Lecture Notes 19: THE USE OF STATISTICS IN OUTCOMES ASSESSMENT

Learning is more adequately achieved through research-based inquiry

Research-based inquiry makes our academic pursuit scientific and therefore reliable, while
guarding us against errors

STATISTICS

a. Is a scientific discipline
b. Branch of mathematics that deals with the collection, organization, presentation, computation
and interpretation of data which are the, outcomes of learning (Santos et al, 2000)
c. Types:

1. Descriptive Statistics uses methods to summarize a collection of data by describing

what was observed using numbers or graphs
2. Inferential Statistics
o also called predictive statistics, uses methods to draw patterns in the collected
data, and then makes conclusions, predictions or forecasts about a group (also
referred to as population)
o conclusions may take the form of

a. answering yes or no questions (hypothesis testing)

b. estimating numerical characteristics of data (estimation)
c. describing relations among data (correlation)
d. modeling relationships among data (for example, hypothesis analysis)
e. predicting, forecasting or estimating what has not yet been observed
but which can be related to the population under study
f. extrapolation and interpolation of time series data or spatial data

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION

 To assess the results of testing whether it is traditional, authentic or Rubric assessment,

classroom teachers must know how to classify, tabulate, analyze, and interpret the scores
obtained by students in all tests administered to them

 For traditional assessment, the common statistical tools to assess the scores are
measures of central tendency, point measures and measures of variability
 For authentic assessment, particularly on performance test, measures of central
tendency, point measures, and measures of variability are still applied
 For Rubric assessment, weighted arithmetic mean is used
 For investigatory projects, usually mean, t-test (bivariate experimental design), z-test
(bivariate descriptive design), F-test or ANOVA (analysis of variance)

 The scores collected from assessments are arranged in a methodical order by grouping them in
cases in a form of frequency distributions
ORGANIZATION OF TEST RESULTS

SCORES reflect academic-related, mental, and even physical behavior of the students in the class
Raw Scores are collected scores that have not been organized numerically

TALLY SHEET

 Is a device used in arranging the scores

 Scores can easily and conveniently be arranged from highest to lowest or from lowest to
highest
 Steps:

a. Identify the lowest and the highest scores

b. Construct a matrix

o First, determine the number of horizontal lines by subtracting the tens

of the lowest score from the tens of the highest score, and then add a
constant 4 to the difference
o Second, draw 13 vertical lines

c. On the top cells (horizontal), except the first, write in order the numerals 0, 1,
2,…., 9 and on the last, the word “total”
d. At the leftmost cells (vertical), except the top, write the tens of the lowest score
down consecutively to the tens of the highest score, and on the bottom cell, the
word “total”
e. Read each score and enter a tally (a short bar) in the cell where it falls; it falls on
the cell where the ones and the tens intersect
f. Count the tallies in every cell and write the total corresponding to the tens and
the ones
g. Add the total of the tens and of the ones. The sum of all the “totals” of the tens
must be equal with the sum of all the “totals” of the ones

 Example:
The test scores of 50 students in a Philosophy of Education class are given
below. Construct a tally sheet.

70 67 64 80 78 56 64 84 33 21
51 60 49 82 85 65 41 34 47 39
86 43 63 70 58 71 53 52 38 53
79 59 48 77 52 65 42 59 55 40
81 48 82 84 57 70 50 51 39 43

Solution: HS = 86; LS = 21

Number of horizontal lines = 8 - 2 = 6 + 4 = 10

Number of vertical lines = 13
 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 TOTAL
2 / 1
3 / / / // 5
4 / / / // / // / 9
5 / // // // / / / / // 13
6 / / // // / 7
7 /// / / / / 7
8 / / // // / / 8
TOTAL 7 6 5 6 5 4 2 4 5 6 50

RANKING

 Is another way of organizing the test scores

 A relative arrangement in a series according to magnitude from highest to lowest or
lowest to highest
 Steps

a. Arrange the scores from highest to lowest or lowest to highest

o A score should be written as many times as it occurs

b. Number the scores successively, writing 1 for the first, 2 for the second, 3 for
the third, and so on, to the last
c. Lastly, assign the ranks in ordinal form of number like 1 st, 2nd, 3rd,4.5th, and so on
and so forth

o Scores appearing once have their cardinal numbers as their ranks

o Scores appearing more than once have the average of their consecutive
numbers as their ranks; thus, similar scores have the same rank

 Example:
The ranking of scores of 20 students in Measurement and Evaluation class is
shown below:

SCORE NUMBER RANK

50 1 1st
49 2 2nd
48 3 3rd
47 4 5th
47 5 5th
47 6 5th
46 7 7th
45 8 8th
42 9 9.5th
 42 10 9.5th
40 11 11th
39 12 13th
39 13 13th
39 14 13th
36 15 15th
35 16 16th
32 17 17th
31 18 18th
30 19 19th
25 20 20th

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

 Is a listing of the possible score values and the number of students who obtained the
test scores
 Is used when there are many test scores
 Utilized when the test scores are greater than or equal to 30
 Indicates whether the test is easy, moderately difficult, or difficult

 If most of the test scores are high, the test is relatively easy
 If most of the test scores are found at the center of the distribution, the test
is moderately difficult
 If most of the test scores are low, the test is very difficult

 Parts

a. Class limit is the groupings or categories defined by the lower and upper limits
Example:

LL UL
10 14
15 19
20 24

Lower class limit (LL) represents the smallest number in each group
Upper class limit (UL) represents the highest number in each group

b. Class size (ci) is the width of each class interval

Example:

LL UL
10 14
15 19
20 24
The class size is 5.
 c. Class boundaries are the numbers used to separate each category in the
frequency distribution but without gaps created by the class limits

 Add 0.5 to the upper limit to get the upper class boundary
 Subtract 0.5 to the lower limit to get the lower class boundary

Example:
LL UL LCB UCB
10 14 9.5 14.5
15 19 14.5 19.5
20 24 19.5 24.5

d. Class marks are the midpoint of the lower and upper class limits
Formula:

XM =

Example:

LL UL XM
10 14 12
15 19 17
20 24 22

 Steps

a. Determine the lowest and highest scores

b. Subtract the lowest score from the highest score to get the Range
c. Determine the class size or class interval (ci)

 Is the quotient when you divide the range by the desired number of classes

 The desired number of classes are usually 5, 10 or 15

 If the desired number of classes is not identified, find the value of k,
where k = 1 + 3.3logn

 Formula

ci = or ci =

d. Set up the class limits of each class

 Use the lowest score as the lower limit of the first class

e. Set up the class boundaries if needed

f. Tally the scores in the appropriate classes
 g. Count the number of tallies falling within each class to get the frequency of each
step
h. Find the other parts if necessary such as class marks

Example:
Raw scores of 50 student in a 110-item Test in Math. Construct a frequency distribution.

50 97 96 95 48 55 58 59 51 53
85 80 83 77 70 60 62 63 64 65
90 91 92 93 90 83 82 66 67 68
98 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 69
98 71 72 73 75 78 79 84 86 87
Solution:

R = HS - LS = 98 - 48 = 50

ci =

k = 1 + 3.3 log n = 1 + 3.3 log 50 = 1 + 3.3( 1.69897000434 )

k = 1 + 5.60660101431 = 1 + 5.607 (round off to nearest thousandths) = 6.607 7

ci = = 7.142 7

CLASS INTERVAL TALLY FREQUENCY CLASS CLASS MIDPOINT

BOUNDARIES
48 - 54 //// 4 47.7 – 54.5 51
55 - 61 //// 4 54.5 – 61.5 58
62 - 68 /////-// 7 61.5 – 68.5 65
69 -75 /////-/////-// 12 68.5 – 75.5 72
76 - 82 /////-// 7 75.5 – 82.5 79
83 - 89 /////-/ 6 82.5 – 89.5 86
90 - 96 /////-// 7 89.5 – 96.5 93
97 – 103 /// 3 96.5 – 103.5 100

CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

 Is obtained by cumulating the frequency

 Is used when the number of scores that lies below (less than) or above (greater than) a certain
class boundary is to be determined

a. A “ less than “ cumulative frequency

 indicates the number of scores in the distribution that falls below a specified
upper class boundary
  obtained by successively adding up, starting from the smallest to the largest
class interval, all the frequencies of the class steps

b. A “ greater than “ cumulative frequency

 Indicates the number of scores in the distribution that lies above certain lower
class boundary
 Obtained by successively adding up, starting from the largest to the smallest
class step, all the frequencies in the distribution

CLASS INTERVAL FREQUENCY (f) <cf >cf

48-54 4 4 50
55-61 4 8 46
62-68 7 15 42
69-75 12 27 35
76-82 7 34 23
83-89 6 40 16
90-96 7 47 10
97-103 3 50 3

GRAPH

 Is a diagram which makes a systematic presentation of a class frequency distribution together

with the comparisons and relationship of the classes
 Kinds of Presenting the Graph

1. Bar graph

 Represents data by areas in vertical rectangles or bars

 Each bar drawn is equal in width, its base is equal to the midpoint of the class limits,
and the height corresponds t the absolute frequency
 In preparing a bar graph

o Draw a horizontal line to re[resent frequency to complete each rectangle or

bar
o Select appropriate scale for frequency of the y-axis and midpoint of the x-
axis

2. Line graph

 Is done by plotting the frequencies with a dot at their midpoints and connecting the
plotted points by means of straight lines

3. Pictograph

 Uses pictures or symbols to represent information

4. Circle graph

 Is a way of presenting data in a circular form

 The data divide the circle into parts and are represented in percent or actual figures
 If there are two or more variables in study, only one set of variable is represented
one at a time