Figure 1: Transmission and Distribution Grid Structure within the Power

Industry
How Fuel-Powered Generators Work
With the exception of hydropower, wind and photovoltaic solar energy, most power plants
generate electricity by burning fuel. For example, large diesel generators operate similarly to
portable home generators, where a conventional, fuel-burning engine is connected directly to
a generator to produce electricity. Natural gas is similar, although it is burned in something
more like a jet engine, but still connected directly to a generator.

Coal, our most common fuel source for electricity, is used differently.  Since coal doesn't run
an engine very well, a coal-fired plant burns its fuel in a special boiler that heats water-filled
pipes, and the resulting high-pressure steam is used to drive a turbine that is connected to a
generator.  Nuclear power plants work similarly, although the "fuel" used to produce steam is
radioactive material and the heat is generated through nuclear fission (splitting atoms).

The process of using heat to create steam power has been around for hundreds of years, and
works with just about any fuel source - even wood.  You may be surprised to learn, therefore,
that steam power is being revived for a new generation of high-tech solar power plants. 
Concentrating Solar Panels (CSPs) use reflective surfaces to collect and concentrate the sun's
rays onto a very small area, creating tremendous heat to drive steam turbines. But this time,
the fuel has no emissions, no waste, and no ongoing costs. 

Diagram of the operation of a typical coal-fired power plant. Coal is burned in a boiler,
heating water to create high-pressure steam which drives a turbine. A steam turbine operates
much like a water-driven hydropower turbine, but needs a heat source to create the steam.
Nuclear power plants operate similarly, producing intense heat to drive steam-driven
turbines.
Scholven Power Station, located in Germany, is one of the largest coal-fired power plants in
Europe. Producing up to 2,300 megawatts, the plant provides about 3% of Germany's
electricity needs.

Evaluating Environmental Impact

Each method of generating electricity has advantages and disadvantages, as well as
significantly different effects on the environment.  The chart below helps illustrate the
differences between the various energy sources used to generate electricity:

Fuel Type Co2 Power Ongoing Other Environmental

Emissions Availability Fuel Costs Impact
per kWh
Coal About 200 24x7, 365 YES Strip mining &
pounds days per year groundwater
contamination

Airborne mercury
contamination

Non-renewable fuel source

Natural Gas About 130 24x7, 365 YES Non-renewable fuel source
pounds days per year
Nuclear zero 24x7, 365 YES Extremely dangerous toxic
days per year waste

Non-renewable fuel source

Wind zero Varies NO Potential bird kill
directly with
wind speed Highly visible

Noise issues
Solar zero Daytime only, NO High energy used in
affected by
 clouds manufacture

Toxic silicon tetrachloride

waste
Water zero 24x7, affected NO Flooding behind dam
(Reservoir by seasonal
Hydropower) precipitation Impact on fish migration
(if not mitigated)
Water zero 24x7, affected NO Reduction in stream water
(Streaming by seasonal flow
Hydropower) precipitation

Advantages of Hydroelectric Energy

1. Renewable

Hydroelectric energy is renewable. This means that we cannot use up. However, there’s only
a limited number of suitable reservoirs where hydroelectric power plants can be built and
even less places where such projects are profitable.

2. Green

Generating electricity with hydro energy is not polluting itself. The only pollution occurs
during the construction of these massive power plants.

3. Reliable

Hydroelectricity is very reliable energy. There are very little fluctuations in terms of the
electric power that is being by the plants, unless a different output is desired. Countries that
have large resources of hydropower use hydroelectricity as a base load energy source. As
long as there is water in the magazines electricity can be generated.

4. Flexible

As previously mentioned, adjusting water flow and output of electricity is easy. At times
where power consumption is low, water flow is reduced and the magazine levels are being
conserved for times when the power consumption is high.

5. Safe
Compared to among others fossil fuels and nuclear energy, hydroelectricity is much safer.
There is no fuel involved (other than water that is).

Disadvantages of Hydroelectric Energy

1. Environmental Consequences

The environmental consequences of hydropower are related to interventions in nature due to

damming of water, changed water flow and the construction of roads and power lines.

Hydroelectric power plants may affect fish is a complex interaction between numerous
physical and biological factors. More user interests related to exploitation of fish species,
which helps that this is a field that many have strong opinions on.

Fish habitats are shaped by physical factors such as water level, water velocity and shelter
opportunities and access to food. Draining would be completely devastating to the fish.
Beyond this, the amount of water may have different effects on the fish in a river, depending
on the type and stage of the lifecycle. Not all unregulated river systems are optimal in terms
of fish production, because of large fluctuations in flow.

2. Expensive

Building power plants in general is expensive. Hydroelectric power plants are not an
exception to this. On the other hand, these plants do not require a lot of workers and
maintenance costs are usually low.

3. Droughts

Electricity generation and energy prices are directly related to how much water is available.
A drought could potentially affect this.

4. Limited Reservoirs

We have already started using up suitable reservoirs for hydroelectric power plants. There are
currently about 30 major power plants that are expected to generate more than 2.000 MW
under construction. Only one of these projects was started in the last two years.
Advantages of Solar Energy
1. Renewable

Solar energy is a renewable energy source. This means that we cannot run out of solar
energy, as opposed to non-renewable energy sources (e.g. fossil fuels, coal and nuclear).

We will have access to solar energy for as long as the sun is alive – another 6.5 billion years
according to NASA[1]. We have worse things to worry about; in fact, scientists have estimated
that the sun itself will swallow Earth 5 billion years from now.

2. Abundant

The potential of solar energy is beyond imagination. The surface of the earth receives
120,000 terawatts of solar radiation (sunlight) – 20,000 times more power than what is
needed to supply the entire world.[2]

3. Sustainable

An abundant and renewable energy source is also sustainable. Sustainable energy sources
meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet
their needs. In other words, solar energy is sustainable because there is no way we can over-
consume.

4. Environmentally Friendly

Harnessing solar energy does generally not cause pollution. However, there are emissions
associated with the manufacturing, transportation and installation of solar power systems –
almost nothing compared to most conventional energy sources. It is clear that solar energy
reduces our dependence on non-renewable energy sources. This is an important step in
fighting the climate crisis.

5. Good Availability

Solar energy is available all over the world. Not only the countries that are closest to the
Equator can put solar energy to use – Germany, for example, has by far the highest capacity
of solar power in the world.

6. Reduces Electricity Costs

With the introduction of net metering and feed-in tariff (FIT) schemes, homeowners can now
“sell” excess electricity, or receive bill credits, during times when they produce more
electricity than what they actually consume.

This means that homeowners can reduce their overall electricity expenses by going
solar. Data from One Block Off the Grid reveals that adding solar panels to your home can
bring in monthly savings of well above $100 in many states. In Hawaii, residents save on
average $64,000 after 20 years!

Nowadays, most homeowners choose leasing or power purchase agreements to finance their
solar panels. This drastically reduces, or in some cases completely eliminates, the upfront
costs of a solar panel system, and allows homeowners to start saving money from the first
day.

If you want to learn more about the advantages specifically related to residential solar
photovoltaic panels (generating electricity with solar energy at home), then check out
Benefits of Solar Panels.

7. Many Applications

Solar energy can be used for many different purposes. It can be used to generate
electricity in places that lack a grid connection, for distilling water in Africa, or even to
power satellites in space.

Solar power is also known as “The People`s Power”, which refers to how easily deployable
solar panels are at the consumer level (both photovoltaic and solar thermal).

With the introduction of flexible thin-film solar cells, solar power can even be seemingly
integrated into the material of buildings (building integrated photovoltaics) – Sharp, a solar
panel manufacturer with headquarters in Japan, recently introduced transparent solar power
windows.

8. Shared Solar

Because of shading, insufficient space and ownership issues, 1/5 American homes are simply
unfit for solar panels.[3] With the introduction of shared solar, homeowners can subscribe to
“community solar gardens”, and generate solar electricity without actually having solar
panels on their own rooftops.

9. Silent
There are no moving parts involved in most applications of solar power. There is no noise
associated with photovoltaics. This compares favorable to certain other green-techs such as
wind turbines.

10. Financial Support from Government/State

Government and state rebates have become available both on utility-scale and for the
majority of homeowners. This means that the effective costs of solar panels are much less
than what they used to be. In some cases, the price of a residential photovoltaic system can be
cut more than 50%.

As of 12/31/2008, the U.S. government offers a 30% tax credit with no upper limit. Chances
are your home is also eligible for other grants and rebates.

Find out what applies to you by searching through the Database of State Incentives for
Renewables & Efficiency (DSIRE) – or find out in minutes with our free guide How to Go
Solar.

11. Low Maintenance

The majority of today`s solar power systems do not required a lot of maintenance.
Residential solar panels usually only require cleaning a couple of times a year. Serious solar
manufacturers ship 20- or 25-year warranties with their solar panels.

12. Technology is Improving

Technological advancements are constantly being made in the solar power industry.
Innovation in nanotechnology and quantum physics has the potential to triple the electrical
output of solar panels.

Disadvantages of Solar Energy

1. Expensive

Is solar power really expensive? This is probably the most debatable aspect on the entire solar
energy pros and cons list. The driving forces behind the development of solar energy are
rooted in politics. Solar power is incentivized to compete against other energy sources on the
market. On the other hand, the U.S. government, similarly to the rest of the world, provides
incentives to every major energy production market – not just solar.
In 2010, coal received $1,189 billion in federal subsidies and support for electricity
production while solar is not far behind at $968 billion.[4]

Nowadays, the best solar panels can in many situations be cheaper than buying electricity
from the utility. This wouldn`t have been possible without incentives.

2. Intermittent

Solar energy is an intermittent energy source. Access to sunlight is limited at certain times
(e.g. morning and night). Predicting overcast days can be difficult. This is why solar power is
not our first choice when it comes to meeting the base load energy demand. However, solar
power has fewer problems than wind power when it comes to intermittence.

3. Energy Storage is Expensive

Energy storage systems such as batteries will help smoothen out demand and load, making
solar power more stable, but these technologies are also expensive.

Luckily, there`s a good correspondence between our access to solar energy and human energy
demand. Our electricity demand peaks in the middle of the day, which also happens to be the
same time there`s a lot of sunlight!

4. Associated with Pollution

While solar power certainly is less polluting than fossil fuels, some problems do exist. Some
manufacturing processes are associated with greenhouse gas emissions. Nitrogen trifluroide
and sulfur hexafluoride has been traced back to the production of solar panels. These are
some of the most potent greenhouse gases and have many thousand times the impact on
global warming compared to carbon dioxide. Transportation and installation of solar power
systems can also indirectly cause pollution.

The bottom line is this: There’s nothing that’s completely risk-free in the energy world, but
solar power compares very favorably with all other technologies.

5. Exotic Materials

Certain solar cells require materials that are expensive and rare in nature. This is especially
true for thin-film solar cells that are based on either cadmium telluride (CdTe) or copper
indium gallium selenide (CIGS).

 
6. Requires Space

Power density, or watt per square meter (W/m²), is essential when looking at how much
power can be derived from a certain area of real estate of an energy source. Low power
density indicates that too much real estate is required to provide the power we demand at
reasonably prices.

The global mean power density for solar radiation is 170 W/m².[5] This is more than any other
renewable energy source, but not comparable to oil, gas and nuclear power.

Advantages of Wind Energy

1. Green

Wind energy is a green energy source. Harnessing wind energy does not pollute the
environment nearly as much as fossil fuels, coal and nuclear power do.

It is true that the manufacturing, transportation and installation of a wind turbine contributes
to global warming slightly, but the electricity production itself does not involve any
emissions of climate gases whatsoever.

There are some environmental issues associated with wind energy that we will discuss in
the disadvantages section.

2. Enormous Potential

As mentioned in the introduction of this article, the potential of wind power is

absolutely incredible. Several independent research teams have reached the same
conclusions: The worldwide potential of wind power is more than 400 TW (terawatts).[1]

Harnessing wind energy can be done almost anywhere. Whether or not a resource is
financially feasible is another question.

3. Renewable

Wind energy is a renewable source of energy. Wind is naturally occurring and there is no
way we can empty the energy resources. Wind energy actually originates from the nuclear
fusion processes that take place on the sun.

As long as the sun keeps shining (don`t worry, according to scientists it will for another 6-7
billion years)?, we will be able to harness wind energy on earth. This is not the case for
fossil fuels (e.g. oil and natural gas), which our society relies heavily on today.

 
4. Space-Efficient

The largest wind turbines are capable of generating enough electricity to meet the energy
demand of 600 average U.S. homes.[2] The wind turbines can`t be placed too close to each
other, but the land in-between can be used for other things. This is why many farms would
benefit more from installing wind turbines as opposed to solar panels.

5. Rapid Growth

Although wind power only accounts for about 2.5% of total worldwide electricity
production, the capacity is growing at an incredible rate of 25% per year (2010).[3] This
does not only contribute in the fight against global warming, but also helps lowering costs:

6. Prices are Decreasing

Prices have decreased over 80% since 1980.[4] Thanks to technological advancements and
increased demand, prices are expected keep decreasing in the foreseeable future.

7. Low Operational Costs

It is generally true that operational costs tend to be low once the turbines first have
been manufactured and erected. However, not every wind turbine is created equal – some
are more susceptible to maintenance than others.

8. Good Domestic Potential

People can generate their own electricity with wind power in much the same manner as
people do with the best solar panels (photovoltaics).

Net metering (currently implemented in more than 40 states across the U.S.[5]) allows
homeowners to receive bill credits for their excess electricity productionThere is good money
to save/earn with residential wind turbines, but maybe the best perks come from not being
reliant the utility for electricity, which can protect you from blackouts as well as fluctuating
energy prices.

Disadvantages of Wind Energy

1. Unpredictable
Wind is unpredictable and the availability of wind energy is not constant. Wind energy is
therefore not well suited as a base load energy source. If we had cost-effective ways of
storing wind energy the situation would be different.

We can hope for breakthroughs in energy storage technologies in the future, but right now,
wind turbines have to be used in tandem with other energy sources to meet our energy
demand with consistency.

2. Costs

The cost-competitiveness of wind power is highly debatable. Both utility-scale wind farms
and small residential wind turbines typically rely heavily on financial incentives. This is to
give wind power a fair chance in the fierce competition against already well-established
energy sources such as fossil fuels and coal.

Solar power (PV) is generally regarded as the first choice for homeowners looking to become
energy producers themselves, but wind turbines make an excellent alternative in some
situations. It would take a wind turbine of about 10 kilowatts and $40,000 to $70,000 to
become a net electricity producer. Investments like this typically break even after 10 to 20
years.

5. Threat to Wildlife

Birds, bats and other flying creatures have slim chances of surviving when taking a
direct hit from a rotating wind turbine blade. However, some environmentalists have
blown this issue out of proportions.

Studies have estimated the number of annual avian fatalities by U.S. wind turbines from
10,000 all the way to 440,000. As a comparison, collisions with buildings may kill up to 976
million birds.[6]

3. Noise

Noise is a problem for some people that live in the proximity of wind turbines. Building
wind turbines in urban environments should be avoided. Noise is not a problem with
offshore wind turbines at all. New designs show significant improvements compared to older
models and generate less noise.

4. Looks

While most people actually like how wind turbines look, there is always some who
don`t. Wind turbines leave a smaller footprint on land compared to the majority of other
energy sources (including solar, nuclear and coal). The problem is mitigated if the wind
turbines are built outside urban areas.

What exactly is wind energy? Wind energy actually comes from the sun. Solar radiation
unevenly heats the surface of earth, which causes hot air to rise and cool air to fill the void.
This movement is the definition of wind energy. Wind is a kinetic form of energy (motion).

There are several techniques we can use to harness this energy. Wind power is a term used to
encapsulate all processes that convert wind energy into useful work. This article has mainly
been about the advantages and disadvantages of generating electricity with wind turbines
(one aspect of wind power).

How can we generate electricity with wind energy? Wind turbines are complicated, but
here’s the basic gist: Kinetic energy in the wind is converted into mechanical energy (the
rotation of turbine blades), which again is converted into electricity by a generator sitting
inside the hub of the structure.

If you want to learn more about the two questions above, go to How Wind Turbines Generate
Electricity where the topics are covered more in-depth. Also check out 5 Mind-Blowing
Wind Energy Facts.

The bottom line: The future of wind power looks promising. The development of several
massive wind farms (both on- and offshore) is taking place as you read this. It will be
interesting to see how far we’ve come ten years from now. The United States aims to produce
at least 20 percent of its electricity by wind power by 2030.[1]

Advantages of Fossil Fuels

1. Well Developed

The technology we use to harness the energy in fossil fuels is well developed. The main
reason for this is that fossil fuels have been used to power our world for many decades.

2. Cheap and Reliable

Fossil fuels are cheap and reliable sources of energy. They are excellent types of fuel to use
for the energy base-load, as opposed to some of the more unreliable energy sources such as
wind and solar.

Disadvantages of Fossil Fuels

1. Contribute to Global Warming

Fossil fuels are not green sources of energy. In fact, they contain high amounts of carbon and
have been blamed for being the main contributor to global warming.

2. Non-Renewable

Fossil fuels are non-renewable energy sources. This means that there is a finite amount of
fossil fuels available and the reserves are not replenished naturally.?This is not entirely
correct, as fossil fuels are products of millions of years of natural processes such as anaerobic
decomposition of organic matter. The thing is, as opposed to renewable energy sources such
as wind and solar, it takes millions of years before the formation of fossil fuels takes place in
any noteworthy quantities.

3. Unsustainable

We are spending our fossil fuel reserves in a non-sustainable manner. Luckily, this forces us
to think different when it comes to energy, which results in the growth of renewable and
green sources of energy.

4. Incentivized

One of the major reasons why fossil fuels are as cheap is a history of government incentives.
Coal, natural gas and petroleum received $4.22 billion most in direct subsidies – solar got
$1.13 billion.

5. Accidents Happen

They are not nearly as serious as accidents related to nuclear power, but on the other hand,
fossil fuels will never have the safety of solar and wind. The picture above is from the
Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico.

Advantages of Nuclear Energy

1. Relatively Low Costs

The initial construction costs of nuclear power plants are large. On top of this, when the
power plants first have been built, we are left with the costs to enrich and process the nuclear
fuel (e.g. uranium), control and get rid of nuclear waste, as well as the maintenance of the
plant.  The reason this is under advantages is that nuclear energy is cost-competitive.
Generating electricity in nuclear reactors is cheaper than electricity generating from oil, gas
and coal, not to speak of the renewable energy sources!

2. Base Load Energy

Nuclear power plants provide a stable base load of energy. This can work synergistic with
renewable energy sources such as wind and solar. The electricity production from the plants
can be lowered when good wind and solar resources are available and cranked up when the
demand is high.

3. Low Pollution

It is in most cases more beneficial, in terms of the climate crisis, to replace other energy
harnessing methods we use today with nuclear power. The environmental effects of nuclear
power are relatively light compared to those. However, nuclear waste is potential harmful for
both humans and the environment.

4. Thorium

Reports show that with the yearly fuel consumption of today’s nuclear power plants, we have
enough uranium for 80 years. It is possible to fuel nuclear power plants with other fuel types
than uranium. Thorium, which also is a greener alternative, has lately been given an increased
amount of attention. China, Russia and India have already plans to start using thorium to fuel
their reactors in the near future.

It looks like nuclear fuel is of good availability if we combine the reserves of the different
types together. In other words, hopefully enough time for us to find cost-competitive greener
ways of harnessing energy.

5. Sustainable?

Is nuclear energy renewable or non-renewable? This is a good question. By definition,

nuclear energy is not a renewable energy source. As I mentioned above, there is a limited
amount of fuel for nuclear power available. On the other hand, you could argue that nuclear
energy is potentially sustainable by the use of breeder reactors and fusion reactors. Nuclear
fusion is the holy grail of harnessing energy. If we can learn to control atomic fusion, the
same reactions as those that fuel the sun, we have practically unlimited energy. At the
moment, these two methods both have serious challenges that need to be dealt with if we are
to start using them on larger scale.

 
6. High Energy Density

It is estimated the amount of energy released in a nuclear fission reaction is ten million times
greater than the amount released in burning a fossil fuel atom (e.g. oil and gas). Therefore,
the amount of fuel required in a nuclear power plant is much smaller compared to those of
other types of power plants.

Disadvantages of Nuclear Energy

While the advantages of using nuclear energy seem to be many, there are also plenty of
negative effects of nuclear energy. The following are the most important ones:

1. Accidents Happen

The radioactive waste can possess a threat to the environment and is dangerous for humans.
We all remember the Chernobyl accident, where the harmful effects of nuclear radiation on
humans can even be witnessed today. Estimates conclude that somewhere between 15 000
and 30 000 people lost their lifes in the Chernobyl aftermath and more than 2.5 million
Ukrainians are still struggling with health problems related to nuclear waste.

Just last year, on March 18, a major nuclear crisis happenend again in Japan. While the
casualties were not as high as with the Chernobyl accident, the environmental effects were
disasterous.

History shows that we can never really protect us 100% against these disasters. Accidents do
happen.

2. Radioactive Waste

Does nuclear power cause air pollution? The nuclear power plants emit negligible amounts, if
any, carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.  However, the processes in the nuclear fuel chain
such as mining, enrichment and waste management does.

There are many arguments both for and against nuclear power. All in all I would say that the
future of nuclear power looks promising. With new generations of reactors, potential major
breakthroughs such as nuclear fusion, the methods we use to harness nuclear energy will get
better in the next coming years. The question is: Do we need nuclear power or are the
renewables a better choice?
A comparison of Overhead and
Underground Transmission

Electric Power needs to be carried over long distances from the point of generation to the
point of consumption.  This Transmission is done either through overhead lines or
underground cables.  Each of these two methods of transmission has its own advantages and
disadvantages. 

Overhead Transmission lines are cheaper as the insulation cost

is lesser and the conductor material cost is lesser too.  They also have better heat dissipation.

However, they have significant disadvantages.  Overhead lines are vulnerable to lightning
strikes which can cause interruption.  Overhead lines use  bare conductors and can cause
damage if they break.  They are considered to be unsightly as they mar the scenery of the
landscape.  The maintenance cost of overhead lines is more and the voltage drop in overhead
lines is more.

Underground transmission due to cables is costlier than overhead transmission as the ground
needs to be excavated.  This can be difficult when passing though geographic obstructions
such as hills, marshes and rivers.  Special trenches need to be constructed when passing
through loose soil.  Besides, heat dissipation in underground cables is an issue. Hence,  the
conductors have to be thicker.  The insulation required for the cables is expensive.  Hence, it
is difficult to use underground cables for voltages at HV levels (> 33 kV).  
Underground cables may have to be rerouted to accommodate other underground structures
such as pipelines, sewage lines, etc.    It is necessary that the routes of underground lines are
clearly marked with sign boards to prevent accidents when excavations are carried out for
other reasons at a later date. 

(overhead and underground cable)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rxpeh9K_4cc

(Electrical generation)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=20Vb6hlLQSg

(Coal power plant)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GxHQHcpCWa8

(how magnets produce electricity)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FehUCQKKRwo

(hydro power station)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-hooifWJ1jY

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JMh4s3UKPxU

(solar power station)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y0InAuhAre4

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bPE2pBUPjkA

(How Nuclear Power Plants Work / Nuclear Energy (Animation))

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_UwexvaCMWA
geothermal plant

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rs6n0baLQ6w

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oQ6HPobTVFI

wind generator

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=45Xh7FKS9nM

grid

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1dZjohZPIqE

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-
8cM4WfZ_Wg&list=PLMzXpDgoXxGrTFVulmsJumGZ3TDTYoxKU&index=1

https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=QqfMwEQ2pbc&list=PLMzXpDgoXxGrTFVulmsJumGZ3TDTYoxKU&index=2