Asher’s Theory TPR

http://www2.vobs.at/ludescher/total_physical_response.htm

Total Physical Response (TPR) is a language teaching method built around the coordination
of speech and action; it attempts to teach language through physical (motor) activity.
Developed by James Asher, a professor of psychology at San Jose State University,
California, it draws on several traditions, including developmental psychology, learning the-
ory, and humanistic pedagogy, as well as on language teaching procedures proposed by
Harold and Dorothy Palmer in 1925. Let us briefly consider these precedents to Total
Physical Response.

Total Physical Response is linked to the "trace theory " of memory in psychology, which
holds that the more often or the more intensively a memory connection is traced, the stronger
the memory association will be and the more likely it will be recalled. Retracing can be done
verbally (e.g., by rote repetition) and/or in association with motor activity. Combined tracing
activities, such as verbal rehearsal accompanied by motor activity, hence increase the
probability of successful recall.

In a developmental sense, Asher sees successful adult second language learning as a parallel
process to child first language acquisition. He claims that speech directed to young children
consists primarily of commands, which children respond to physically before they begin to
produce verbal responses. Asher feels adults should recapitulate the processes by which
children acquire their mother tongue.

Asher shares with the school of humanistic psychology a concern for the role of affective
(emotional) factors in language learning. A method that is undemanding in terms of linguistic
production and that involves gamelike movements reduces learner stress, he believes, and
creates a positive mood in the learner, which facilitates learning.

Asher's emphasis on developing comprehension skills before the learner is taught to speak
links him to a movement in foreign language teaching sometimes referred to as the
Comprehension Approach (Winitz 1981). This refers to several different comprehension-
based language teaching proposals, which share the belief that (a) comprehension abilities
precede productive skills in learning a language; (b) the teaching of speaking should be
delayed until comprehension skills are established; (c) skills acquired through listening
transfer to other skills; (d) teaching should emphasize meaning rather than form; and (e)
teaching should minimize learner stress.
The emphasis on comprehension and the use of physical actions to teach a foreign language
at an introductory level has a long tradition in language teaching.

Approach

Theory of language

Asher does not directly discuss the nature of language or how languages are organized.
However, the labeling and ordering of TPR classroom drills seem to be built on assumptions
that owe much to structuralist or grammar-based views of language. Asher states that "most
of the grammatical structure of the target language and hundreds of vocabulary items can be
learned from the skillful use of the imperative by the instructor" (1977: 4). He views the verb,
and particularly the verb in the imperative, as the central linguistic motif around which
language use and learning are organized.

Asher sees language as being composed of abstractions and non-abstractions, with non-
abstractions being most specifically represented by concrete nouns and imperative verbs. He
believes that learners can acquire a "detailed cognitive map" as well as "the grammatical
structure of a language" without recourse to abstractions.

Abstractions should be delayed until students have internalized a detailed cognitive map of
the target language. Abstractions are not necessary for people to decode the grammatical
structure of a language. Once students have internalized the code, abstractions can be
introduced and explained in the target language.

This is an interesting claim about language but one that is insufficiently detailed to test. For
example, are tense, aspect, articles, and so forth, abstractions, and if so, what sort of "detailed
cognitive map" could be constructed without them?

Despite Asher's belief in the central role of comprehension in language learning, he does not
elaborate on the relation between comprehension, production, and communication (he has no
theory of speech acts or their equivalents, for example), although in advanced TPR lessons
imperatives are used to initiate different speech acts, such as requests ("John, ask Mary to
walk to the door"), and apologies ("Ned, tell Jack you're sorry").
Asher also refers in passing to the fact that language can be internalized as wholes or chunks,
rather than as single lexical items, and, as such, links are possible to more theoretical
proposals of this kind, as well as to work on the role of prefabricated patterns in language
learning and language use Asher does not elaborate on his view of chunking, however, nor on
other aspects of the theory of language underlying Total Physical Response. We have only
clues to what a more fully developed language theory might resemble when spelled out by
Asher and his supporters.

Theory of learning

Asher's language learning theories are reminiscent of the views of other behavioral
psychologists. For example, the psychologist Arthur Jensen proposed a seven-stage model to
describe the development of verbal learning in children. The first stage he calls Sv-R type
learning , which the educational psychologist John DeCecco interprets as follows:

In Jensen's notation, Sv refers to a verbal stimulus—a syllable, a word, a phrase, and so on. R
refers to the physical movements the child makes in response to the verbal stimulus (or Sv).
The movement may involve touching, grasping, or otherwise manipulating some object. For
example, mother may tell Percival (age 1) to get the ball, and Percival, distinguishing the
sound "ball" from the clatter of other household noises, responds by fetching the ball and
bringing it to his mother. Ball is the Sv (verbal stimulus), and Percival's action is the
response. At Percival's age, children respond to words about four times faster than they
respond to other sounds in their environment. It is not clear why this is so, but it is possible
that the reinforcing effects of making proper responses to verbal stimuli are sufficiently
strong to cause a rapid development of this behavior. Sv-R learning represents, then, the
simplest form of verbal behavior.

This is a very similar position to Asher's view of child language acquisition. Although
learning psychologists such as Jensen have since abandoned such simple stimulus-response
models of language acquisition and development, and although linguists have rejected them
as incapable of accounting for the fundamental features of language learning and use, Asher
still sees a stimulus-response view as providing the learning theory underlying language
teaching pedagogy. In addition, Asher has elaborated an account of what he feels facilitates
or inhibits foreign language learning. For this dimension of his learning theory he draws on
three rather influential learning hypotheses :
1. There exists a specific innate bio-program for language learning, which defines an
optimal path for first and second language development.

2. Brain lateralization defines different learning functions in the left- and right-brain
hemispheres.

3. Stress (an affective filter) intervenes between the act of learning and what is to be
learned; the lower the stress, the greater the learning.

Let us consider how Asher views each of these in turn.

1. THE BIO-PROGRAM

Asher's Total Physical Response is a "Natural Method" inasmuch as Asher sees first and
second language learning as parallel processes. Second language teaching and learning
should reflect the naturalistic processes of first language learning. Asher sees three processes
as central,

(a) Children develop listening competence before they develop the ability to speak. At the
early stages of first language acquisition they can understand complex utterances that they
cannot spontaneously produce or imitate. Asher speculates that during this period of listening,
the learner may be making a mental "blueprint" of the language that will make it possible to
produce spoken language later,

(b) Children's ability in listening comprehension is acquired because children are required to
respond physically to spoken language in the form of parental commands,

(c) Once a foundation in listening comprehension has been established, speech evolves
naturally and effortlessly out of it. As we noted earlier, these principles are held by
proponents of a number of other method proposals and are referred to collectively as a
Comprehension Approach.
Parallel to the processes of first language learning, the foreign language learner should first
internalize a "cognitive map" of the target language through listening exercises. Listening
should be accompanied by physical movement. Speech and other productive skills should
come later. The speech-production mechanisms will begin to function spontaneously when
the basic foundations of language are established through listening training. Asher bases
these assumptions on his belief in the existence in the human brain of a bio-program for
language, which defines an optimal order for first and second language learning.

A reasonable hypothesis is that the brain and nervous system are biologically programmed to
acquire language ... in a particular sequence and in a particular mode. The sequence is
listening before speaking and the mode is to synchronize language with the individual's body.

2. BRAIN LATERALIZATION

Asher sees Total Physical Response as directed to right-brain learning, whereas most second
language teaching methods are directed to left-brain learning. Asher refers to neurological
studies of the brains of cats and studies of an epileptic boy whose corpus callosum was
surgically divided. Asher interprets these as demonstrating that the brain is divided into
hemispheres according to function, with language activities centralized in the right
hemisphere. Drawing on work by Jean Piaget, Asher holds that the child language learner
acquires language through motor movement - a right-hemisphere activity. Right-hemisphere
activities must occur before the left hemisphere can process language for production.
Similarly, the adult should proceed to language mastery through right-hemisphere motor
activities, while the left hemisphere watches and learns. When a sufficient amount of right-
hemisphere learning has taken place, the left hemisphere will be triggered to produce
language and to initiate other, more abstract language processes.

3. REDUCTION OF STRESS

An important condition for successful language learning is the absence of stress. First
language acquisition takes place in a stress-free environment, according to Asher, whereas
the adult language learning environment often causes considerable stress and anxiety. The
key to stress-free learning is to tap into the natural bio-program for language development
and thus to recapture the relaxed and pleasurable experiences that accompany first language
learning. By focusing on meaning interpreted through movement, rather than on language
forms studied in the abstract, the learner is said to be liberated from self-conscious and
stressful situations and is able to devote full energy to learning.
Design

Objectives

The general objectives of Total Physical Response are to teach oral proficiency at a beginning
level. Comprehension is a means to an end, and the ultimate aim is to teach basic speaking
skills. A TPR course aims to produce learners who are capable of an uninhibited commu-
nication that is intelligible to a native speaker. Specific instructional objectives are not
elaborated, for these will depend on the particular needs of the learners. Whatever goals are
set, however, must be attainable through the use of action-based drills in the imperative form.

The syllabus

The type of syllabus Asher uses can be inferred from an analysis of the exercise types
employed in TPR classes. This analysis reveals the use of a sentence-based syllabus, with
grammatical and lexical criteria being primary in selecting teaching items. Unlike methods
that operate from a grammar-based or structural view of the core elements of language, Total
Physical Response requires initial attention to meaning rather than to the form of items.
Grammar is thus taught inductively. Grammatical features and vocabulary items are selected
not according to their frequency of need or use in target language situations, but according to
the situations in which they can be used in the classroom and the ease with which they can be
learned.

The criterion for including a vocabulary item or grammatical feature at a particular point in
training is ease of assimilation by students. If an item is not learned rapidly, this means that
the students are not ready for that item. Withdraw it and try again at a future time in the
training program.

Asher also suggests that a fixed number of items be introduced at a time, to facilitate ease of
differentiation and assimilation. "In an hour, it is possible for students to assimilate 12 to 36
new lexical items depending upon the size of the group and the stage of training". Asher sees
a need for attention to both the global meaning of language as well as to the finer details of its
organization.
The movement of the body seems to be a powerful mediator for the understanding,
organization and storage of macro-details of linguistic input. Language can be internalized in
chunks, but alternative strategies must be developed for fine-tuning to macro-details.

A course designed around Total Physical Response principles, however, would not be
expected to follow a TPR syllabus exclusively.

We are not advocating only one strategy of learning. Even if the imperative is the major or
minor format of training, variety is critical for maintaining continued student interest. The
imperative is a powerful facilitator of learning, but it should be used in combination with
many other techniques. The optimal combination will vary from instructor to instructor and
class to class.

Types of learning and teaching activities

Imperative drills are the major classroom activity in Total Physical Response. They are
typically used to elicit physical actions and activity on the part of the learners. Conversational
dialogues are delayed until after about 120 hours of instruction. Asher's rationale for this is
that "everyday conversations are highly abstract and disconnected; therefore to understand
them requires a rather advanced internalization of the target language". Other class activities
include role plays and slide presentations. Role plays center on everyday situations, such as at
the restaurant, supermarket, or gas station. The slide presentations are used to provide a
visual center for teacher narration, which is followed by commands, and for questions to
students, such as "Which person in the picture is the salesperson?". Reading and writing
activities may also be employed to further consolidate structures and vocabulary, and as
follow-ups to oral imperative drills.

Learner roles

Learners in Total Physical Response have the primary roles of listener and performer. They
listen attentively and respond physically to commands given by the teacher. Learners are
required to respond both individually and collectively. Learners have little influence over the
content of learning, since content is determined by the teacher, who must follow the
imperative-based format for lessons. Learners are also expected to recognize and respond to
novel combinations of previously taught items:
Novel utterances are recombinations of constituents you have used directly in training. For
instance, you directed students with 'Walk to the table!' and 'Sit on the chair!'. These are
familiar to students since they have practiced responding to them. Now, will a student
understand if you surprise the individual with an unfamiliar utterance that you created by
recombining familiar elements (e.g. 'Sit on the table!').

Learners are also required to produce novel combinations of their own. Learners monitor and
evaluate their own progress. They are encouraged to speak when they feel ready to speak -
that is, when a sufficient basis in the language has been internalized.

Teacher roles

The teacher plays an active and direct role in Total Physical Response. "The instructor is the
director of a stage play in which the students are the actors". It is the teacher who decides
what to teach, who models and presents the new materials, and who selects supporting
materials for classroom use. The teacher is encouraged to be well prepared and well
organized so that the lesson flows smoothly and predictably. Asher recommends detailed
lesson plans: “It is wise to write out the exact utterances you will be using and especially the
novel commands because the action is so fast-moving there is usually not time for you to
create spontaneously". Classroom interaction and turn taking is teacher rather than learner
directed. Even when learners interact with other learners it is usually the teacher who initiates
the interaction:

Teacher: Maria, pick up the box of rice and hand it to Miguel and ask Miguel to read the
price.

Asher stresses, however, that the teacher's role is not so much to teach as to provide
opportunities for learning. The teacher has the responsibility of providing the best kind of
exposure to language so that the learner can internalize the basic rules of the target language.
Thus the teacher controls the language input the learners receive, providing the raw material
for the "cognitive map" that the learners will construct in their own minds. The teacher
should also allow speaking abilities to develop in learners at the learners' own natural pace.
In giving feedback to learners, the teacher should follow the example of parents giving
feedback to their children. At first, parents correct very little, but as the child grows older,
parents are said to tolerate fewer mistakes in speech. Similarly teachers should refrain from
too much correction in the early stages and should not interrupt to correct errors, since this
will inhibit learners. As time goes on, however, more teacher intervention is expected, as the
learners' speech becomes "fine tuned."

Asher cautions teachers about preconceptions that he feels could hinder the successful
implementation of TPR principles. First, he cautions against the "illusion of simplicity,"
where the teacher underestimates the difficulties involved in learning a foreign language.
This results in progressing at too fast a pace and failing to provide a gradual transition from
one teaching stage to another. The teacher should also avoid having too narrow a tolerance
for errors in speaking.

You begin with a wide tolerance for student speech errors, but as training progresses, the
tolerance narrows.... Remember that as students progress in their training, more and more
attention units are freed to process feedback from the instructor. In the beginning, almost no
attention units are available to hear the instructor's attempts to correct distortions in speech.
All attention is directed to producing utterances. Therefore the student cannot attend effi-
ciently to the instructor's corrections.

The role of instructional materials

There is generally no basic text in a Total Physical Response course. Materials and realia play
an increasing role, however, in later learning stages. For absolute beginners, lessons may not
require the use of materials, since the teacher's voice, actions, and gestures may be a
sufficient basis for classroom activities. Later the teacher may use common classroom
objects, such as books, pens, cups, furniture. As the course develops, the teacher will need to
make or collect supporting materials to support teaching points. These may include pictures,
realia, slides, and word charts. Asher has developed TPR student kits that focus on specific
situations, such as the home, the supermarket, the beach. Students may use the kits to
construct scenes (e.g., "Put the stove in the kitchen").

Procedure
Asher provides a lesson-by-lesson account of a course taught according to TPR principles,
which serves as a source of information on the procedures used in the TPR classroom. The
course was for adult immigrants and consisted of 159 hours of classroom instruction. The
sixth class in the course proceeded in the following way:

Review. This was a fast-moving warm-up in which individual students were moved with
commands such as: Pablo, drive your car around Miako and honk your horn.

Jeffe, throw the red flower to Maria.

Maria, scream.

Rita, pick up the knife and spoon and put them in the cup.

Eduardo, take a drink of water and give the cup to Elaine.

New commands. These verbs were introduced.

wash your hands,

your face,

your hair,

the cup.

look for a towel,

the soap,

hold a comb.

the book,

the cup,

the soap.

comb your hair.

Maria's hair.

Shirou's hair.

brush your teeth,

your pants,

the table.

Other items introduced were:

Rectangle Draw a rectangle on the chalkboard.

Pick up a rectangle from the table and give it to me.

Put the rectangle next to the square.

Triangle Catch the triangle and put it next to the rectangle.

Pick up the triangle from the table and give it to me.

Quickly Walk quickly to the door and hit it.

Quickly, run to the table and touch the square.

Sit down quickly and laugh.

Slowly Walk slowly to the window and jump.

Slowly, stand up.

Slowly walk to me and hit me on the arm.

Toothpaste Look for the toothpaste.

Throw the toothpaste to Wing.

Wing, unscrew the top of the toothpaste.

Next, the instructor asked simple questions which the student could answer with a gesture
such as pointing. Examples would be:
 Where is the towel? [Eduardo, point to the towel!]

Where is the toothbrush? [Miako, point to the toothbrush!]

Where is Dolores?

Role reversal. Students readily volunteered to utter commands that manipulated the behavior
of the instructor and other students....

Reading and writing. The instructor wrote on the chalkboard each new vocabulary item and
a sentence to illustrate the item. Then she spoke each item and acted out the sentence. The
students listened as she read the material. Some copied the information in their notebooks.

Conclusion

Total Physical Response is in a sense a revival and extension of Palmer and Palmer's English
Through Actions, updated with references to more recent psychological theories. It has
enjoyed some popularity because of its support by those who emphasize the role of
comprehension in second language acquisition. Krashen (1981), for example, regards
provision of comprehensible input and reduction of stress as keys to successful language
acquisition, and he sees performing physical actions in the target language as a means of
making input comprehensible and minimizing stress (see Chapter 9). The experimental
support for the effectiveness of Total Physical Response is sketchy (as it is for most methods)
and typically deals with only the very beginning stages of learning. Proponents of
Communicative Language Teaching would question the relevance to real-world learner needs
of the TPR syllabus and the utterances and sentences used within it. Asher himself, however,
has stressed that Total Physical Response should be used in association with other methods
and techniques. Indeed, practitioners of TPR typically follow this recommendation,
suggesting that for many teachers TPR represents a useful set of techniques and is compatible
with other approaches to teaching. TPR practices therefore may be effective for reasons other
than those proposed by Asher and do not necessarily demand commitment to the learning
theories used to justify them.
 Total Physical Response
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http://teflpedia.com/Total_Physical_Response

Total Physical Response (TPR) is a methodology for teaching language by involving students
in physical activity. The method was developed by James Asher, a professor of psychology at
San Jose State University, whose first publication on this topic appeared in 1965 (Knight,
2001, p.154).

Description

The first goal of a teacher using TPR is to help the students develop listening fluency (Asher:
1969, p. 5). The other language skills, speaking and writing, are supposed to be learned in a
later stage as Asher believes that the ability to understand a language by listening to it would
later have a positive effect on building the other skills (Asher, 1969, p. 5).

In TPR, students learn by reacting to commands given either by the teacher or their fellow
students. Therefore, students learn only by hearing sentences in which the imperative is used.
The imperative is so prominent as Asher regards language as "grammar-based" with the verb
- especially the verb used in the imperative - being the "central motif" (Richards & Rodgers,
2001, p. 73). Asher in fact believes that "[m]ost of the grammatical structure of the target
language and hundreds of vocabulary items can be learned from the skilful use of the
imperative by the instructor" (Asher, 1977, p.4).

Underlying premises

Childlike acquisition of language

One of the assumptions behind TPR is that "the human brain has a biological program for
acquiring any natural language on earth - including the sign language of the deaf" (Asher,
n.d.a). Asher therefore believes that, similar to children picking up their native language,
foreign language students should not "learn" but "acquire" the target language. TPR aims for
an unconscious process of language acquisition in the same manner that children learn their
first language without any conscious effort. In consequence no attention is paid to form or
rule learning.
Another aspect of child-like acquisition of language is that children respond physically to
their parents’ speech and are able to "obey" long before being able to produce their first
words and sentences (Asher, 1969, p.4). In the same way TPR initially focuses only on the
development of listening comprehension before starting with the production of speech.
Classroom activities consist of physical responses to commands given by the teacher.

Using what Asher calls "artificial categories" - phonology, vocabulary, grammar and
semantics - to help students understand a language is only useful in Asher's eyes in order to
"'polish' the target language for advanced students who are already fluent, but not for
beginners or even intermediate students" (Asher, n.d.b)

Interaction of right and left brain hemisphere

One of the foundations of TPR is an uncommon assumption about how language is learned
on a neurological level. While most second language learning methods are only directed at
the left brain hemisphere, Asher believes that both hemispheres need to play a role when a
learner acquires language (Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p. 75). Asher assumes that, parallel to
a child learning its mother tongue, the learner should first undergo motor movements, which
are controlled by the right brain hemisphere. Then the left brain hemisphere is supposed to
process these information and go on to "produce language and to initiate other, more abstract
language processes" (Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p. 75). Thus, the movement of the students
acting according to the commands of the teacher are supposed to prepare them for processing
the language.

Stress-free environment

TPR claims to make use of on Krashen's 'Affective filter hypothesis'. The 'Affective Filter' is
a “metaphorical barrier that prevents learners from acquiring language even when appropriate
input is available” (Lightbown and Spada, 2006, p. 37). In a language class setting, this
means that although an individual might be receiving appropriate input, he might be
prevented from learning due to his emotional state, needs etc. When a learner is for example
anxious, tired or hungry he will not be able to absorb input as complete as learners who are
relaxed and not distracted by any kind of needs or emotions.

Asher sees TPR as a stress-free way of learning where the student is “liberated from self-
conscious and stressful situations” (Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p. 75). The student is
supposed to learn the second language in such a carefree way as a child encountering its
mother tongue.

Connected theories
TPR is based on behaviourism, a theory developed by B.F. Skinner. This theory sees learning
merely as a result of imitation, practice, reinforcement and habit formation (Lightbown and
Spada, 2006, p.34). According to behaviourism, an individual will show a certain behaviour
due to imitation. If he then receives enough positive feedback, this person will continue to
show this kind of behaviour and eventually this action will develop into a habit (Lightbown
and Spada, 2006, p. 10). In the same way, according to behaviourism, in order to learn a
foreign language, a language student only needs to imitate the language he/she hears from the
teacher and react to his feedback. Language development is seen as a result of habit
formation (Lightbown and Spada, 2006, p.34). This view of language learning becomes
apparent in TPR with regards to its focus on performance by the teacher and imitation by the
students.

Apart from behaviourism, TPR can also be connected to the 'trace theory' in psychology
which claims that "the more often or the more intensively a memory connection is traced, the
stronger the memory association will be and the more likely it will be recalled" (Richards &
Rodgers, 2001, p.73).

Role of teacher and student

The teacher’s role in TPR is to select the teaching material and plan the tasks the students are
going to do (Knight, 2001, p. 154). His main role in the classroom is to give commands to the
students. The teacher might for example tell the students: “Stand up!”, “Sit down!”, “Take
your pencil!” etc. The instructor also serves as a model and gives feedback to the students.
The feedback he/she gives is likened to the feedback children receive from their parents. The
teacher is to gradually increase the amount of correction given to the learner as he progresses
in his knowledge of the target language just as parents will tolerate less mistakes as a child
gets older (Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p.76). The learner's part is to listen and to respond
physically to the commands. When the students have sufficient listening fluency and feel
ready for it, they can begin to speak as well. In this later stage, TPR uses role plays and
dialogues in which the students act out real life situations (Richards & Rogers 2001, p. 76).

Material

TPR makes frequent use of realia. As the lessons become more complex, the teacher might
also use material like pictures, slides or word charts (Richards & Rogers 2001, p. 77).
However, there are also special TPR kits for sentences that include objects/scenery not
available in the classroom.

Application
Asher himself points out that TPR should be used in combination with other techniques and
methods (Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p. 79). Many teachers nowadays like to do this and TPR
usually does not show any apparent conflict with other approaches (Richards & Rodgers,
2001, p. 79). An example for including an element of TPR in a lesson is to include the game
'Simon says' in which the teacher gives the students commands starting with the phrase
'Simon says'. The students then have to do what the teacher said. Whenever he/she leaves out
the phrase, the command, however, is considered as not valid. Any student that reacts and
performs the action in spite of this is out of the game.

Criticism

Although Asher stresses that his method “if applied with skill, will enable everyone, children,
teens and adults, to enjoy instant understanding” (n.d.b), in reality TPR is “rarely used
beyond beginner level” (Knight, 2001, p.154). Presumably this is because there is a limit to
how much students can learn from being told to stand up and sit down.

In theory TPR is intended to create an atmosphere in which the students can learn without
feeling self-conscious or being nervous. However, putting adult or teenage language students
in a position in which they have to perform meaningless actions and obey commands like
“[Put] the soap in Ramiro's ear ”, “[P]ut the towel on your head and laugh” or “Sit down
quickly and laugh” (Asher, 1977, p. 61) is unlikely to create a suitable learning environment
for them.

TPR is also very teacher-centred (Knight, 2001, p. 154). Although it might in consequence
reduce the stress for the learners (Knight, 2001, p. 154), it puts them in a very passive role in
which they cannot make their own choices or develop creativity.

Another reason for questioning the effectiveness of the method is that TPR entirely excludes
any focus on grammar or students' output (Cameron, 2001, p. 107).
 Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
http://www.tecweb.org/styles/gardner.html

Howard Gardner of Harvard has identified seven distinct intelligences. This theory has
emerged from recent cognitive research and "documents the extent to which students possess
different kinds of minds and therefore learn, remember, perform, and understand in different
ways," according to Gardner (1991). According to this theory, "we are all able to know the
world through language, logical-mathematical analysis, spatial representation, musical
thinking, the use of the body to solve problems or to make things, an understanding of other
individuals, and an understanding of ourselves. Where individuals differ is in the strength of
these intelligences - the so-called profile of intelligences -and in the ways in which such
intelligences are invoked and combined to carry out different tasks, solve diverse problems,
and progress in various domains."

Gardner says that these differences "challenge an educational system that assumes that
everyone can learn the same materials in the same way and that a uniform, universal measure
suffices to test student learning. Indeed, as currently constituted, our educational system is
heavily biased toward linguistic modes of instruction and assessment and, to a somewhat
lesser degree, toward logical-quantitative modes as well." Gardner argues that "a contrasting
set of assumptions is more likely to be educationally effective. Students learn in ways that are
identifiably distinctive. The broad spectrum of students - and perhaps the society as a whole -
would be better served if disciplines could be presented in a numbers of ways and learning
could be assessed through a variety of means." The learning styles are as follows:

Visual-Spatial - think in terms of physical space, as do architects and sailors. Very aware
of their environments. They like to draw, do jigsaw puzzles, read maps, daydream. They can
be taught through drawings, verbal and physical imagery. Tools include models, graphics,
charts, photographs, drawings, 3-D modeling, video, videoconferencing, television,
multimedia, texts with pictures/charts/graphs.

Bodily-kinesthetic - use the body effectively, like a dancer or a surgeon. Keen sense of
body awareness. They like movement, making things, touching. They communicate well
through body language and be taught through physical activity, hands-on learning, acting out,
role playing. Tools include equipment and real objects.
 Musical - show sensitivity to rhythm and sound. They love music, but they are also
sensitive to sounds in their environments. They may study better with music in the
background. They can be taught by turning lessons into lyrics, speaking rhythmically, tapping
out time. Tools include musical instruments, music, radio, stereo, CD-ROM, multimedia.

Interpersonal - understanding, interacting with others. These students learn through

interaction. They have many friends, empathy for others, street smarts. They can be taught
through group activities, seminars, dialogues. Tools include the telephone, audio
conferencing, time and attention from the instructor, video conferencing, writing, computer
conferencing, E-mail.

Intrapersonal - understanding one's own interests, goals. These learners tend to shy away
from others. They're in tune with their inner feelings; they have wisdom, intuition and
motivation, as well as a strong will, confidence and opinions. They can be taught through
independent study and introspection. Tools include books, creative materials, diaries, privacy
and time. They are the most independent of the learners.

Linguistic - using words effectively. These learners have highly developed auditory skills
and often think in words. They like reading, playing word games, making up poetry or
stories. They can be taught by encouraging them to say and see words, read books together.
Tools include computers, games, multimedia, books, tape recorders, and lecture.

Logical -Mathematical - reasoning, calculating. Think conceptually, abstractly and are able
to see and explore patterns and relationships. They like to experiment, solve puzzles, ask
cosmic questions. They can be taught through logic games, investigations, mysteries. They
need to learn and form concepts before they can deal with details.

At first, it may seem impossible to teach to all learning styles. However, as we move into
using a mix of media or multimedia, it becomes easier. As we understand learning styles, it
becomes apparent why multimedia appeals to learners and why a mix of media is more
effective. It satisfies the many types of learning preferences that one person may embody or
that a class embodies. A review of the literature shows that a variety of decisions must be
made when choosing media that is appropriate to learning style.

Visuals: Visual media help students acquire concrete concepts, such as object
identification, spatial relationship, or motor skills where words alone are inefficient.
 Printed words: There is disagreement about audio's superiority to print for affective
objectives; several models do not recommend verbal sound if it is not part of the task to be
learned.

Sound: A distinction is drawn between verbal sound and non-verbal sound such as music.
Sound media are necessary to present a stimulus for recall or sound recognition. Audio
narration is recommended for poor readers.

Motion: Models force decisions among still, limited movement, and full movement visuals.
Motion is used to depict human performance so that learners can copy the movement. Several
models assert that motion may be unnecessary and provides decision aid questions based
upon objectives. Visual media which portray motion are best to show psychomotor or
cognitive domain expectations by showing the skill as a model against which students can
measure their performance.

Color: Decisions on color display are required if an object's color is relevant to what is
being learned.

Realia: Realia are tangible, real objects which are not models and are useful to teach motor
and cognitive skills involving unfamiliar objects. Realia are appropriate for use with
individuals or groups and may be situation based. Realia may be used to present information
realistically but it may be equally important that the presentation corresponds with the way
learner's represent information internally.

Instructional Setting: Design should cover whether the materials are to be used in a home
or instructional setting and consider the size what is to be learned. Print instruction should be
delivered in an individualized mode which allows the learner to set the learning pace. The
ability to provide corrective feedback for individual learners is important but any medium can
provide corrective feedback by stating the correct answer to allow comparison of the two
answers.

Learner Characteristics: Most models consider learner characteristics as media may be

differentially effective for different learners. Although research has had limited success in
identifying the media most suitable for types of learners several models are based on this
method.

Reading ability: Pictures facilitate learning for poor readers who benefit more from
speaking than from writing because they understand spoken words; self-directed good readers
can control the pace; and print allows easier review.

Categories of Learning Outcomes: Categories ranged from three to eleven and most
include some or all of Gagne's (1977) learning categories; intellectual skills, verbal
information, motor skills, attitudes, and cognitive strategies. Several models suggest a
procedure which categorizes learning outcomes, plans instructional events to teach
objectives, identifies the type of stimuli to present events, and media capable of presenting
the stimuli.

Events of Instruction: The external events which support internal learning processes are
called events of instruction. The events of instruction are planned before selecting the media
to present it.

Performance: Many models discuss eliciting performance where the student practices the
task which sets the stage for reinforcement. Several models indicate that the elicited
performance should be categorized by type; overt, covert, motor, verbal, constructed, and
select. Media should be selected which is best able to elicit these responses and the response
frequency. One model advocates a behavioral approach so that media is chosen to elicit
responses for practice. To provide feedback about the student's response, an interactive
medium might be chosen, but any medium can provide feedback. Learner characteristics such
as error proneness and anxiety should influence media selection.

Testing which traditionally is accomplished through print, may be handled by electronic

media. Media are better able to assess learners' visual skills than are print media and can be
used to assess learner performance in realistic situations.

from "The Distance Learning Technology Resource Guide," by Carla Lane

Multiple Intelligences: Gardner's Theory

http://www.springhurst.org/articles/MItheory.htm

Amy C. Brualdi ERIC/AE

Arguing that "reason, intelligence, logic, knowledge are not synomous. . .", Howard Gardner
(1983) proposed a new view of intelligence that is rapidly being incorporated in school
curricula. In his Theory of Multiple Intelligences, Gardner expanded the concept of
intelligence to also include such areas as music, spacial relations, and interpersonal
knowledge in addition to mathematical and linguistic ability.

This digest discusses the origins of Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences, his definition
of intelligence, the incorporation of the Theory of Multiple Intelligences into the classroom,
and its role in alternative assessment practices.

Seven Intelligences

Gardner defines intelligence as "the capacity to solve problems or to fashion products that are
valued in one or more cultural setting" (Gardner & Hatch, 1989). Using biological as well as
cultural research, he formulated a list of seven intelligences. This new outlook on intelligence
differs greatly from the traditional view which usually recognizes only two intelligences,
verbal and computational. The seven intelligences Gardner defines are:

Logical-Mathematical Intelligence--consists of the ability to detect patterns, reason

deductively and think logically. This intelligence is most often associated with scientific and
mathematical thinking.

Linguistic Intelligence-- involves having a mastery of language. This intelligence includes the
ability to effectively manipulate language to express oneself rhetorically or poetically. It also
allows one to use language as a means to remember information.
Spatial Intelligence-- gives one the ability to manipulate and create mental images in order to
solve problems. This intelligence is not limited to visual domains-- Gardner notes that spatial
intelligence is also formed in blind children.

Musical Intelligence-- encompasses the capability to recognize and compose musical pitches,
tones, and rhythms. (Auditory functions are required for a person to develop this intelligence
in relation to pitch and tone, but it is not needed for the knowledge of rhythm.)

Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence-- is the ability to use one's mental abilities to coordinate one's
own bodily movements. This intelligence challenges the popular belief that mental and
physical activity are unrelated.

The Personal Intelligences-- includes interpersonal intelligence -- the ability to understand

and discern the feelings and intentions of others-- and intrapersonal intelligence --the ability
to understand one's own feelings and motivations. These two intelligences are separate from
each other. Nevertheless, because of their close association in most cultures, they are often
linked together.

Although the intelligences are anatomically separated from each other, Gardner claims that
the seven intelligences very rarely operate independently. Rather, the intelligences are used
concurrently and typically complement each other as individuals develop skills or solve
problems. For example, a dancer can excel in his art only if he has 1) strong musical
intelligence to understand the rhythm and variations of the music, 2) interpersonal
intelligence to understand how he can inspire or emotionally move his audience through his
movements, as well as 3) bodily-kinesthetic intelligence to provide him with the agility and
coordination to complete the movements successfully.

Basis for Intelligence

Gardner argues that there is both a biological and cultural basis for the multiple intelligences.
Neurobiological research indicates that learning is an outcome of the modifications in the
synaptic connections between cells. Primary elements of different types of learning are found
in particular areas of the brain where corresponding transformations have occurred. Thus,
various types of learning results in synaptic connections in different areas of the brain. For
example, injury to the Broca's area of the brain will result in the loss of one's ability to
verbally communicate using proper syntax. Nevertheless, this injury will not remove the
patient's understanding of correct grammar and word usage.

In addition to biology, Gardner (1983) argues that culture also plays a large role in the
development of the intelligences. All societies value different types of intelligences. The
cultural value placed upon the ability to perform certain tasks provides the motivation to
become skilled in those areas. Thus, while particular intelligences might be highly evolved in
many people of one culture, those same intelligences might not be as developed in the
individuals of another.

Using Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom

Accepting Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences has several implications for teachers in
terms of classroom instruction. The theory states that all seven intelligences are needed to
productively function in society. Teachers, therefore, should think of all intelligences as
equally important. This is in great contrast to traditional education systems which typically
place a strong emphasis on the development and use of verbal and mathematical
intelligences. Thus, the Theory of Multiple Intelligences implies that educators should
recognize and teach to a broader range of talents and skills.

Another implication is that teachers should structure the presentation of material in a style
which engages most or all of the intelligences. For example, when teaching about the
revolutionary war, a teacher can show students battle maps, play revolutionary war songs,
organize a role play of the signing of the Declaration of Independence, and have the students
read a novel about life during that period. This kind of presentation not only excites students
about learning, but it also allows a teacher to reinforce the same material in a variety of ways.
By activating a wide assortment of intelligences, teaching in this manner can facilitate a
deeper understanding of the subject material.

Everyone is born possessing the seven intelligences. Nevertheless, all students will come into
the classroom with different sets of developed intelligences. This means that each child will
have his own unique set of intellectual strengths and weaknesses. These sets determine how
easy (or difficult) it is for a student to learn information when it is presented in a particular
manner. This is commonly referred to as a learning style. Many learning styles can be found
within one classroom. Therefore, it is impossible, as well as impractical, for a teacher to
accommodate every lesson to all of the learning styles found within the classroom.
Nevertheless the teacher can show students how to use their more developed intelligences to
assist in the understanding of a subject which normally employs their weaker intelligences
(Lazear, 1992). For example, the teacher can suggest that an especially musically intelligent
child learn about the revolutionary war by making up a song about what happened.

Toward a More Authentic Assessment

As the education system has stressed the importance of developing mathematical and
linguistic intelligences, it often bases student success only on the measured skills in those two
intelligences. Supporters of Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences believe that this
emphasis is unfair. Children whose musical intelligences are highly developed, for example,
may be overlooked for gifted programs or may be placed in a special education class because
they do not have the required math or language scores. Teachers must seek to assess their
students' learning in ways which will give an accurate overview of the their strengths and
weaknesses.

As children do not learn in the same way, they cannot be assessed in a uniform fashion.
Therefore, it is important that a teacher create an "intelligence profiles" for each student.
Knowing how each student learns will allow the teacher to properly assess the child's
progress (Lazear, 1992). This individualized evaluation practice will allow a teacher to make
more informed decisions on what to teach and how to present information.

Traditional tests (e.g. multiple choice, short answer, essay. . .) require students to show their
knowledge in a predetermined manner. Supporters of Gardner's theory claim that a better
approach to assessment is to allow students to explain the material in their own ways using
the different intelligences. Preferred assessment methods include student portfolios,
independent projects, student journals, and assigning creative tasks. An excellent source for a
more in-depth discussion on these different evaluation practices is Lazear (1992).

Conclusion

Schools have often sought to help students develop a sense of accomplishment and self-
confidence. Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences provides a theoretical foundation for
recognizing the different abilities and talents of students. This theory acknowledges that
while all students may not be verbally or mathematically gifted, children may have an
expertise in other areas, such as music, spatial relations, or interpersonal knowledge.
Approaching and assessing learning in this manner allows a wider range of students to
successfully participate in classroom learning.

Additional Reading

Blythe, T., & Gardner H. (1990). A school for all intelligences.Educational Leadership.
47(7), 33-37.

Fogarty, R., & Stoehr, J. (1995). Integrating curricula with multiple intelligences. Teams,
themes, and threads. K-college. Palatine, IL: IRI Skylight Publishing Inc. (ERIC Document
Reproduction Service ED No. 383 435)

Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of Mind. New York: Basic Book Inc.

Gardner, H. (1991) The unschooled mind: how children think and how schools should
teach.New York: Basic Books Inc.

Gardner, H., & Hatch, T. (1989). Multiple intelligences go to school: Educational

implications of the theory of multiple intelligences. Educational Researcher, 18(8), 4-9.

Kornhaber, M., & Gardner, H. (1993, March). Varieties of excellence: identifying and
assessing children's talents. A series on authentic assessment and accountability. New York:
Columbia University, Teachers College, National Center for Restructuring Education,
Schools, and Teaching. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 363 396)

Lazear, David. (1991). Seven ways of teaching: The artistry of teaching with multiple
intelligences. Palatine, IL: IRI Skylight Publishing Inc. (ERIC Document Reproduction
Service No. ED 382 374) (highly recommended)

Lazear, David (1992). Teaching for Multiple Intelligences. Fastback 342 Bloomington, IN:
Phi Delta Kappan Educational Foundation. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED
356 227) (highly recommended)
Martin, W.C. (1995, March). Assessing multiple intelligences. Paper presented at the meeting
of the International Conference on Educational Assessment, Ponce, PR. (ERIC Document
Reproduction Service No. ED 385 368)