficacy or confidence in completing a task or performing a
job positively relates to performance at work, but it is less important than
general mental ability, conscientiousness, and work experience.
 task- or job-specific self-efficacy has its greatest effect on simple tasks
where confidence may be more important than past experience or mental
ability.
 task-specific self-efficacy can be increased by coaching, training, ample or
new resources, clear expectations, and other influences under managers’
control
 Generalized self-efficacy is a person’s belief or confidence in their capability
to cope with and perform in a variety of situations.
 Individuals with higher levels of generalized self-efficacy set high goals,
exert more effort, adapt their behaviour to succeed, and persist in the face
of difficulties.
  People who demonstrate confidence can get ahead of those with less
confidence even when capabilities are equal, in part by drawing attention
to themselves and using this attention for self-promotion.
 The relationship between strong core self-evaluations and positive work
behaviour is even stronger when individuals are not simply focused on
themselves but are also sensitive to the concerns of others.
 a low sense of self will not perform as well as those with a more positive
view of themselves.
 A sustainable approach does not deny these general findings, but it has a
hopeful view of how people with low core self-evaluations may prosper in
specific contexts and with positive organizational support.
 a sustainable perspective is in focusing on evaluations of self as part of a
group.
 collective efficacy is an assessment of the group’s abilities and likelihood of
succeeding.
 Low core self-evaluations=can still be successful as long as organization is
support, provide support

3.4
 Beliefs and values are generally slow to change but can evolve through
personal experience or exposure to compelling evidence that contradicts
what we believe to be true or important.
 Beliefs are ideas or opinions that we hold to be true, but in most cases we
do not have undeniable evidence that they are true.
 Douglas McGregor argued that “every managerial act rests on assumptions,
generalizations, and hypotheses—that is to say, theory.”
 Beliefs differ across individuals, although certainly some other people share
our beliefs, and we are typically attracted to like-minded people.
 Theory X states that managers assume that people are inherently lazy,
dislike work, will avoid working hard unless forced to do so, and prefer to
be directed rather than accept responsibility for getting their work done. As
a consequence, Theory X managers design structures and systems that will
ensure people work hard. These measures usually take the form of control
systems that set specific and narrow rules for behaviour, monitor employee
performance, reward compliance, and punish those who break the rules or
fail to work hard enough= “classical” approach to management.
 Theory Y assumptions because these beliefs are a more humanistic (and
realistic) approach to management practice. Theory Y states that managers
assume that work is as natural as play, that people are inherently
motivated to work, and that they will feel unfulfilled if they do not have the
opportunity to work and thereby make a contribution to society. Under
Theory Y, workers are not seen as merely hired hands, nor are managers
seen as the brains of an organization. Instead, managers design systems
and structures that encourage creativity and discretion by employees and
that allow them to use their full selves in doing their work.
 William Ouchi subsequently presented Theory Z as an alternative theory
that emphasizes the belief that people like to be members of a group and
will work most productively in stable groups.
 more traditional Japanese management practices such as working in teams,
providing long-term employment, and investing in training
 Proponents of this theory argue that selfishness explains it all, which is
consistent with classic Theory X thinking.
 if leaders believe people can change, they are more likely to make
investments in developing employees and give them credit for changes in
behaviour.
 A sustainable perspective is more likely to favour positive beliefs about
human nature rather than McGregor’s Theory X or negative views of
people’s potential.
 Sustainable OB would suggest that other members of the organization are
motivated to contribute not only to the material output of the organization
but also to other aspects, such as the organization’s social and spiritual
nature
 potential for change in others and to create organizations that promote
their growth.
 Values are a set of personal tenets that guide a person’s actions in
evaluating and adapting to his or her world.
 classified values as either “terminal” or “instrumental.”
 terminal values relate to desirable ends (what a person values achieving in
life) and instrumental values are desirable means to achieve end states (the
way a person goes about living).
 Terminal values include outcomes related to financial wealth, individual
status and well-being, peace, health, and performance, while instrumental
 values include love, adventure, service, charity, efficiency, control, and
independence.
 conventional and sustainable perspectives are likely to emphasize different
terminal values as well as the instrumental values to achieve those ends.
 a sustainable organization will emphasize values that promote the well-
being of a range of stakeholders, including organizational members,
community members, and the environment.
 Power—exerting control or dominance for the sake of status or prestige
 Achievement—demonstrating competence and capability to achieve
personal success
 Hedonism—pursuing self-gratification and pleasure
 Stimulation—seeking excitement and challenge for the sake of stimulation
and experience
 Self-direction—choosing autonomy and freedom to ensure personal
independence
 Universalism—seeking equal treatment and justice among all people and
the environment
 Benevolence—acting to promote and preserve the welfare of others
 Tradition—demonstrating respect for the customs and traditions of others
 Conformity—living in accordance with established norms and expectations
 Security—ensuring harmony, stability, and order in relationships and
society
 it would be challenging for a culture to simultaneously place a high value on
both “stimulation” and “tradition,” and yet people need both to thrive in
the long term.
 the relative emphasis we place on particular values will influence the action
we choose to take.
 a person who values self-enhancement (hedonism, achievement, power)
may act differently than someone who values self-transcendence
(benevolence, universalism, tradition) when faced with a request to
sacrifice personal time to help a co-worker or to participate in a volunteer
community service initiative.