Bryant University

Correlations Between Social Media Use and Willingness to Self-

Censor

Sam Miale, Felicia O’Reilly, Steve Mushorn, Blake Wasserman, and Jillian Walinski

COM390-A: Communication Research Methods

Prof. Christopher Morse

November 2020
Abstract 

This study looks at the relation between the frequency of social media use and the

willingness of one to self-censor. Through our study, we examined the level of willingness to

self-censor while also measuring our subjects’ frequency of social media usage. In doing so, we

also measured the likelihood our subject pool would be open to expressing their opinion in

general, on social media, and in a setting where others may not agree with their opinions and

vice versa. We predicted that as one uses, and posts, more one social media, then they would be

more likely to not censor their post regarding their body and their opinions less.  Meaning that

social media creates the feeling of a safe environment in which one can be open to expressing

their bodies and opinions. The results of our study led to a negative correlation between

frequency of posting on social media and willingness to express one's opinion. Proving our

hypothesis that as one posts more frequently on social media than they are more likely to express

their opinion.

Keywords: Self-censorship, social media, opinion, body imagine, body positivity

Introduction

  Despite self-censorship being something that has been measured for decades, there has

yet to be a comprehensive study conducted as to whether or not there is a positive correlation

between an individual’s frequency of social media use and their willingness to self-censor. The

mental and emotional impacts of social media use can be extremely damaging, and research

shows that individuals aged 18-22 are some of the most at-risk to be negatively affected.

Through our research, we hope to confirm our hypothesis that the frequency of one's social

media use directly correlates to their willingness to self-censor.

Today’s social climate can be incredibly polarizing, and nowhere is this more apparent

than on social media. In past years, there has been an increase in the sexuality of women on such

platforms, which may cause other women to feel pressured to post more revealing pictures of

themselves. This can exacerbate personal insecurities, cause body dysmorphia, and pressure

people to post things they are uncomfortable sharing. All of these things contribute to anxiety,

eating disorders, depression, and other serious mental health issues that young people are often

disproportionately affected by.

Other things we are interested in include differences in race and gender, and if self-

censorship goes farther than just posting pictures, but also has an effect on self-censoring what

people chose to like and comment on. While analyzing our data we will take into account how

external factors, such as societal norms, may be partially at fault for fostering such situations.

Several of our sources address issues related to self-censorship on social media such as how the

current political environments can alter public discussion, change what they feel comfortable

saying, and how they interact with each other. We are interested in pursuing further correlations

should they arise, and using our research to infer our own insights as to why some of these issues
may exist. It is important to remember that, despite collecting responses from over 100

participants, they were all from the 18-22 age range, so our findings should not be taken as an

absolute representation of society.

Literature Review

In a study from 2013 in The European Journal of Public Health, Eidsdottir, Kristjansson,

Sigfusdottir, and Garber reported that those who had poor body image or low self-esteem had

higher rates of depressive symptoms. This study examined the interplay between body mass

index (BMI) and depressive symptoms, while accounting for the possible mediational role of

body image, in a sample of older adolescents in Ireland. The goal of this study was to find a link

between BMI and body image as well as body image and depressive symptoms. 

 To do this, they used data from a population-based cross-sectional sample of junior

college students (16-20-year-olds) to test the relationship between BMI, body image, and

depressive symptoms. The researchers controlled for background variables such as

socioeconomic status. All questionnaires were completed in the classroom and were supervised

by specific contact agents. Questionnaires that contained missing responses about gender, age,

height, or weight were excluded from the analysis. To remove extreme outliers and answers that

are possibly without foundation, respondents who reported being either below or above the 16-20

age group, weighing more than 170kg or being underweight,  having height under 130 cm or

above 220 cm, were excluded from the analysis. After this filtering, the total number of

participants numbered 8630, 75.5% of the initial sample. 

They found that higher levels of BMI are associated with higher depressive symptoms,

but this association was mediated entirely through perceptions of body image. As in, higher

levels of BMI did not necessarily make one more likely to develop depressive symptoms, but did
make one more likely to develop poor body image, which makes one more likely to develop

depressive symptoms. If someone has a high BMI but does not develop poor body image as a

result, they are no more likely to develop depressive symptoms than someone with lower BMI.

Body image is the key factor.  The relationship was also found to be significantly stronger

among junior college girls than boys. The researchers concluded that body image is a key

contributor in the relationship between weight status and depressive symptoms among

adolescents. Based on this study, perception of one’s body image was the key factor that

determined if they were more likely to develop depressive symptoms, BMI just happened to be

one of many potential factors that could lead to poor body image. They claimed that future

interventions with adolescents should take their findings into account and focus on factors such

as physical confidence and self-esteem.

This study found that body image is a major factor in how individuals feel and behave.

While this study tested how BMI can affect body image, and how body image can affect

depressive symptoms, we are going to look at how a factor such as social media use can affect

body image, and if body image perception influences the likeliness to self-censor. This study

found that BMI can heavily influence body image, but there are numerous other factors that

could be tested besides BMI. We plan on testing if social media usage will impact one’s body

image, then go on to test if body image also impacts the likelihood to self-censor. The study

found that body image impacts the likelihood of developing depressive symptoms, which means

that it impacts how one feels and behaves. We will test body image’s positive or negative impact

on the likelihood to self-censor. Hence our hypothesis: As social media use increases, an

individual's level of self-censorship concerning body exhibition will decrease.

 In a 2019 study called Body Surveillance on Instagram: Examining the role of selfie

feedback investment in young women’s body image concerns, by Chelsea Butkowski, Travis

Dixon, and Kristopher Weeks, the idea of body image being disproportionately affected by

feedback from others is explored. The study looks into when directly applied to selfies, feedback

from others can be considered to be aggregated evaluations of the subject’s physical appearance.

Butkowski uses the objectification theory to find that the value that women place on selfie

feedback directly relates to body image disturbance which includes body dissatisfaction, drive

for thinness, and bulimia tendencies. These three subscales were used because they focused on

physical eating disorder symptomatology rather than the psychological tendencies that could

represent something else. The objectification theory “provides a framework for studying

observed relationships between exposure to objectification of women in popular culture and

disordered eating” (Butkowski 387). When used to study women’s body image concerns with

relation to social media exposure, previous studies have focused on the individual behavior of

individuals but there has been limited research using the objectification theory in regards to

feedback responses from friends, family, but also users that the subject is unfamiliar with. 

This study involved sending out a survey to 177 participants which were all females ages

18-30 of different ethnicities and sexual orientations in order to get a complete idea of how

women are affected by social media feedback and body dysmorphia. In order to qualify for the

study, the women had to be 18-30 years old with a public instagram page that has at least 10

visible selfies over the course of the account history. The authors then examined each account

and verified that it fit the qualifications before accepting the women into the study. Women ages

18-30 were used for the study because according to other research, women in this age category
represent the heaviest social media users. Upon completion of the survey provided in this study,

the authors provided the participants with resources regarding body image and mental health.

Women who reported being strongly affected by selfie feedback were more likely to

experience body image disturbances and were therefore less likely to feel good about themselves

and express themselves in future posts. The feedback that is being referred to includes likes and

both positive and negative comments on the selfie that was posted. Social media platforms

encourage its users to share photos and experiences with others but do not do much to protect

them from the harsh comments of other users. Instagram offers the ability to delete comments,

unfollow users, remove followers, and finally at the most extreme, block users. By using social

media more frequently, the social media users become more exposed to feedback from others

and therefore their body image becomes more dysmorphic. The women who showed more

obsessive tendencies in regards to checking the amount of likes and comments of their post were

more affected by the feedback responses of others and therefore were more likely to experience

body image dissatisfaction which included a misguided representation of what the ideal body

type looked like. Our study looks at how more social media use leads to less self-censorship in

regard to body exhibition, making this previous study a perfect case to compare, contrast and

learn from. Similar to our study, it also relies on the honest self-reporting of the participants in

the study, which can be difficult when there are no consequences for the participants choosing to

be honest or dishonest. 

The 2014 article, The Body Appreciation Scale-2: Item refinement and psychometric

evaluation, by Tracy L. Tylka and Nichole L. Wood-Barcalow, examined the effectiveness of

their new Body Appreciation Scale (BAS-2). They did so by using their reworded, newly

developed, and retained items in their Body Appreciation Scale (BAS) to determine the
psychometric properties among college and online community (Amazon Mechanical Turk)

samples of 820 women and 767 men. The BAS-2 scale was used in three studies. The first study

was primarily used to develop the BAS-2 and tested its validity and reliability amongst college

aged people. In this study they realized that certain questions like, “Despite its flaws, I accept my

body for what it is'' and “Despite its imperfections, I still like my body.” These questions were

revised to eliminate bias that can lead to participants associating their bodies with negative

terms. Other questions were also revised or eliminated if they poised a threat of bias based on

being sex-specific and/or discuss a lack of self-worth questions. The second study examined the

result of the BAS-2. Tylka and Wood-Barcalow compared the results of the BAS-2 between sex,

age, location, taken online and in-person. The results concluded that the man different factors

(sex, age, location, taken online and in-person) lead to many differences, some expected and

others not so much. An example being sex and location. Tylka and Wood-Barcalow expected

differences in result between sexes, yet they did not expect the differences in sexes when it came

to location. The assumption was that men and women would differ in body appreciation but that

the location of the participants would not affect the data too much. Yet, the results showed that

there was a high difference in men and women but even higher differences between men in

college and men in a community. The results also showed that the difference between college

men and women was higher than the difference between community men and women. Study

three focused more on diversity within the questions, or lack of it. Before the study was

published, an issue with another one of the questions asked in BAS-2 was raised. The question “I

walk holding my head high and smiling” neglects the fact the participants may have a disability

that inhibits them from being able to work. To correct this, the question was revised to “I walk

holding my head high and smiling.” Study 3 also looked into the correlation between participants
Body Max Index (BMI) and the BAS-2. After the results of the three studies were examined, the

conclusion that the BAS-2 was indeed an improvement to its predecessors. It asks questions that

better represent the community, is easier administered, and is one of the better choices for

scholars who need to assess body appreciation within research, clinical, prevention, and

educational settings.

         “Willingness to Self-Censor” is a study published in 2005 by Hayes, Glynn, and

Shanahan, who’s premise stems from their 1997 study which found inconsistent results regarding

“the spiral of silence”. The study looks for evidence of self-censorship in multiple situations such

as “public opinion expression, political participation, group decision making, interpersonal

communication, and other areas.”  

Both studies use the Willingness to Self-Censor (WTSC) scale which was constructed

using information from social and psychological research on conformity and individualization,

which is primarily used to measure individual’s levels of comfort when vocalizing controversial

or unpopular opinions (relative to the people around them). It also aims to recognize behavioral

patterns based on how the individual’s rank on the WTSC scale. The scale defines the

Willingness to Self Censor as “a person’s willingness to withhold his or her opinion from an

audience perceived to disagree with that opinion.” The scale consists of 8 items, all of which are

answered using a 1-to-5 likert-type response scale, addressing the degree to which the subjects

agree or disagree with each. The scale is especially popular among researchers who study

college-aged students, which is especially relevant to the goals of our study. Also, it has

historically provided evidence which positively correlates with our hypothesis and has found

more nuanced correlations with things such as self censorship and political affiliation, social

anxiety, and levels of confidence and agreeableness.

 We will benefit from using the scale, specifically, through confirming or denying whether

or not any of the relevant correlations are found among our participants. We will also cross

reference these correlations (which are associated with self-censorship) with our variables. (Our

individual variable being social media use and dependent variable being level of comfortability

expressing one’s opinion on social media. We will run separate correlation tests for each of the

cross-references.  

Perhaps the most useful-to-us portion of the study comes in its popularity:  It’s been

administered to over 10,000 test subjects (while ours has only been administered to a little more

than 100). This adds to the depth of our credibility and will allow us to place more confidence

behind our findings, especially if they correlate applicably to the prior findings of the WTSC

scale. Overall, this scale is extremely valuable to our research due to its similarities and

relevance to our research, it’s proven track record as a tried-and-true research tool, and it’s

ability to prove more nuanced correlations which we may not have normally addressed.

In a 2018 study, conducted by Mark Warner and Victoria Wang, researchers studied self-

censorship in social networking sites (SNSs) and relation to concerns of privacy, privacy

awareness, perceived vulnerability, and information management. While this study and it’s

scales do not line up exactly with our abstract, it could prove beneficial should we suspect our

findings involve some of these variables. This is very likely due to our targeted age demographic

(college students) and their heightened awareness of digital footprints, especially now that we are

rapidly approaching the professional world. The study found that self-censorship increases as the

level of privacy concern, privacy awareness, and perceived vulnerability increase, and as the

level of information management decreases.

 Similar to our survey, the researchers gathered data from less than 500 responses (many

of the studies we looked into gathered data from significantly more). Dissimilarly, however, all

of their responses came from England and they had a much more balanced spread of age and

income level. As a whole, this study goes far more in-depth than we will, but in the event that we

want to dive deeper into our data, pulling elements from this could surely assist us in

accomplishing that task.

In a 2014 study published by Quality and Quantity, K. Hazel Kwon, Shin-Il Moon, and

Michael A. Stefanone tested network effects on self-censorship of political expressions in social

network sites. This article stated that statistics showed that half of the U.S. adult population is

exposed to political content shared by their friends on social networks (2014). According to this

article, U.S. adults are more likely to be exposed to political opinions that differ from their own,

through social networks. In this situation, it’s also more likely for U.S. adults to discover their

friends’ true political perspectives.

         According to this article, the more U.S. adults are exposed to political opinions that differ

from their own, the less likely they are to participate in a political discussion on social networks

(2014). Some even intentionally stayed silent out of fear of offending others in their online social

network circle. Social networks allow for increased peer monitoring and greater immediacy,

meaning that someone is more likely to be in your business and know about it as soon as it

happens, or as soon as you post about it. Social networks provide a platform for people to do this

anonymously, which increases the likelihood of it happening.

         The problem with political discussion on social networks is that it could cause a spiral of

silence. A domino effect may occur of people withholding their political views from social

networks because of what they view and how often they view it. In conjunction with our
hypothesis, we want to see how levels of social media use affect self-censorship. We are

interested in self-censorship when it comes to body exhibition, however, this article still connects

to what we are researching because of the nature of the consequences. The difference between

this article and our research is that the consequences appear to result in opposite sides of the

spectrum. In other words, the more a U.S. adult views political discussion online, the more likely

they are to self-censor themselves and their political views. On the other end, our research is to

find out if viewing others’ participation in body exhibition will increase the likelihood of U.S.

adults participating, as well.

         This article shared means of measurement on how to track someone’s use on social

networks in relation to how willing they are to share their political beliefs on said social

networks. This relates to our hypothesis because it is relevant to levels of social media use and

self-censorship. According to this article, monitoring things like how often social network sites

are visited, how often one posts on social network sites, how large one’s social network friend

groups are, and how comfortable one feels expressing opinions on social networking sites can be

used to track someone’s likelihood of self-censorship.

Research Questions/Hypotheses

For our research, we were asked to look into the idea of self-censorship as it pertains to a

specific area in the media. We decided to look at how exactly self-censorship is used in social

media and tested the hypothesis: if social media use increases, then an individual’s level of self-

censorship concerning body exhibition on social media will decrease. We wanted to know if

individuals became more comfortable with social media, would they become more comfortable

with what they posted on social media as well? Previous research has looked at various self-
censorship scales and body appreciation scales but there is limited research into how the two

overlap on social media because social media is still considered to be a relatively new concept.

Methods

How one selects participants for a research study is one of the most critical elements. In

order to determine our sampling methods, we first determined our desired population and

sample. Next, we determined our sampling design. Third, we determined our sample size.

Finally, we decided our recruiting strategy.

Before we were able to do anything, it was crucial that we determined who our desired

population was and who our desired sample was. We determined that our desired population was

college students. Since getting an accurate and fully represented sample of all college students

would be incredibly challenging, we decided that our desired sample would be college students

from Bryant University. 

Next, we determined our sampling design. We needed to select a method that would

provide a sample that would produce results that are generalized to the population. Since our

theoretical population was college students, we needed to identify potential participants we could

realistically contact that we could generalize to our theoretical population. As we are all students

at Bryant University, it was decided that other students at Bryant University would definitely be

considered part of our sampling frame, which is why we decided to make that group our desired

sample. 

  After we determined our desired sample, our next task was to select a sample design.

When choosing our sample design, the first decision we had to make was whether to use

probability sampling or non-probability sampling. Due to time and resource limitations, we

decided to go with a non-probability sampling. 

  After opting to go with non-probability sampling, we then had to select what type of

nonprobability sample to use. Once again, due to time and resource restrictions, we decided to

employ a convenience sample. This meant that we selected participants for the sample based on

their availability. We reached out to any Bryant University students we thought might be willing

to take our survey. 

Our next step was to determine the sample size we were looking to achieve. In order to

have an accurate sample, it was determined that we would need at least one hundred participants

minimum. 

  Finally, it was time to recruit. This included reaching out to various social circles,

including friends, classmates, clubmates, teammates, etc. We also emailed one professor to give

our survey out in her classes. Between the students in the professor’s classes and all of our group

members’ combined social circles, we believe we have recruited a fairly accurate sample of the

Bryant student body. 

Results

Our demographics consisted of gender, age, and ethnicity. The following percentages

come from 97.5% of our survey participants. For the gender demographic, females made up 50%

of our sample, males made up 44%, the “other” category made up 2.5%, and the “prefer not to

say” group made up the last 1%. For the age demographic, 80% of our sample was in the 18-25

group, 11% was in the 45+ group, 2.5% was in the 26-35 group, another 2.5% was in the “prefer

not to say” group, and the last 2% was in the 36-45 group. For the ethnicity/race demographic,

Caucasians made up 81% of our sample, Lation or Hispanic made up 8%, African American

made up 4%, Asian made up 2%, “other” made up 2%, Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander

made up 1%, and “prefer not to say” made up the last 1%.
 We had one independent variable and four dependent variables. Our independent variable

was Frequency of Social Media Posts. Our first dependent variable was Willingness to Express

Opinion. Our second dependent variable was Level of Emotional Impact from Social Media. Our

third dependent variable was Willingness to Express Opinion on Social Media. Our fourth, and

final, dependent variable was Body Image Self-Perceptions.

We ran a correlation and found significance at the .05 level between our independent

variable and our first dependent variable, which was Willingness to Express Opinion. The

correlation value is -.206, which means the relationship between our independent variable and

our first dependent variable is weak because the absolute value of the correlation is less than .30.

The negative correlation we found means that the more someone posts on social media, the less

likely they are to self-censor their opinion.

Conclusion 

Overall, the results of our study led us to believe that our hypothesis regarding social

media posting frequency and willingness to self-censor was correct. As the responses from our

survey started to come in, we began to see the correlation between the frequency of posting on

social media and the willingness of expressing one’s opinion. The correlation between these two

variables ended up being negative, meaning they were related and that as one posted more on

social media, they will be more willing to express their opinion. As we examined the data, we

understood that self-confidence should have been mentioned in our survey. The survey should

have measured one's level of self-confidence in person versus online, as well as how one’s level

of self-confidence could have changed as their frequency of social media posting changed. Even

though our research ended up proving our hypothesis, we still recognized that there was a portion

of it still unmentioned. The body appreciation part of our hypothesis was inconclusive. This
could have been a result of our limitations. We recognize that in order to get that most accurate

results, there must be further research. In the future we should improve our survey by including

more specific questions regarding social media posts rather than just social media usage. Our

survey should also include more questions regarding body image/appreciation and level of self-

confidence. In doing so, we suspect that the data we would receive will indeed prove our

hypothesis further and in entirely, yet we can not make such claims until that research is indeed

completed.
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