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AC & DC Circuits
AC & DC Circuits
AC & DC Circuits
CIRCUITS
CIRCUITS
AAclosed
closedconducting
conductingpath
paththrough
through which
whichan
anelectric
electric
current
currentflows
flowsor
orisisintended
intendedto
toflow
flow
Parameters
The various elements of an electric circuit, like resistance, inductance,
and capacitance which may be lumped or distibuted.
TYPES
Passive Network
With no source of emf.
Active Network
Contains one or more than one sources of emf.
PART
S Node
A junction in a circuit where two or more circuit elements and/or
branches are connected together.
Branch
Part of a network which lies netween two junctions.
Loop
A closed path in a circuit in which no element or node is encountered
more than once.
Mesh
A loop that contains no other loop within it.
SERIES/PARALLEL CIRCUITS
SERIES CIRCUITS
EX = ET • RX
RT
Where: EX – voltage across the resistor concerned
ET – total voltage across the circuit
RX – the resistor concerned
RT – the sum of all resistances in the circuit
SERIES/PARALLEL CIRCUITS
PARALLEL CIRCUITS
PARALLEL
PARALLEL circuits
circuits
AAcircuit
circuitconnection
connectionin
inwhich
whichthe
thecomponents
componentsare
are
connected
connectedto toform
formmore
morethan
than11conducting
conductingpath
path
SERIES/PARALLEL CIRCUITS
PARALLEL CIRCUITS
IX = IT • Req
RT
Where: IX – current concerned flowing through resistor Rx
IT – total current of the circuit
Req – equivalent resistance of the parallel circuit except Rx
RT – the sum of all resistances in the circuit
SERIES/PARALLEL CIRCUITS
KIRCHHOFF’S LAW
KIRCHHOFF’S
KIRCHHOFF’SLAW
LAW
More
Morecomprehensive
comprehensivethan
thanOhm’s
Ohm’sLaw
Lawand
andisisused
usedininsolving
solvingelectrical
electrical
Termed
Termedas
as“Laws
“Lawsof
ofElectric
ElectricNetworks”
Networks”
Formulated
Formulatedby
byGerman
Germanphysicist
physicistGustav
GustavRobert
RobertKirchhoff
Kirchhoff
NETWORK ANALYSIS
KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW
In short the sum of currents entering a node equals the sum
of currents leaving the node
⁻ Current towards the node, positive current
⁻ Current away from the node, negative current
IB + I C + I D = I A
(IB + IC + ID) - IA = 0
NETWORK ANALYSIS
KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
“The algebraic sum of the products of currents and resistances
in each of thr conductors in any closed path (or mesh) in a
network PLUS the algebraic sum of the emfs in the path is
zero.”
NETWORK ANALYSIS
KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW
In short, the sum of the voltages around the loop is equal to
zero
⁻ For voltage sources, if loops enters on minus and goes out on plus,
positive voltage and if loops enters on plus and goes out on minus,
negative voltage.
⁻ For voltage drops, if the loop direction is the same as current
direction, negative voltage drop and if the loop direction is opposite
to the current direction, positive voltage drop.
NETWORK ANALYSIS
MESH ANALYSIS
MESH
MESH analysis
analysis
AAsophisticated
sophisticatedapplication
applicationof
ofKVL
KVLwith
withmesh
meshcurrents.
currents.
Loop Analysis Procedure:
1. Label each of the loop/mesh currents.
2. Apply KVL to loops/meshes to form
equations with current variables.
a. For N independent loops, we may write
N total equations using KVL around
each loop. Loop currents are those
currents flowing in a loop; they are
used to define branch currents.
b. Current sources provide constraint
equations.
3. Solve the equations to determine the
user defined loop currents.
NETWORK ANALYSIS
NODAL ANALYSIS
NODAL
NODAL analysis
analysis
AAsystematic
systematicapplication
applicationof
ofKCL
KCLat
ataanode
nodeand
andafter
aftersimplifying
simplifying
the
theresulting
resultingKCL
KCLequation,
equation,the
thenode
nodevoltage
voltagecan
canbe
becalculated.
calculated.
In general:
Number of network to analyze is equal to number of independent
sources.
To consider effects of each source independently, sources must be
removed and replaced without affecting the final result:
All voltage sources >> short circuited
All current sources >> open circuited
NETWORK ANALYSIS
COMPENSATION THEOREM
COMPENSATION
COMPENSATION theorem
theorem
IfIfthe
theimpedance
impedanceZZof ofaabranch
branchininaanetwork
networkininwhich
whichaacurrent
currentII
flows
flowsisischanged
changedbybyaafinite
finiteamount
amountdZ,dZ,then
thenthe
thechange
changeininthe
the
currents
currentsininall
allother
otherbranches
branchesof ofthe
thenetwork
networkmaymaybebecalculated
calculated
bybyinserting
insertingaavoltage
voltagesource
sourceofof-IdZ
-IdZinto
intothat
thatbranch
branchwith
withall
all
other
othervoltage
voltagesources
sourcesreplaced
replacedbybytheir
theirinternal
internalimpedances.
impedances.
NETWORK ANALYSIS
RECIPROCITY THEOREM
RECIPROCITY
RECIPROCITY theorem
theorem
“If
“Ifaavoltage
voltagesource
sourceEEacting
actingininone
onebranch
branchof
ofaanetwork
networkcauses
causesaa
current
currentIIto
toflow
flowininanother
anotherbranch
branchofofthe
thenetwork,
network,then
thenthe
thesame
same
voltage
voltagesource
sourceEEacting
actingininthe
thesecond
secondbranch
branchwould
wouldcause
causean
anidentical
identical
current
currentIIto
toflow
flowininthe
thefirst
firstbranch.
branch.””
Simply mean,
E and I are mutually transferable, or
The receiving point and the sending point in a network are
interchangeable, or
Interchange of an IDEAL voltage source and an IDEAL ammeter in any
network will not change the ammeter reading,
Interchange of an IDEAL current source and an IDEAL voltmeter in any
network will not change the voltmeter reading
NETWORK ANALYSIS
MILLMAN’S THEOREM
MILLMAN’S
MILLMAN’S theorem
theorem
““AAspecial
specialcase
caseof
ofthe
theapplication
applicationofofThevenin’s
Thevenin’sTheorem/or
Theorem/or
Norton’s
Norton’sTheorem
Theorem usedusedfor
forfinding
findingthe
theCOMMON
COMMONvoltage
voltage(V
(VABAB))
across
acrossany
anynetwork
networkwhich
whichcontains
containsaanumber
numberof
ofparallel
parallelvoltage
voltage
sources.
sources.””
NETWORK ANALYSIS
MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER
THOREM
MAXIMUM
MAXIMUM POWER
POWER TRANSFER
TRANSFER theorem
theorem
For
Forloads
loadsconnected
connecteddirectly
directlytotoaaDC
DCvoltage
voltagesupply,
supply,maximum
maximum
power
powerwill
willbe
bedelivered
deliveredtotothe
theload
loadwhen
whenthe
theresistance
resistanceisisequal
equal
to
tothe
theinternal
internalresistance
resistanceofofthe
thesource.
source.
For
Formaximum
maximumpower
powertransfer:
transfer:RRSS==RRLL
NETWORK ANALYSIS
THEVENIN’S THEOREM
THEVENIN’S
THEVENIN’S theorem
theorem
““Any
Anytwo-terminal
two-terminalofofaalinear,
linear,active
activebilateral
bilateralnetwork
networkofofaa
fixed
fixedresistances
resistancesand
andvoltage
voltagesource/s
source/smay
maybebereplaced
replacedbybyaa
single
singlevoltage
voltagesource
source(V
(VTHTH))and
andaaseries
seriesof
ofinternal
internalresistance
resistance
(R
(RTHTH).).””
where:
VTH – the open circuit voltage which appears across the two terminals from where
the load resistance has been removed.
RTH – the resistance looking back into the network across the two terminals with all
the voltage sources shorted and replaced by their internal resistances (if any)
and all current sources by infinite resistance.
NETWORK ANALYSIS
NORTON’S THEOREM
THEVENIN’S
THEVENIN’S theorem
theorem
““Any
Anytwo-terminal
two-terminalactive
activenetwork
networkcontaining
containingvoltage
voltagesources
sources
and
andresistances
resistanceswhen
whenviewed
viewedfrom
fromits
itsoutput
outputterminals,
terminals,isis
equivalent
equivalentto toaaconstant-current
constant-currentsource
source(I(INN))and
andaaparallel
parallel
internal
internalresistance
resistance(R
(RNN).).””
where:
IN– the current which would flow in a short circuit placed across the output terminals.
RN – the resistance of the network when viewed from the open circuited terminals after
all voltage sources being replaced by open circuits.
NETWORK ANALYSIS
THEVENIN-NORTON
TRANSFORMATION
NETWORK ANALYSIS
NORTON-THEVENIN
TRANSFORMATION
NETWORK ANALYSIS
EQUIVALENT THREE-TERMINAL
NETWORKS
DELTA
DELTAto
toWYE
WYE
The
Theequivalent
equivalentresistance
resistanceofofeach
eacharm
armto
tothe
thewye
wyeisisgiven
givenby
bythe
the
PRODUCT
PRODUCTof ofthe
thetwo
twodelta
deltasides
sidesthat
thatmeet
meetatatits
itsend
enddivided
dividedby
bythe
the
SUM
SUMofofthe
thethree
threedelta
deltaresistances.
resistances.
NETWORK ANALYSIS
EQUIVALENT THREE-TERMINAL
NETWORKS
WYE
WYEto
toDELTA
DELTA
The
Theequivalent
equivalentdelta
deltaresistance
resistancebetween
betweenany
anytwo
twotwrminals
twrminalsisisgiven
givenby
bythe
the
SUM
SUMofofaastar
starresistance
resistancebetween
betweenthose
thoseterminals
terminalsPLUS
PLUSthe
thePRODUCT
PRODUCTof of
these
thesetwo
twostar
starresistances
resistancesDIVIDED
DIVIDEDby
bythe
thethird
thirdresistance.
resistance.
NETWORK ANALYSIS
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. A battery with a rating of 9 volts has an internal resistance of 20 ohms.
What is the expected resistance of the bulb that is connected across the
battery to attain a maximum power transfer?
a. 20 ohms
b. 10 ohms
c. 5 ohms
d. 2 ohms
4. The ammeter reads 230 ampere while the voltmeter is 115 volts.
What is the power inKW at the time of reading
a. 264.5
b. 2645
c. 264500
d.26.45
REVIEW QUESTIONS
5. What is the type of circuit whose parameters are constant
which do not change with voltage or current?
a. Lumped
b. Tuned
c. Reactive
d. Linear
18. Using ohms Law, what happens to the circuit current if the applied
voltage increases?
a. Current doubles
b. Current increases
c. Current remians constant
d. Current decreases
REVIEW QUESTIONS
19. According to ohms law, what happen to the circuit current if the
circuit resistance increases?
a. Current doubles
b. Current decreases
c. Current increases
d. Current remains constant
38. Two incandecent lamps of 100 W, 200V are in parallel across the
200 V. The total resistance will be
a. 800 ohms
b. 200 ohms
c. 400 ohms
d. 600 ohms
REVIEW QUESTIONS
39. Three resistors are connected in parallel and draws 1A, 2.5A, and
3.5A, rspectively. If the applied voltage is 210V, what is the total
resistance of the circuit?
a. 5 ohms
b. 147 ohms
c. 3 ohms
d. 73.5 ohms
42. Of the following combination of units, the one that is not equal to
the watt is
a. Joule/sec
b. Ampere-volt
c. Ampere-ohm
d. Ohm/volt
REVIEW QUESTIONS
43. The power dissipated in a circuit is not equal to
a. VI
b. IR
c. V/R
d. IR/V
46. When a 100W, 240V, light bulb is operated at 200V, the current
that flows in it is
a. 0.35 A
b. 0.42 A
c. 0.5 A
d. 0.58 A
REVIEW QUESTIONS
47. The equivalent resistance of a network of three 2 ohm resistors
cannot be
a. 0.67 ohms
b. 1.5 ohms
c. 3 ohms
d. 6 ohms
52. In a simple DC power line, the wire that carries the current
from the generator to the load is called
a. Return wire
b. Feeder
c. Outgoing wire
d. Conductor
REVIEW QUESTIONS
53. A circuit in which the resistance are connected in a continuous run,
i.e., end-to-end is a _____ circuit.
a. Saries
b. Parallel
c. Series-parallel
d. None of these
Advantages
AdvantagesofofAC:
AC:
Magnitude
Magnitudecan caneasily
easilybe
bechanged
changed(stepped-up
(stepped-upor orstepped
steppeddown)
down)with
withthe
theuse
useofofaa
transformer
transformer
Can
Canbebeproduced
producedeither
eithersingle
singlephase
phasefor
forlight
lightloads,
loads,two
twophase
phaseforforcontrol
controlmotors,
motors,
three
threephase
phasefor
forpower
powerdistribution
distributionand
andlarge
largemotor
motorloads
loadsor
orsix
sixphase
phasefor
forlarge
large
scale
scaleAC
ACtotoDC
DCconversion.
conversion.
BASIC AC THEORY
AC WAVEFORMS
BASIC AC THEORY
AC WAVEFORMS
Parameters of Alternating Signal
f = 1 λ = v
T f
Period
Period(T)
(T)––the
thetime
timeofofone
onecomplete
completecycle
cycleininseconds
seconds
Frequency
Frequency(f) (f)––the
thenumber
numberofofcycles
cyclesper
persecond
second(Hertz)
(Hertz)
a.a. 11cycle/second
cycle/second(cps) (cps)==11Hertz
Hertz(Hz)
(Hz)
b.b. Proper
Properoperation
operationofofelectrical
electricalequipmnent
equipmnentrequires
requiresspecific
specificfrequency
frequency
c.c. Frequencies
Frequencieslower lowerthan
than6060Hz
Hzwould
wouldcause
causeflicker
flickerwhen
whenused
usedininlightning
lightning
Wavelength
Wavelength(λ) (λ)––the
thelength
lengthofofone
onecomplete
completecyclecycle
Propagation
PropagationVelocity
Velocity(v)
(v)––the
thespeed
speedofofthe
thesignal
signal
Phase
Phase(Φ)
(Φ)––an anangilar
angilarmeasurement
measurementthat thatspecifies
specifiesthe
theposition
positionof
ofaasine
sinewave
wave
relative
relativeto
toreference
reference BASIC AC THEORY
AC WAVEFORMS
THE SINUSOIDAL WAVE
Is the most common AC waveform that is practically
generated by generators used in household and industries
General equation for sine wave:
PEAK
PEAKAMPLITUDE
AMPLITUDE––the theheight
heightofofan
anAC
ACwaveform
waveformas asmeasured
measuredfrom
fromthe
the
zero
zeromark
marktotothe
thehighest
highestpositive
positiveor
orlowest
lowestnegative
negativepoint
pointon
onaagraph.
graph.Also
Also
known
knownas
asthe
thecrest
crestamplitude
amplitudeofofaawave.
wave.
BASIC AC THEORY
AC WAVEFORMS
PEAK-TO-PEAK
PEAK-TO-PEAKAMPLITUDE
AMPLITUDE––the thetotal
totalheight
heightof
ofan
anAC
ACwaveform
waveformasas
measured
measuredfrom
frommaximum
maximumpositive
positiveto
tomaximum
maximumnegative
negativepeaks
peakson
onaa
graph.
graph.Often
Oftenabbreviated
abbreviatedas
as“P-P”
“P-P”
BASIC AC THEORY
AC WAVEFORMS
AVERAGE
AVERAGEAMPLITUDE
AMPLITUDE––the themathematical
mathematical“mean”
“mean”ofofall
allaawaveform’s
waveform’spoints
points
over
overthe
theperiod
periodof
ofone
onecycle.
cycle.Technically,
Technically,the
theaverage
averageamplitude
amplitudeof ofany
any
waveform
waveformwithwithequal-area
equal-areaportions
portionsabove
aboveandandbelow
belowthe
the“zero”
“zero”line
lineon
onaa
graph
graphisiszero.
zero.
For
Foraasine
sinewave,
wave,the
theaverage
averagevalue
valueso
socalculated
calculatedisisapproximately
approximately0.637
0.637of
ofits
its
peak
peakvalue.
value.
BASIC AC THEORY
AC WAVEFORMS
RMS
RMSAMPLITUDE
AMPLITUDE--“RMS”
“RMS”stands
standsfor
forRoot
RootMean
MeanSquare,
Square,and
andisisaaway
wayof
of
expressing
expressingan
anAC
ACquantity
quantityofofvoltage
voltageor
orcurrent
currentininterms
termsfunctionally
functionally
equivalent
equivalentto
toDC.
DC. Also
Alsoknown
knownasasthe
the“equivalent”
“equivalent”or or“DC
“DCequivalent”
equivalent”
value
valueof
ofan
anAC
ACvoltage
voltageor
orcurrent.
current.
For
Foraasine
sinewave,
wave,the
theRMS
RMSvalue
valueisisapproximately
approximately0.707
0.707of
ofits
itspeak
peakvalue.
value.
BASIC AC THEORY
AC WAVEFORMS
The
Thecrest
crestfactor
factorof
ofan
anACAC
waveform
waveformisisthe
theratio
ratioof
of
its
itspeak
peak(crest)
(crest)to
toits
itsRMS
RMS
value.
value.
The
Theform
formfactor
factorof
ofan
anAC
AC
waveform
waveformisisthe
theratio
ratioof
of
its
itsRMS
RMSvalue
valueto
toits
its
average
averagevalue.
value.
BASIC AC THEORY
AC QUANTITIES
BASIC AC THEORY
AC QUANTITIES
Inductive
InductiveReactance
Reactance(X
(XL)L)
•• The
Theproperty
propertyofofthe
theinductor
inductorto
tooppose
opposethe
thealternating
alternatingcurrent
current
XXLL==2πfL
2πfL
Inductive
InductiveSusceptance
Susceptance(B (BL)L)
•• Reciprocal
Reciprocalofofinductive
inductivereactance
reactance
BBL L == 11 BBL L == 11
XXL L 2πfL
2πfL
Capacitive
CapacitiveReactance
Reactance(XC)
(XC)
•• TheTheproperty
propertyof
ofaacapacitor
capacitorto
tooppose
opposealternating
alternatingcurrent
current
XXCC== 11
Capacitive
CapacitiveSusceptance
Susceptance(BC)
(BC) 2πfC
2πfC
•• Reciprocal
Reciprocalofofcapacitive
capacitivereactance
reactance
BBL L == 11 BBL L == 2πfC
2πfC
XXCC
dd
BASIC AC THEORY
AC QUANTITIES
IMPEDANCE (Z)
Total opposition to the flow of Alternating current
Combination of the resistance in a circuit and the reactances
involved
Z = R + jXeq Z = |Z| ∠φ
Where:
Where:|Z|
|Z|==√√RR22++XX22
φφ==Arctan
ArctanXXeqeq
RR
BASIC AC THEORY
AC QUANTITIES
Im∠β
IfIfI I==Im ∠βisisthe
theresulting
resultingcurrent
currentdrawn
drawnby
byaapassive,
passive,linear
linearRLC
RLCcircuit
circuitfrom
fromaa
source
sourcevoltage
voltageVV==VmVm∠θ,∠θ,then
then
Vm∠θ
ZZ == VV == Vm ∠θ == ZZ∠φ
∠φ
II Im∠β
Im ∠β
ZZcosφ jZsinφφ==RR++jXjX==√√RR22++XX22 ∠∠tan
cosφ++jZsin tan-1-1 XX
RR
Where:
Where: ZZ== Vm
Vm == √√RR22++XX22 ==magnitude
magnitudeof ofthe
theimpedance
impedance
Im
Im
φφ==θθ––ββ==tan
tan-1-1 XX == phase
phaseangle
angleof
ofthe
theimpedance
impedance
RR
RR==Zcos
Zcosφφ==active
activeor orreal
realcomponent
componentof ofthe
theimpedance
impedance
XX==Zsin
Zsinφφ==reactive
reactiveor
orquadrature
quadraturecomponent
componentof
ofimpedance
impedance
BASIC AC THEORY
AC QUANTITIES
ADMITTANCE (Y)
The reciprocal of impedance
Expressed in siemens or mho (S)
Im ∠∠ββ––θθ == YY ==Ycos
YY == Im Ycosφy
φy ++jYsin
jYsinφy
φy == GG++jB
jB
Vm
Vm
YY==√√GG22++BB22∠∠tan
tan-1-1 BB
GG
Where:
Where: YY== Im
Im ==√√GG2 2++BB2 2 == 11 == magnitude
magnitudeofofthe
theadmittance
admittance
ZZ
φy
φy==ββ––θθ==φφ ==tan tan-1-1 BB == phase
phaseangle
angleofofthe
theadmittance
admittance
GG
GG==Ycos
Ycosφy
φy==conductive/conductance
conductive/conductancecomponent
component
BB==Ysin
Ysinφy
φy==susceptive/susceptance
susceptive/susceptancecomponent
component
BASIC AC THEORY
AC RESISTOR CIRCUIT
Impedance
Impedance(Z)
(Z)==RR
With
WithananAC
ACcircuit
circuitlike
likethis
thiswhich
whichisispurely
purelyresistive,
resistive,the
therelationship
relationshipof
ofthe
thevoltage
voltage
and
andcurrent
currentisisas
asshown:
shown:
Voltage
Voltage(e)
(e)isisininphase
phasewith
withthethecurrent
current(i)(i)
Power
Powerisisnever
neveraanegative
negativevalue.
value. When
Whenthe thecurrent
currentisispositive
positive(above
(abovethe
theline),
line),
the
thevoltage
voltageisisalsoalsopositive,
positive,resulting
resultingininaapower
power(p=ie)
(p=ie)ofofaapositve
positvevalue
value
This
Thisconsistent
consistent“polarity”
“polarity”of
ofaapower
powertelltellus
usthat
thatthe
theresistor
resistorisisalways
always
dissipating
dissipatingpower,
power,taking
takingititfrom
fromthe
thesource
sourceandandreleasing
releasingititininthe
theform
formof of
heat
heatenergy.
energy. Whether
Whetherthe thecurrent
currentisisnegative
negativeororpositive,
positive,aaresistor
resistorstill
still
dissipated
dissipatedenergy.
energy.
AC CIRCUITS
AC INDUCTOR CIRCUIT
Impedance
Impedance(Z)
(Z)==jX
jXLL
The
Themost
mostdistinguishing
distinguishingelectrical
electricalcharacteristics
characteristicsofofan
anLLcircuit
circuitisisthat
thatcurrent
currentlags
lags
voltage by 90 electrical degrees
voltage by 90 electrical degrees
Because
Becausethethecurrent
currentand
andvoltage
voltagewaveswavesarae
arae90 90ooout
outofofphase,
phase,there
theresre sretimes
timeswhen
when
one
oneisispositive
positivewhile
whilethe
theother
otherisisnegative,
negative,resulting
resultingininequally
equallyfrequent
frequentoccurences
occurencesofof
negative
negativeinstantaneous
instantaneouspower.
power.
Negative
Negativepower
powermeans
meansthat
thatthetheinductor
inductorisisreleasing
releasingpower
powerback
backto tothe
thecircuit,
circuit,while
whileaa
positive
positivepower
powermeans
meansthat
thatititisisabsorbing
absorbingpower
powerfrom
fromthethecircuit.
circuit.
The
Theinductor
inductorreleases
releasesjust
justas
asmuch
muchpower
powerback
backtotothe
thecircuit
circuitas
asititabsorbs
absorbsover
overthe
the
span
spanofofaacomplete
completecycle.
cycle.
AC CIRCUITS
AC INDUCTOR CIRCUIT
oo Inductive
Inductivereactance
reactanceisisthe
theopposition
oppositionthat
thatananinductor
inductoroffers
offersto
toalternating
alternating
current
currentdue
duetotoits
itsphase-shifted
phase-shiftedstorage
storageand
andrelease
releaseof
ofenergy
energyininits
its
magnetic
magneticfield.
field.Reactance
Reactanceisissymbolized
symbolizedbybythe
thecapital
capitalletter
letter“X”
“X”and
andisis
measured
measuredininohms
ohmsjust
justlike
likeresistance
resistance(R).
(R).
oo Inductive
Inductivereactance
reactancecan
canbe
becalculated
calculatedusing
usingthis
thisformula:
formula:XXL L==2πfL
2πfL
oo The
Theangular
angularvelocity
velocityof
ofan
anAC
ACcircuit
circuitisisanother
anotherway
wayofofexpressing
expressingits
its
frequency,
frequency,ininunits
unitsof
ofelectrical
electricalradians
radiansper persecond
secondinstead
insteadof
ofcycles
cyclesper
per
second.
second.ItItisissymbolized
symbolizedby bythe
thelowercase
lowercaseGreek
Greekletter
letter“omega,”
“omega,”ororω.ω.
oo Inductive
Inductivereactance
reactanceincreases
increaseswith
withincreasing
increasingfrequency.
frequency.InInother
otherwords,
words,
the
thehigher
higherthe
thefrequency,
frequency,the
themore
moreititopposes
opposesthe
theAC
ACflow
flowofofelectrons.
electrons.
AC CIRCUITS
AC CAPACITOR CIRCUIT
Impedance
Impedance(Z)
(Z)==-jX
-jXCC
The
Themost
mostdistinguishing
distinguishingelectrical
electricalcharacteristics
characteristicsofofan
anCCcircuit
circuitisisthat
thatleads
leadsthe
thevoltage
voltage
by 90 electrical degrees
by 90 electrical degrees
The
Thecurrent
currentthrough
throughaacapacitor
capacitorisisaareaction
reactionagainst
againstthe
thechange
changeininvoltage
voltageacross
acrossitit
AAcapacitor’s
capacitor’sopposition
oppositionto tochange
changeininvoltage
voltagetranslates
translatestotoan
anopposition
oppositionto
toalternating
alternating
voltage
voltageiningeneral,
general,which
whichisisby
bydefinition
definitionalways
alwayschanging
changinginininstantaneous
instantaneousmagnitude
magnitude
and
anddirection.
direction.For
Foranyanygiven
givenmagnitude
magnitudeofofACACvoltage
voltageatataagiven
givenfrequency,
frequency,aacapacitor
capacitor
of
ofgiven
givensize
sizewill
will“conduct”
“conduct”aacertain
certainmagnitude
magnitudeof ofAC
ACcurrent.
current.
The
Thephase
phaseangle
angleof ofaacapacitor’s
capacitor’sopposition
oppositiontotocurrent
currentisis-90
-90o,meaning
o
,meaningthat
thataa
capacitor’s
capacitor’sopposition
oppositionto tocurrent
currentisisaanegative
negativeimaginary
imaginaryquantity
AC CIRCUITS
quantity
AC CAPACITOR CIRCUIT
oo Capacitive
Capacitivereactance
reactanceisisthe
theopposition
oppositionthat
thataacapacitor
capacitoroffers
offerstoto
alternating
alternatingcurrent
currentdueduetotoits
itsphase-shifted
phase-shiftedstorage
storageand
andrelease
releaseof ofenergy
energy
ininits
itselectric
electricfield.
field.Reactance
Reactanceisissymbolized
symbolizedbybythe
thecapital
capitalletter
letter“X”
“X”and
andisis
measured
measuredininohmsohmsjust
justlike
likeresistance
resistance(R).
(R).
oo Capacitive
Capacitivereactance
reactancecan
canbe
becalculated
calculatedusing
usingthis
thisformula:
formula:XXCC==1/(2πfC)
1/(2πfC)
oo Capacitive
Capacitivereactance
reactancedecreases
decreaseswith
withincreasing
increasingfrequency.
frequency.InInother
otherwords,
words,
the
thehigher
higherthe
thefrequency,
frequency,the
theless
lessititopposes
opposes(the
(themore
moreitit“conducts”)
“conducts”)the
the
AC
ACflow
flowof
ofelectrons.
electrons.
AC CIRCUITS
SERIES RESITOR-INDCUTOR CIRCUIT
For
Foraaseries
seriesresistor-inductor
resistor-inductorcircuit,
circuit,the
thevoltage
voltageand
andcurrent
currentrelation
relationisis
determined
determinedininits
itsphase
phaseshift.
shift. Thus,
Thus,current
currentlags
lagsvoltage
voltageby
byaaphase
phaseshift
shift
(θ)
(θ)
Impedance
Impedance(Z)
(Z)==RR++jX
jXLL
Admittance
Admittance(Y)
(Y)== 11 == RR––jX jXLL
RR++jX
jXLL RR22++jX
jXLL22
AC CIRCUITS
SERIES RESITOR-INDCUTOR CIRCUIT
Phase
Phaseshift
shift(θ)
(θ)==Arctan
Arctan((XXLL)) |Z|
|Z|==√√RR22++jX
jXLL22== ee
RR ii
oo When
Whenresistors
resistorsand
andinductors
inductorsare
aremixed
mixedtogether
togetherinincircuits,
circuits,the
thetotal
total
impedance
impedancewill willhave
haveaaphase
phaseangle
anglesomewhere
somewherebetween
between00ooand and+90
+90oo.. The
The
circuit
circuitcurrent
currentwill
willhave
haveaaphase
phaseangle
anglesomewhere
somewherebetween
between00ooandand-90
-90oo. .
Series
SeriesAC
ACcircuits
circuitsexhibit
exhibitthe
thesame
samefundamental
fundamentalproperties
propertiesas asseries
seriesDC
DC
circuits:
circuits:current
currentisisuniform
uniformthroughout.
throughout.
AC CIRCUITS
SERIES RESISTOR-CAPACITOR CIRCUIT
For a series resistor – capacitor circuit, the voltage and current relation is
determined by the phase shift. Thus the current leads the voltage by an
angle less than 90 degrees but greater than 0 degrees.
Impedance
Impedance(Z)
(Z)==RR––jX
jXCC
Admittance
Admittance(Y)
(Y)== 11 == RR++jX jXCC
RR––jX
jXCC RR22++jXjXCC22
AC CIRCUITS
SERIES RESISTOR-CAPACITOR CIRCUIT
Phase
Phaseshift
shift(θ)
(θ)==Arctan
Arctan((XXCC)) |Z|
|Z|==√√RR22++jX
jXCC22== ee
RR ii
AC CIRCUITS
PARALLEL RESISTOR-INDUCTOR
YY==GG––jβjβL L where:
where: GG––conductance
conductance == 1/R
1/R
ββL L––susceptance
susceptance == 1/X
1/XL L
ZZ==EE , ,by
byOhm’s
Ohm’sLaw
Law
II
The
Thebasic
basicapproachwith
approachwithregarda
regardato
toparallel
parallelcircuits
circuitsisisusing
usingadmittance
admittance
because
becauseititisisadditive
additive AC CIRCUITS
PARALLEL RESISTOR-INDUCTOR
oo When
Whenresistors
resistorsand
andinductors
inductorsare
aremixed
mixedtogether
togetherininparallel
parallelcircuits
circuits(just
(just
like
likeininseries
seriescicuits),
cicuits),the
thetotal
totalimpedance
impedancewill willhave
haveaaphase
phaseangle
angle
somewhere
somewherebetween
between00ooandand+90
+90oo. . The
Thecircuit
circuitcurrent
currentwill
willhave
haveaaphase
phase
angle
anglesomewhere
somewherebetween
between00ooandand-90 -90oo. .
oo Parallel
ParallelAC
ACcircuits
circuitsexhibit
exhibitthe
thesame
samefundamental
fundamentalproperties
propertiesas
asparallel
parallelDC
DC
circuits:
circuits:voltage
voltageisisuniform
uniformthroughour
throughourthe
thecircuit,
circuit,brach
brachcurrents
currentsadd
addtoto
form
formthe
thetotal
totalcurrent,
current,and
andimpedances
impedancesdiminish
diminish(through
(throughthe
thereciprocal
reciprocal
formula)
formula)to toform
formthethetotal
totalimpedance.
impedance.
AC CIRCUITS
PARALLEL RESISTOR-CAPACITOR
YY==GG++jβjβCC where:
where: GG––conductance
conductance == 1/R
1/R
ββCC––susceptance
susceptance == 1/X
1/XCC
oo When
Whenresistors
resistorsand
andcapacitors
capacitorsare
aremixxed
mixxedtogether
togetherinincircuits,
circuits,the
thetotal
total
impedance
impedancewill
willhave
haveaaphase
phaseangle
anglesomewhere
somewherebetween
between00ooandand-90-90oo. .
AC CIRCUITS
APPARENT POWER (S)
APPARENT POWER
Represents the rate at which the total energy is supplied to the
system
Measured in volt-amperes (VA)
It has two components, the Real Power and the Capacitive or
Inductive Reactive Power
POWER IN AC CIRCUITS
APPARENT POWER (S)
Power Triangle
Complex Power
S = P ± jQ
POWER IN AC CIRCUITS
REAL POWER (R)
REAL POWER
The power consumed by the resistive component
Also called True Power, Useful Power and Productive Power
Measured in Watts (W)
It is equal to the product of the apparent power and the power factor
P = Scos θ
Power Factor
Cosine
Cosineof
ofthe
thepower
powerfactor
factorangle
angle(θ)(θ)
Measure
Measureofofthe
thepower
powerthat
thatisisdissipated
dissipatedbybythe
thecicuit
cicuitininrelation
relationto
tothe
the
apparent
apparentpower
powerand
andisisusually
usuallygiven
givenasasaadecimal
decimalor
orpercentage
percentage
Pf = cos θ
POWER IN AC CIRCUITS
REAL POWER (R)
Ratio
Ratioofofthe
theReal
RealPower
Powerto
tothe
theApparent
ApparentPower
Power(( PP ))
SS
when:
when:
PfPf==1.0
1.0 I Iisisininphase
phasewith
withV;
V;resistive
resistivesystem
system
PfPf==lagging
lagging I Ilags
lagsVVbybyθ;θ;inductive
inductivesystem
system
PfPf==leading
leading I Ileads
leadsVVby byθ;θ;capacitive
capacitivesystem
system
PfPf==0.0
0.0lag
lag I Ilags
lagsVVbyby90o;
90o;purely
purelyinductive
inductive
PfPf==0.0
0.0lead
lead I Ileads
leadsVVby by90o;
90o;purely
purelycapacitive
capacitive
Power factor Angle (θ)
The
Theangle
anglebetween
betweenthe
theapparent
apparentpower
powerand
andthe
thereal
realpoweer
poweerininthe
thepower
powertriangle
triangle
Let
Let v(t)
v(t)==VVmmcos(ωt
cos(ωt++θθv)v)volts
volts
∠θv v
rms ∠θ
VV==VVrms
i(t)
i(t)==ImImcos(ωt
cos(ωt++θθi)i)AA
Irmss∠θ
I I==Irm ∠θi i
POWER IN AC CIRCUITS
REAL POWER (R)
Instantaneous Power (watts)
P(t)
P(t)==v(t)
v(t)i(t)
i(t)
P(t)
P(t)==½½VVmmIImmcos
cos(θ
(θvv––θθi)i)++½½VVmmIImmcos
cos(2ωt
(2ωt++θθvv++θθi)i)
P(t)
P(t)==½½VVmmIImmcos
cos(θ
(θvv––θθi)i)==VVmmIImmcos
cosθθ
Where:
Where: θθ==phase
phaseshfit
shfitbetween
betweenv(t)
v(t)and
andi(t)
i(t)or
orthe
thephase
phaseangle
angleof
ofthe
the
equivalent
equivalentimpedance
impedance
POWER IN AC CIRCUITS
REACTIVE POWER (QL or QC)
REACTIVE POWER
Represents the rate at which energy is stored or released in any of the
energy storing elements (the inductor or the capacitor)
Also called the imaginary power, non-productive or wattless power
Measured in volt-ampere reactive (Var)
When the capacitor and inductor are both present, the reactive power
associated with them take opposite signs since they do not store or
release energy at the same time
It is positive for inductive power (QL) and negative for capacitive
power (QC)
Q = V I sin θ
Q = VmmImm sin θ
Reactive factor
Ratio
Ratioof
ofthe
theReactive
ReactivePower
Powertotothe
theApparent
ApparentPower
Power
Sine
Sineof
ofthe
thepower
powerfactor
factorangle
angle(θ)
(θ)
Rf
Rf==sin
sinθθ
POWER IN AC CIRCUITS
BALANCED THREE PHASE SYSTEMS
BALANCED 3-PHASE SYSTEM
Comprises of three identical single-phase systems operating at a 120 o
phase displacement from one another. This means that a balance
three-phase system provides three voltages(and currents) that are
equal in magnitude and separated by 120o from each other
CLASSIFICATION
Three-Phase,
Three-Phase,3-wire
3-wiresystems
systems
Provide
Provideonly
onlyone
onetype
typeof
ofvoltage(line
voltage(lineto
toline)
line)both
bothsingle
singlephase
phaseand
and
three
threephase
phaseloads
loads
Three-Phase,
Three-Phase,4-wire
4-wiresystems
systems
Provide
Providetwo
twotypes
typesof
ofvoltages(line
voltages(lineto
toline
lineand
andline
lineto
toneutral)
neutral)to
toboth
both
single
singlephase
phaseand
andthree
threephase
phaseloads
loads
BALANCED ∆-system
ILIL==√3
√3IPIP and
and VVLLLL==VVLNLN
ILILand
andIPIPare
areout
outof
ofphase
phaseby
by30
30oo
Where:
Where:VVLLLLor orVVL L--line
lineto
toline
lineor
orline
linevoltage
voltage
VVLNLN ororVVPP--line
lineto
toneutral
neutralororphase
phasevoltage
voltage
ILIL--line
linecurrent
current
IPIP--phase
phasecurrent
current
BALANCED THREE PHASE SYSTEM
ALTERNATING CURRENT
Note:
Note:for
forbalanced
balanced3-phase
3-phasesystems:
systems:
IAIA++IBIB++ICIC==00
VA
VANN++VVBNBN++VVCNCN==00
VVABAB++VVBCBC++VVCACA==00
THREE-PHASE
VJH
VJH POWER
PP==3V
3VPPIPIPcos
cosθθ==√3
√3VVLILLILcos
cosθθ watts
watts
QQ==3V
3VPPIPIPsin
sinθθ==√3
√3VVLILLILsin
sinθθ vars
vars
SS==3V
3VPPIPIP==√3
√3VVLILLIL va
va
14. Find the phase angle between the voltage across through the cicuit
when Xc is 25ohms, R is 100 ohms and XL is 50 ohms.
a. 76 deg with the voltage leading the current
b. 24 deg with the voltage lagging the current
c. 14 deg with the voltage lagging the current
d. 76 deg with the voltage lagging the current
REVIEW QUESTIONS
15. Calculate the period of an alternating current having a equation of
I=20sin 120πt
a. 4.167 ms
b. 8.33 ms
c. 16.67 ms
d. 33.33 ms
22.What is the time constant of a 500mH coil and a 3300 ohm resistor
in series?
a. 0.00015 sec
b. 6.6 sec
c. 0.0015 sec
d. 0.0000015 sec
REVIEW QUESTIONS
23. What is the realtionship between frequency and the value of XC ?
a. Frequency has no effect
b. XC varies inversely with frequency
c. XC varies indirectly with frequency
d. XC varies directly with frequency
30. In a pure resistive circuit, the instantaneous voltage and are current are
given by:
v=250 sin 314t i=10sin314t
The peak power in the circuit is
a.1250 W
b. 25 W
c. 2500 W
d. 250 w
REVIEW QUESTIONS
31. An average value of 6.63 A is _____ the effective value of 7.07 A.
a. The same area
b. Less than
c. Greater than
d. Any of these
32. In an R-L series circuit, the resistance is 10 ohms and the inductive
reactance is 10 ohms. The phase angle between the applied voltage
and circuit current will be
a. 45 deg
b. 30 deg
c. 60 deg
d. 36.8 deg
REVIEW QUESTIONS
33.An R-L series ac circuit has 15V across the resistor and 20V across
the inductor. The supply volatge is
a. 35 V
b. 5 V
c. 25 V
d. 175 V
34. The active and reactive powers of an inductive circuit are equal.
The power factor of the circuit is
a. 0.8 lagging
b. 0.707 lagging
c. 0.6 lagging
d. 0.5 lagging
REVIEW QUESTIONS
35. A circuit when connected to 200V mains takes a current of 20 A, leading
the voltage by one-twelfth of time period. The circuit resistance is
a. 10 ohms
b. 8.66 ohms
c. 20 ohms
d. 17.32 ohms
40. An inductive circuit of resistance 16.5 ohms and inductive of 0.14H takes
a current of 25 A. If the frequency is 50Hz, the supply voltage is
a. 117.4 V
b. 1174 V
c. 1714 V
d. 1471 V
REVIEW QUESTIONS
41. The current taken by a circuit is 1.2 A when the applied potential
difference is 250 V and the power taken is 135W. The power factor
is
a. 0.35
b. 0.45
c. 0.55
d. 0.65
52. Find the half power bandwidth of a parallel resonant circuit which
has a resonant frequency of 3.6MHz and Q of 218.
a. 606 kHz
b. 58.7 kHz
c. 16.5 kHz
d. 47.3 kHz
REVIEW QUESTIONS
53. At series resonance _____ .
a. Circuit impedance is very large
b. Cicuit power factor is minimum
c. Voltage across L or C is zero
d. Circuit power factor is unity