History of English Language

 The history of the English language really started with the arrival of three Germanic tribes who
invaded Britain during the 5th century AD.
 These tribes, the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes.
 At that time the inhabitants of Britain spoke a Celtic language. But most of the Celtic speakers
were pushed west and north by the invaders - mainly into what is now Wales, Scotland and
Ireland
 The Angles came from "England" [sic] and their language was called "Englisc" - from which the
words "England" and "English" are derived.
 
 

Old English (450-1100 AD)

 The invading Germanic tribes spoke similar languages, which in Britain developed into what
we now call Old English. Old English did not sound or look like English today. Native English
speakers now would have great difficulty understanding Old English. Nevertheless, about half
of the most commonly used words in Modern English have Old English roots. The words be,
strong and water, for example, derive from Old English. Old English was spoken until around
1100.
 
Middle English (1100-1500)
 In 1066 William the Conqueror, the Duke of Normandy), invaded and conquered England.
The new conquerors (called the Normans) brought with them a kind of French, which became
the language of the Royal Court, and the ruling and business classes. For a period there was a
kind of linguistic class division, where the lower classes spoke English and the upper classes
spoke French.
In the 14th century English became dominant in Britain again, but with many French words
added. This language is called Middle English. It was the language of the great poet Chaucer
(c1340-1400), but it would still be difficult for native English speakers to understand today
 
Early Modern English (1500-1800)
 Towards the end of Middle English, a sudden and distinct change in pronunciation (the Great
Vowel Shift) started, with vowels being pronounced shorter and shorter
 Shakespeare work
 From the 16th century the British had contact with many peoples from around the world.
This, and the Renaissance of Classical learning, meant that many new words and phrases
entered the language.
 The invention of printing also meant that there was now a common language in print. Books
became cheaper and more people learned to read
 Printing also brought standardization to English. Spelling and grammar became fixed, and
the dialect of London, where most publishing houses were, became the standard. In 1604 the
first English dictionary was published.
 Late Modern English (1800-Present)
 
 The main difference between Early Modern English and Late Modern English is vocabulary.
Late Modern English has many more words, arising from two principal factors: firstly, the
Industrial Revolution and technology created a need for new words; secondly, the British
Empire at its height covered one quarter of the earth's surface, and the English language
adopted foreign words from many countries

The Germanic Family of Languages

Introduction to English Literature

English Literature
 
 Is the literature which is distinctly written in English
 Literature composed in English by writers not necessarily from England nor
nor primarily English-speaking nations.
 Until the early 19th century, this article deals with literature from Britain written in
English; then America starts to produce major writers and works in literature. In the 20th
century America and Ireland produced many of the most significant works of literature
in English, and after World War II writers from the former British Empire also began to
challenge writers from Britain.
 
Geographical Background
 
 Great Britain is the largest of the British Isles. On Great Britain are located three
constituent countries of the United Kingdom: Scotland in the north, England in the south
and east and Wales in the west. There are also numerous smaller islands off the coast of
Great Britain.
 The British Isles is an archipelago consisting of the two large islands of Great Britain and
Ireland, and many smaller surrounding islands.
 By tradition, it also includes the Channel Islands, although they are physically closer to
the continental mainland. The full list of islands in the British Isles includes over 6,000
islands, of which 51 have an area larger than 20 km².
  
Introduction
 

 The English are a composite race, because various racial elements have entered in their
making; Celts, Anglo-Saxons, Danes, Normans
 English Literature traces its origin to the beginning of the history of English people.
 The Celts were the earliest inhabitants of England
 The Romans conquered Britain in 43 A.D
 The Angles, Saxons, and Jutes came to settle in England in the latter part of the fifth century
A.D and eventually gave the country its name and its language.
 The Angles being the most numerous gave their name to the whole country- Angle-land or
England
 The first step that put the Anglo-Saxons on the path of civilization was their conversion to
Christianity
 Oral literature was popular and mainly secular and religious in nature
 Written English Literature was said to have been appeared between 450-1050 which known
as Old English Period in the history of English Language

Chronology of Important Dates

 
449: Landing of Tribes in England
547: Settling of Angles
635-665: Coming of Saint Aidan
700: Conversion of Northumbria
-Beowulf the Poem was made
867: Danes conquer Northumbria
871: Alfred- king of Wesesex
901: Death of Alfred
1000: Beowulf was written down
1189: Richard I- Third Crusade
1215: Magna Carta
1300-1400: York and Wakefield Miracle Plays
1338: Beginning of Hundred years’ war with France
1340: Birth of Chaucer
1350: Sir Gawain, The Pearl.

Beowulf
 First Written literary creation in English
 It is the earliest and greatest epic of Anglo-Saxons
 It is a poem of more than 3000 lines celebrating the heroic deeds of the warrior who gives
his name to the poem
 He saved the king from the terrible monster Grendel and his mother. Later, he becomes the
king of Geatas, in the end he kills the firedrake but dies of the dragon's fiery breath.
 The story was in oral form in England. It was later written by an eight century poet in the
form of an epic.
 Anglo- Saxon’s Poetry
 
 
o The language used is rough. Its words are hard and metallic. Accordingly, the poetry is also
crude and rough
Monotonous and Artificial versification due to excessive use of alliteration
o Cheerless Glooms and temper of the poems as most of them dealt with fate making short
work of man and his achievements.
o Poetry is married by verbosity- high sounding words and long-winded explanations and
elaborations.

Anglo- Saxon’s Prose

 The earliest prose writers are Aldhelm (709) bishop of Sherborne, who wrote praises of
virginity in an ornate Latin
 The greatest figure is Bede who wrote about history, astronomy, saints' lives, and the lives of
martyrs. Foremost, among his works is his great Ecclesiastical History of English Race.
 Alfred was not only a great king; he was also a great literary figure. He is usually regarded as
the founder of the English Prose. His translations are:
o The History and Geography of Orosius
o The Ecclesiastical History of Bede
o The Consolations of Philosophy of Beothius
 In addition to these, under his aegis the famous Anglo-Saxon Chronicle began to be written.
It is the most important work of Anglo-Saxon Prose, which record the history of England from
the time of Roman Occupation to the middle of twelfth century.
 Alfred died in 899, but additions continued to be made even after his death.

Beowulf
 Anglo- Saxon word BEO means " Bright" or " Noble"
 Anglo-Saxon word WULF means " Wolf"
 Beowulf means Bright or Noble Wolf
 Other sources say beo means bear
 
Who is Beowulf?
 A great warrior who comes to the aid of a group of people whose lives are in jeopardy.
Later in his life, he becomes a king.
Where is Beowulf from?
 He crosses the sea to come to the aid of the Danes.
 He later returns to Sweden to succeed his uncle as the king of the Geats.
 The geats are the present day Sweden
 
o It is the first MASTERPIECE in English Literature.
- Its author is unknown
-Consists of 3182 alliterative long lines
-The original audience and the purpose of the work is also unknown
o It is the LONGEST and GREATEST SURVIVING anglo-saxon poem
o It was composed around 7th or 8th century, and probably recited it to the accompaniment
of harp music
 o The setting of the epic is the 6th century in what is now known DENMARK and southwestern
SWEDEN.
MANUSCRIPT
 
o By the 10th century, the words were first written in OLD ENGLISH
o This would be foreign language to us, although few words are familiar
o Beowulf now exist in one manuscript. This copy survived a disastrous fire which destroyed
the library of Sir Robert Bruce Cotton ( 1571-1631)
o The manuscript is now housed in the British Library, London
o The world of warriors in Beowulf is based on loyalty and bravery and combines pagan
customs of revenge with Christian faith in the will of God
 
SETTINGS
 
o The narrative is set in pre-Christian past. However, England had become Christian by the
time it was composed.
o Composition date—most scholars believe that it was composed sometime between 8th
and 10th century (700-900) AD
o Because of these facts, there are elements of Christianity and paganism in Beowulf
 
TRADITION OF THE SCOPS
 
o The scops (pronounced “shopes”) were both composers and storytellers who traveled
from court to court and village to village. People would gather around to hear the stories
recited and chanted and sung. Simply put, the scops were entertainers.

 The setting is vast in scope, often involving more than

one nation.
The poet uses formal and serious language
Major characters often deliver long speeches
Plot complicated by supernatural beings and may involve a dangerous
journey through foreign lands
The poem reflects timeless values such as courage and honor .The poem
treats universal themes such as good and evil or life and death
 Hero, usually male, is of noble birth; often of legendary
importance
 Hero's character traits reflect ideals of his society
 Hero performs courageous and sometimes superhuman deeds
 Action of the hero often determine the fate of the nation or a
group of people

Epic Hero
 
o Central figure in a long narrative
o Reflects values of the society
o Beowulf is an ancient English hero but he is also an archetype hero
o Represents the community facing forces of darkness
o Super physical strength
o Supremely ethical
 
Pagan and Christian elements
 
Christianity 
 
o  God is mentioned by two of the main characters in the poem: Beowulf and Hrothgar.
o  Grendel as Lucifer › Both are outcasts › Perform a task for God › Grendel is described as a
son or descendant of Cain, a clear Biblical reference 

 
Pagan
 
o Strong nature presence 
o Strength of the warrior
 
 The poetry of Beowulf is densely packed and full of sounds. › The subject matter deals with
heroic adventures and some fairy –tale themes (i.e. fire breathing dragons and big scary
monsters). › It also deals with the nature of success and friendship in Anglo Saxon times, as
well as the final value to be found in life and death.
 Anglo-Saxon Ideals

Codes of Conduct

• Good defeats evil

• Wergild--restitution for murder or expect

revenge from victim's relatives

• Boasts must be backed with actions.

• Fate is in control

• Fair fights are the only honorable fights

 
Four Episodes
 
Scyld Scefing
 
o The poem opens with a brief genealogy of the Scylding (Dane) royal dynasty, named after a
mythic hero, Scyld Scefing.
o Many years ago he came to them, the Danish people. They found him on the beach in a boat
no bigger than a shield, a child without clothing, surrounded by treasure. 
o No one knew who had sent him across the sea, but he lived and grew and gained respect
until they made him their King, and all the tribes living nearby had to obey him.
o No enemy dared to attack , and he gave gifts gladly to his followers. He was a good King.
 
EPISODE 1- Heorot
 
o (pronounced /hay oh roht) is a mead hall described in the Anglo-Saxon epic Beowulf as "the
foremost of halls under heaven."
o It was built King Hrothgar
o means "Hall of the Hart" (male deer)
o The Geatish (Swedish) hero Beowulf defends the royal hall and its residents from the
monster, Grendel.

Grendel
o For 12 years, a huge man-like ogre named Grendel, a descendant of the biblical murderer
Cain, has menaced the aging Hrothgar, raiding Heorot and killing the king’s thanes (warriors).
o Grendel rules the mead-hall nightly.
o He is jealous of the marry making and joys of the man as he is not a part of the society.
 
Rescue
o Beowulf, a young warrior in Geatland (southwestern Sweden), comes to the Scyldings’ aid,
bringing with him 14 of his finest men.
o Hrothgar once sheltered Beowulf’s father during a deadly feud, and the mighty Geat hopes
to return the favor while enhancing his own reputation.
 
Unferth
o At a feast before nightfall of the first day of the visit, an obnoxious, drunken Scylding named
Unferth insults Beowulf and claims that the Geat visitor once embarrassingly lost a swimming
contest to a boyhood acquaintance named Breca and is no match for Grendel.
o Beowulf responds with dignity while putting Unferth in his place.
o In fact, the two swimmers were separated by a storm on the fifth night of the contest, and
Beowulf had slain nine sea monsters before finally returning to shore.
 
Grendel Arrives
o While the Danes retire to safer sleeping quarters, Beowulf and the Geats bed down in
Heorot, fully aware that Grendel will visit them.
o He does. Angered by the joy of the men in the mead-hall, the ogre furiously bursts in on the
Geats, killing one and then reaching for Beowulf.
 
Grendel's Arm
o With the strength of 30 men in his hand- grip, Beowulf seizes the ogre’s claw and does not
let go.
o The ensuing battle nearly destroys the great hall, but Beowulf emerges victorious as he rips
Grendel’s claw from its shoulder socket, sending the mortally wounded beast fleeing to his
mere (pool).
o The arm trophy hangs high under the roof of Heorot.
 
Celebration
o The Danes celebrate the next day with a huge feast featuring entertainment by Hrothgar’s
scop (pronounced “shop”), a professional bard who accompanies himself on a harp and sings
or chants traditional lays such as an account of the Danes’ victory at Finnsburh. ž This bard
also improvises a song about Beowulf’s victory.
 
Queen Wealhtheow
 o Hrothgar’s wife, Queen Wealhtheow, proves to be a perfect hostess, offering Beowulf a gold
collar and her gratitude. Filled with mead (drink made from honey), wine, and great food, the
entire party retires for what they expect to be the first peaceful night in years.
 
EPISODE2- Revenge
 But Grendel’s mother—not quite as powerful as her son but highly motivated— climbs to
Heorot that night, retrieves her son’s claw, and murderously abducts one of the Scyldings
(Aeschere) while Beowulf sleeps elsewhere.
 The next morning, Hrothgar, Beowulf, and a retinue of Scyldings and Geats follow the
mother’s tracks into a dark, forbidding swamp and to the edge of her mere.
 
Fight Underwater
 
 The slaughtered Aeschere’s head sits on a cliff by the lake, which hides the ogres’
underground cave. ž Near the bottom of the lake, Grendel’s mother attacks and hauls the
Geat warrior to her dimly lit cave.
 Beowulf fights back once inside the dry cavern, but the gift sword, Hrunting, strong as it is,
fails to penetrate the ogre’s hide.
 
Encounter
 Beowulf wrestles with Grendle’s mother
 The mother moves to kill Beowulf with her knife, but his armor, made by the legendary
blacksmith Weland, protects him.
 
Magical Sword
 Suddenly Beowulf spots a magical, giant sword and uses it to cut through the mother’s spine
at the neck, killing her.
 A blessed light unexplainably illuminates the cavern, disclosing Grendel’s corpse and a great
deal of treasure. Beowulf decapitates the corpse.
 The magic sword melts to its hilt. Beowulf returns to the lake’s surface carrying the head and
hilt but leaving the treasure.
 
EPISODE 3- Return to the Geatland
 After more celebration and gifts and a sermon by Hrothgar warning of the dangers of pride
and the mutability of time, Beowulf and his men return to Geatland. ž There he serves his king
well until Hygelac is killed in battle and his son dies in a feud.
 Beowulf is then named king and rules successfully for 50 years.
 Like Hrothgar, however, his peace is shattered in his declining years. Beowulf must battle
one more demon.
 
Dragon
 A fiery dragon has become enraged because a lone fugitive has inadvertently discovered the
dragon’s treasure- trove and stolen a golden goblet.
 The dragon terrorizes the countryside at night, burning several homes, including Beowulf’s.
 
EPISODE 4- The Final Fight
 Led by the fugitive, Beowulf and eleven of his men seek out the dragon’s barrow.
 Beowulf insists on taking on the dragon alone, but his own sword, Naegling, is no match for
the monster.
 
Wiglaf
  Seeing his king in trouble, one thane, Wiglaf, goes to his assistance. The others flee to the
woods.
 
Death
 Together, Wiglaf and Beowulf kill the dragon, but the mighty king is mortally wounded.
 Dying, Beowulf leaves his kingdom to Wiglaf and requests that his body be cremated in a
funeral pyre and buried high on a seaside cliff where passing sailors might see the barrow. ›
The Geats, in accord that their leader possessed unsurpassed heroism and courage, gave
Beowulf a royal funeral befitting such a hero.
 The dragon’s treasure-hoard is buried with him. It is said that they lie there still.
 
 
 

 
LITERARY DEVICE AND CRITICAL TERMS
 
 Anglo-Saxon scopes relied on certain poetic devices to aid their memory and give their poem
structure and impact. 3 of these devices can be found in Beowulf
 
1. Alliteration
" Hrothgar's men lived happy in his hall"
" miserable, might men tormented"
 
2. Kenning - enhances the literal meaning of the word. It gives the listener an idea of how the
words connect to an idea or concept that is richer and more emotionally complex

 
3. Caesura- it usually comes near the middle of the line with 2 stressed syllables before and
two after, often allowing little or no " run-on" of the meaning from the first half line to the
second.
" A prince of the Geats had killed Grendel"