BIOMOLECULE: also called biological molecule, any of numerous substances that are produced

by cells and living organisms. Biomolecules have a wide range of sizes and structures and
perform a vast array of functions. The four major types of biomolecules are carbohydrates, lipids,
nucleic acids, and proteins.

CARBOHYDRATES: are made up primarily of molecules containing atoms of carbon, hydrogen,

and oxygen, the general formula Cx(H2O)y is commonly used to represent many carbohydrates,
which means “watered carbon. Are essential energy sources and structural components of all life,
and they are among the most abundant biomolecules on Earth. They are built from four types of
sugar units—monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides.

FUNCTION AND IMPORTANCE OF CARBOHYDRATES: The importance of carbohydrates to

living things can hardly be overemphasized. The energy stores of most animals and plants are
both carbohydrate and lipid in nature; carbohydrates are generally available as an immediate
energy source, whereas lipids act as a long-term energy resource and tend to be utilized at a
slower rate. Glucose, the prevalent uncombined, or free, sugar circulating in the blood of higher
animals, is essential to cell function. The proper regulation of glucose metabolism is of paramount
importance to survival.

TEST FOR SPECIFIC CARBOHYDRATES: Seliwanoff’s test, Bial’s test, and Iodine test

1. Seliwanoff’s test

Principle of Seliwanoff’s test:

Seliwanoff’s test is used to distinguish aldoses from ketoses. On treatment with conc. Acid,
ketoses are dehydrated more rapidly to give furfural derivatives and on condensation with
resorcinol give cherry red complex. The test will be answered by fructose, sucrose and other keto
containing carbohydrates.
Result Interpretation of Seliwanoff’s test:

Positive seliwanoff’s test: Fructose and sucrose

Negative seliwanoff’s test: glucose, distilled water

2. Bial’s Test

Principle of Bial’s test:

Bial’s test is useful in distinguishing pentoses sugar from hexoses sugars. Pentosses (such as
ribose sugar) form furfural in acidic medium which condense with orcinol in presence of ferric ion
to give blue green colored complex which is soluble in butyl alcohol.

Result interpretation for Bial’s test:

Positive Bial’s test: formation of blue color (eg. Ribose sugar)
Negative Bial’s test: formation of any other color indicates negative test. Hexose sugar (glucose,
fructose) generally gives green, red or brown color product.

3. Iodine Test: Principle, reagents, Procedure and Result

Principle of Iodine test for carbohydrate:

Starch when reacted with I2 forms absorbed compound that gives blue color. On heating or on
addition of alkali like NaOH or KIH, color disappears. This reaction is only physically association
where I2 traps in the coiled structure of polysaccharide. On heating or on addition of alkali; the
coiled structure becomes linear and the I2 molecules are released and the color disappears. The
test will be answered by fructose, sucrose and other keto containing carbohydrates.
Result interpretation of Iodine test:

Positive iodine test: dark blue color (starch)

Negative iodine test: glucose, fructose and sucrose

MONOSACCHARIDE: also called simple sugar, any of the basic compounds that serve as the
building blocks of carbohydrates. Monosaccharides are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones; that
is, they are molecules with more than one hydroxyl group (−OH), and a carbonyl group (C=O)
either at the terminal carbon atom (aldose) or at the second carbon atom (ketose). The carbonyl
group combines in aqueous solution with one hydroxyl group to form a cyclic compound (hemi-
acetal or hemi-ketal). The resulting monosaccharide is a crystalline water-soluble solid.

CLASSIFICATION OF MONOSACCHARIDES: classified by the number of carbon atoms in the

molecule; dioses have two, trioses have three, tetroses four, pentoses five, hexoses six, and
heptoses seven. Most contain five or six. The most-important pentoses include xylose, found
combined as xylan in woody materials; arabinose from coniferous trees; ribose, a component of
ribonucleic acids (RNA) and several vitamins; and deoxyribose, a component of deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA). Among the most-important aldohexoses are glucose, mannose, and galactose;
fructose is a ketohexose.

ALDOSE AND KETOSE

Basis of Distinction Aldose Ketose

Definition The monosaccharide that A monosaccharide that has a
only has one aldehyde group ketone group in each
in each molecule and molecule that contains three
becomes a pure sugar. carbon atoms.

Example Glycolaldehyde that only has Dihydroxyacetone, and it

one carbon atom within its does not have any optical
structure. activity.

Convertibility May decompose into ketose May decompose into aldose

depending on the only if there exists a separate
isomerization reaction. carbonyl group at the end of
each atom.

Seliwanoff’s Test Light Pink color Dark red color.