Philosophical-Social Foundation of EducationCourse description: Philosophy of Education is a systematic and reflective study of the various topics central to ‘educational philosophy, including an examination of the major philosophies of education. It is designed primarily to help students reflect on the nature of education by cultivating an adequate knowledge of the major philosophies of education. This involves 2 philosophical inquiry into (a) the aims or goals of the educational process; (b) the most effective means to attain those goals; and (c) the proper content or subject matter of education. General Objectives: 1. To learn and analyze traditional philosophies of education, and their assumptions and arguments. 2. To learn and analyze philosophical perspectives on schooling and learning 3. To analyze fundamental problems in educational philosophy. 4, To develop an individual, critical perspective on the central topics on education. Specific Objectives: 1. To introduce the students in education and philosophy nat the course is all about. 2, To show the students the need of having philosophy in education 3, To introduce the students to philosophers of education of the Ancient East and West, by reading some of their philosophies. 4, To enable the students to raise issues, questions and problems about the educational theories of the ancient East and West. 5. To be able to evaluate the Eastern and Western contributions to education. 6. To study the major philosophical theories of education; to show their relevance to the present educational system in the Philippines; and to identify some issues that may arise from these philosophies. 7, To study the contributions of some post-modern philosophers to education. 8. To enable the students to synthesize the whole course. 8. To enable the students to present their Philosophy. of Education and defend their formulations.Learning Activities: si Raising Questions. This is the process of reading an original text and of raising questions about the text in relation to education. Lecture Forum, ‘The professor gives an input after which the students are expected to participate in the discussion, by giving a reaction/contribution regarding the topic and by formulating questions/problems on the topic. Writing a Reflection Essay. Each student is expected to write a reflection essay on the topic: "What is my philosophy of education.” Oral Examination. This is actually a defense of the student's philosophy of education, This is supposed to test the competence of the student in the verbal formulation and defense of his philosophy of education. Written Examination, There will be two major examinations within the semester- midterm and finals- aside from the minor examinations under the discretion of the professor. Course Requirements: 1. Each student is expected to come to each class meeting ready to discuss the readings assigned for that session. Class attendance and participation contribute to the final grade. 2, Each student must submit a reflection essay on his own philosophy of education. The paner should be personalized but also well cited usirig the words of the educators/philosophers discussed within the semester. It should include a bibliography. 3. At the end of the term, there will be an oral defense of the philosophy of education that the students have developed or adopted. Content of Module Module 1: Philosophy and Education (an introduction) Meaning of Philosophy Meaning of Education Relation between philosophy of life and philosophy of education.a Indjer. cubfidds uf academic silo 4 Merephysts ( tunfunactal Moar of ronity ping) eviseneloay eat and drouids. ef tnnuledgt his 7 fhilosonhy of seen aesthetics Content of Module Xe pene to toew anything ane grove He 3 Module 1: Philosophy and Education (an introduction) : 5 peiicalpisophy . ; = silsopti. owe sf wide) iene Meaning of Philosophy ~ a3) ero! aid funtantrin| pnb ‘eetmte} ters such ac ‘xictence owl? wis weasen, mind on language Meaning of Education 6 = preess of fuciiteting teeming er the acquisition ot Mowedge SNUG walee!, belief and habits + Stony Ain = donation eter, seacking Relation between philosophy of life and philosophy of education Module 2; Philosophy of Education Meaning of Philosophy of Education eranies fit gra | fon, wetneds And meaning of eAscijan Module 3: Beliefs about Education Stendards of making one's educational platform Module 4: Major Educational Philosophies, their relevance and educational issues Pinte Essentialism (Idealism and Realism) vibe oF iden Experimentalism, Existentialism Behaviorism Phenomenology Marxism Module 5: The Educational Philosophers of Frontier Thinkers of Education A) East 1, Jesus Christ 2. Confucius3. Lao Tzu B) West 1, Socrates 2. Plato 3. otle 4. John Amos Comenius 5. John Locke 6. Jean Jacques Rousseau 7. Johann Pestalozzi 8. Johann Friedrich Herbart 9. Friedrich Wilhelm Froebel 10. Herbert Spencer 1L. William James 12. John Dewey Module 6: The Educational Philosophies of Filipino Educators 1, Jose Rizal 2. Apolinario Mabini 3.7. H. Pardo de Tavera 4, Jorge Bocobo 5, Camilo Osias 6. Rafael Palma 7. Francisco Benitez 8. Venancio Trinidad Conclusion BibliographyModules on Philosophy of Education First Module: Philosophy and Education (an introduction) Meaning of Philosophy. in the beginning, it is necessary to define both philosophy and ‘education. Etymologically, the term philosophy connotes love of wisdom. On the one hand, in its historical interpretation, derived from Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, it means search for wisdom, On the other hand, in its broadest sense, philosophy is man's attempt to think most speculatively, reflectively, and systematically about the universe in which he lives and his relationships to that universe. Its remarkable feature is its effort to evaluate the sum total of human experience. Philosophy adds no new facts to existing knowledge. It examines the facts provided by scientists and analyzes the meaning, interpretation, significance and value of these facts, Philosophy provides a comprehensive systematic study which is categorized ito five major areas. Each area has important implications for the goals and practices of education. The five major areas of philosophy are epistemology, metaphysics, axiology, ethics, and aesthethics. These major areas have much to do with the resolution of educational goals, content of education, organization of the curriculum, teacher education, academic freedom, student discipline, freedom of expression, social relationships, and the teaching learning process. It is also worthy to note some definitions of philosophy which has sprung into existence by these times: 1, Philosophy is the science that seeks to organize and systematize all fields of knowledge as a means of understanding and interpreting the totelity of reality (Good, p. 385). Philosophy is the attempt to give a reasoned conception of the universe and of man's place in it (W. P. Montagne, Lacuesta, et al., 45). 3. A complete philosophy includes a world view or a reasoned conception of the whole cosmos, and a life-view or doctrine of values, meanings, purposes of human lifelJ. A. Leighton, Lacuesta, et al, 45) 4. Philosophy is a search for a comprehensive view of nature, an attempt at a universal explanation of the nature of things (A. Weber, Lacuesta, et al., 45-46). 5, Philosophy is 2 systematic and logical examination of life so as to frame a system of general ideas of which the sum total of human exoerience may be evaluated (Callahan and Clark, 56). Summing up, philosophy means a systematic and logical explanation of the nature, existence, purposes, and relationships of things, including human beings, in the universe. Meaning of Education. The term education is derived from the Latin verb educare, and not from the Latin verb educere (to lead, bring forth or out), as is commonly supposed. The wordmeans to rear, nourish, bring up. Pedagogy comes from a Greek word meaning to lead the child, In the past, no satisfactory single term was found that would express the whole scope of education. Combinations were commonly used, such as studia et artes. In more modern times, the term "teaching and discipline" came to be used. In this sense, teaching is understood as the art of transmitting to the young the intellectual content of civilization, and the term discipline is used gs the introduction of the young to the moral life of the community, it must be held in mind thet, in defining the term education, the authors are not concerned with informal education, that is, the education that one acquires by oneself independent of formal agencies. The term education, like every other term, has a broad and restricted meaning. In its broad meaning, education embraces all those experiences of the individual through which knowledge is acquired, the intellect enlightened, and the will strengthened, In its restricted meaning, the term education is limited to the consciously planned and systematically applied formal education, carried on through the various social agencies of education, chiefly the school. The definition given in this module is limited to the term formal education. Since education is a complex process, as is evident when an analysis is made of the nature of a educend, the aims to be realized, the means best suited to achieve the ends, the methods employed, and the ways of measuring progress, it is probable that a descriptive definition will make for completeness. In the following definition, "influence" is the dominant principle; "instruction and development of powers" are the means; and " to obtain the end for which man was created" is the objective. A descriptive definition, then, is offered as follows: Education is the deliberate and systematic influence exerted by the mature person upon the immature through instruction, discipline, and the harmonious development of all the powers of the human being, physical, social, intellectual, aesthetic, and spiritual, according to their essential hierarchy, by and for their individual and social uses, and directed toward the union of the education and with his Creator as the final end. Education refers very broadly to the‘total social processes that bring a person into life in acculture. By living and participating in a culture, the youth gradually becomes a recipient of and participant in a culture. Education in a more formal and deliberate sense, takes place in the school, a specialized social agency established to cultivate knowledge, attitudes (values) and skills in the learner, The term informal education is simply‘incidental learning: learning how to cross the street or wash dishes is learned by the child through observation. The term on- formal education is used to label*activities/programs to improve the quality of life. These activities are literacy (for out-of-school youth and adults) rural development, training for occupational skills and informative education. The target clientele are the unemployed, the underemployed, those who never had or had little schooling, and technical workers who need to upgrade their skills. Relation between philosophy of life and philosophy of education. To show the intimate relationship between philosophy and education, it is only necessary to point to thelarge number of philosophers, among them Aristotle, St. Thomas Aquinas, Locke, Rousseau, Kant, Herbart, Spencer, Dewey, who have thought and written about education, in the course of the history of education. In each instance, the underlying philosophy was reflected in the individual's views on education. Plato had the oldest plan for education to be found in classical literature. Kant treats education form the viewpoint of ethical duty in conformity with his view of the categorical imperative. Willman, Natorp, and Durkheim consider education as essentially sociological. Spencer holds that education is a process of evolutionary materialism. John Dewey makes his experimentalism and sociological pragmatism both the means and the end of education. DeHovre points out that "Philosophy and Education are intimately related" and that the latter without the former is meaningless and incomplete. In summary, he sets forth the principal bonds which unite them. 1. Natural bond. This is rooted in the very nature of things. Naturally, the parent conveys to his offsping his conception of life through the medium of education, and this education is associated with the cultural standards and spiritual life of society. 2. Logical bond. The central element of education is seen in the ideals it possesses. Since philosophy determines ideals, it is logical for education to take steps toward their realization. 3. Historical bond. This is evident from the number of philosophers recorded in the history of education as having thought and written on education. 4, Social bond. Since philosophy and education have been closely associated in history, evidently there is a close relationship between them. Philosophy and education have always been considered associated subjects. 5. Cultural bond, Culture represents, among other elements, ideals in life as well as a level of individual attainment, which are transmitted by education; but the ideel is determined by philosophy. 6. Human bond, Education aims as far as humanly possible at the complete development of the individual, whose true nature is understood by the study of philosophy, which also provides the underlying principles for such education. 7. Religious bond. In religion Is found the consummation of the true philosophy of life, which must of necessity embrace the revealed truths which man has received from God. Second Module: Philosophy of Education Meaning of Philosophy of Education. If education is to promote change for the better, then education has to turn to philosophy to determine what that “better” is for a particular segment of society or for society as a whole."Educational philosophy then is the application of philosophy to the study of all factors affecting the aims and goals of education, its method, content and organization in terms of human values as they affect the nature and purpose of man and society. The curriculum includes all the experiences of the learner for which the school assumes responsibility. In its broadest sense, the curriculum can be defined as the organized experiencesthat a student has under the guidance and control of the school. In a more precise and restricted sense, the curriculum is the systematic sequence of courses or subjects that form the school's formal instructional program. For the traditional philosophies, the major goal of education is the transmission and preservation of the cultural heritage. A curriculum consists of skills and subject matter, the necessary tools in transmitting, in learnable units, to the immature for the survival of civilization. The subject matter is arranged in a hierarchy; with priority given to such subjects regarded as more general, hence, more significant. The more recent philosophies are more concerned with the process of learning, The curriculum which follows this idea makes use of activities and projects, and experimental and problem-solving modes that are determined by the learner's interests and needs. Philosophy of education is a point of view or points of view that provide a logical, rational, and valid basis for educational effort and criteria for the selection of @ sound educational practice. For instance, the offering of universal education is an educational philosophy. The government, on its part, should open schools which are accessible to all children in all parts of the country. Admission should be open to all children, rich and poor, black and white, or whatever the color or ethnic origin, or religious affiliation, or political beliefs of the children. For all to be admitted, free schooling is a must. Third Module: Beliefs about Education Effective instruction depends on school and teacher instructional goals. Instructional goals, in turn, are ultimately based on beliefs concerning such things as the purpose of education, what should be taught, the nature of the learner, and the learning process. Whether of not they are conscious of it, teachers and supervisors, educational philosophies have @ significant impact on instruction and instructional improvement efforts. The following are summaries of educational platforms of three teachers with different beliefs about education Joan Simpson believes that the purpose of education should be to transmit a prescribed body of basic knowledge, skills, and cultural values to students, To do this effectively, the teacher must exercise control over the classroom, lesson content, and students. Content should be broken first into discreet academic areas and then into small elements, and learning should take place in a series of small, sequential steps. All students should be expected to master the same content. Grades and other types of external motivation are necessary to assure student learning. Bill Washington believes that the purpose of education should be the student growth, especially in inquiry and problem-solving skills, To promote such growth, the years not only convey existing knowledge, but also encourages students to exoeriment in order to test old ideas and find solutions to problems. Bill believes that since inquiry is most successful in @ democratic environment, the teacher should share control of learning environment with students. Because problem solving often takes place within a social context, students should learn social skills es well as academic content,Pat Rogers believes that each child is unique and that the primary purpose of education should meet the student's individual needs. The teacher should foster the development of each student toward his/her fullest potential. This means addressing students as whole persons by fostering their physical, emotional, cognitive, moral, and social development. Such holistic education includes facilitating student's self-inguiry, Pat believes that students should have as much control over their own learning environment as their maturity level permits, Teacher should base lessons on the students, experience, concerns, and interests. Such should be allowed to participate in assessing their own learning, The aforementioned educational platforms manifest contrasting beliefs concerning education. Joan Simpson, Bill Washington, and Pat Rogers have different definitions of instructional improvement and effective teaching. A person may view one of these educational platforms as quite similar to his own; he may agree with parts of each; or he may have an entirely different set of beliefs. In any case, it is important to clarify the standards of making one's educational beliefs. By reflecting on the following questions, one can begin to build his own educational platform: What should be the purpose of education? What should be the content of the school curriculum? Who should control the learning environment? What should be the relationship between the teacher and his/her students? Under what conditions in student learning most successful? What motivates students to do their best in school? What is effective teacing? What personal characteristics are possessed by a successful teacher? What is a good school? Fourth Module: Major Educational Philosophies, their relevance and educational issues Many educators view discussions of educational philosophy as overly abstract and irrelevant to the real world of supervisors and teachers. Yet, the supervisor's actions in working with teachers are based on supervisory beliefs, which in turn reflect a broader educational philosophy. Many different philosophies exist. Some, such as Idealism and Realism, date back to ancient times. Others, such as Pragmatism and Behaviorism, have been developed within the last century, Even more recent has been the emergence of Progressivism, Reconstructionism, and Existentialism. Philosophies are numerous and overiapping, and many have historical roots in each other.To unravel the major philosophical trends in education, one must decipher how philosophies differ from each other and then build overriding conceptual categories, Each conceptual category or super philosopy is created by grouping various philosophies that have central agreement on the specific nature of knowledge, truth, and reality. Yet, they hang together as 2 general educational philosophy because they are in agreement on the purpose and treatment of education. 1.) Essentialism Essentialism as a philosophy is derived from Idealism and Realism. Idealism, which dates back to Plato, espouses the belief in absolutes: the world is merely a reflection of reality. Reality, truth, and standards of morality exist beyond our common ways of knowing. Only by training our minds can we have @ glimpse of the ultimate. Yet training the mind is not sufficient in itself; it only brings the mind2) 10 nearer to grasping the reality. Divine revelation, insight, and faith are necessary elements for ultimate knowledge of what exists, Therefore, Idealism emphasizes truth and reality as existing outside of people. It is absolute and unchanging, Realism, developed at the onset of the industrial age, places @ similar emphasis on truth and reality as existing outside of people. instead of human kind and outer environment being separated from each other, Realism maintains that humanity is part and parcel of that environment, The world is a preordained, mechanistic reality. All of existence operates according to scientific, cause-and-effect relations, It is as if existence were a clock that always run according to machanical principle: governing levers, gauges and gears. Humans have no existence apart from this clock; they are a part of a predetermined machine. Knowledge is learning how the machine works; truths are the scientific laws of regulation. Nothing exists outside the principles of nature. The purpose of education is to condition the mind to think in a natural, logical way. The mind should be trained to become consciously aware of the predetermined nature of the world. Essentialism, created by Williem L. Bagley in 1938, encompassed the educational philosophies of Idealism and Realism. He took the ideas of knowledge being eternal and outside of humankind (Idealism- absolutes; Realism- natural laws) to form pedagogy. Essentialists emphasize that there is a body of timeless knowledge, both historical and contemporary which is valuable to the living. Experimentalism As western society became more industrialized, optimism and confidence in human ability to control nature emerged. The philosophy of Pragmatism developed by Charkes S. Pierce and William James emphasizes what mankind can do to nature rather than what nature can do to mankind. John Dewey, circa 1920 further ‘expanded on the writings of James by putting the individual squarely in the context of society. Humans can both reform and are reform by society. Dewey's philosophy is, of course, the well-known school of progressive thought. Reconstructivism, is 2 further offshoot of both Pragmatism and Progressivism, Richard Pratte (1971) cited the pamphlet Dare the Schools build a Social Order written by George S. Counts in 1932, as a guiding document for the then radical notion that schools and students Experimentalism emerges from the philosophies of Pragmatism, Progressivism, and Reconstructivism. They hold in common a historical break from the more traditional philosophies of Realism and Idealism. The essentialist idea that knowledge, truth, and morelity exist as an absolute and outside of humans was rejected. The emerging faith in the scientific method, the ability of humans to create ‘their own laws, principles, and machines, and the fact that such man-made inventions would work for them demanded an accompanying philosophy. Experimentelism provided that philosophy.uw Reality was what worked. if a person could form a hypothesis, test it, and find it to work, then it was regarded as tentatively true. On repeated experimentation with the same results, it became real. Yet experimentalists would never claim an absolute truth. The human environment was believed to be constantly changing, so that what one can do and prove teday may not be probable tomorrow; a new situation and a different approach may alter yesterday's reality. Experimentalists ome se tne iistorical evidence of Newton's law of gravity as @ past truth that has given way to Finstein's theory of relativity; they believe that in time a new theory will repiace Einstein's. Morality is also viewed in relation to what work for humanity ana human society. r which promotes one's working romotes one's working with a group in order to eve greater enas, 10 Oe Wise IS TO UNGerstana now the environment (oF things and neanla) affects oneself and how one might affect it. Whether action is moral or not 1s cletermined by the degree ot progress that has Deen achieved by the group. a error in a taporatory serine ene 2 action. Therefire, aynarimantalicte sey 1 ciute or externa: to numan capabilities, Ratner, snowlecge 15 a Interaction petween tne scientific 9erson ana the environmen xistentialisin Existentialism as @ scnooi of thouent Is aerivea trom tne reiection or the siltasophies encompes: alls and Experineentalign, As i category Tor many aiverse pniiosopners. They nave in common a scorn To* rational, emoiricar. Svstematic winking as ine wav or Uncover the apsciutes of the universe. Experimentaists Delieve in rational, scientiric thinking vo exuier ana wame the retevant knowieaze 0 umes. nowever. me aiscovering existe: ano thererore Keeps ter In'S BniOsOLNY Nas foots In The Writings OF soren RierKegaara In Te Mic ApONeNtS 3s Alnert LamUs ana Jean-vaul Sarte. ine current popular cults ot TWanscengental ininking, MecmatION. ano IntrosDECHON iKNOWINE OF seit) nave a the source or ail reaimy, Au that exists in the Word is an inaiviauai pu mereiy the narrow, incorrect ways human interpret their own experiences, existence, Uniy BY looking within OneselT can one discern the truth oF tne oursiae2 disorder. Humanity is paramount. Human dignity and worth are of greatest importance: they are the source and disperser of all truth. With this realization, one acquires a profound respect for all human beings and their uniqueness. Human relations become very important, affirming individual worth and protecting the individual's right to discover his/her own truth, Morality is the process of knowing oneself and allowing others the freedom to do likewise. Faith, institution, mysticism, imagery, and transcendental experiences are all acceptable ways of discovery, Humans are totally free, not shaped by others or restricted by the flux of times, They hold within themselves the capacity to form their own destiny. 4. Behaviorism Behaviorism is not generally considered a philosophy in the same sense as joeaiism, Realism, Pragmatism and other though systems are. It is classified as a asychological theory, 2 more specialized and less comprehensive theory than a systematic philosophy. But, it has been given increasing attention and acceptance in eit h ne field of education, and in many inetat aj oniy reality is the physical world that we discuss through careful, mbna ny in response to internaliy or externaily generated pinysicai stimuil, a} Ivan Paviov (1849-1936) - Refiex or classical conditioning © noted for his studies of the reflex reaction in human animals behavior changes (adhesive princi © conditioning occurs without reinforcement aviorists ,) Jon &, Watson (187% 1958) - Father of oBhaviorism and the first sociai-iearning theor = © believes that iree will is an iliusion according to benaviorists ‘* human beings are shaped entirely by their external environment © alter a person's environment, and you will aiter his or her thoughts, feelings, and behavior * provide positive reinforcement whenever students perform a desired behavior, and soon they will iearn how to perform the benavior on their own2B ¢.) BF. Skinner (1904) - Operant Conditioning (developed the now-famous Skinner box, and the highest priest of behavior) ‘basic to operant conditioning is the use of reinforcement -any behavioral consequence that strengthens behavi ‘believed that the habits that each of us develop result from our unique learning experiences Human Nature of Behaviorism a.) neither good nor bad, but merely the product of one’s environment b,) it is not human nature but defective environment which is responsible for harmful things that people do to themselves and others To be @ Behavior ‘* there is no such thing as free will or the autonomously acting person; such ideas are ‘only myths thet may make us feel better but do not correspond to scientific observation * consider our sense of beauty environmentally formed ‘Aims of Behaviorism as a Philosophy of Education 2.) Conditioning is one way to develop a step-by-step program through rewards (or punishment) so that they are led to achieve complex patterns of behavior. b.) Believes that we should try to create a wor'd of brotherhood and justice, and if conditioning can halp, it should be used. c.) Represent the implementation of certain specific ideas in the pupil's mind with or without his critical consent d,) To change behavior and point it in more desirable directions. .) Conditioning can be used to improve human life if we use it in the right way. Methods of Behaviorism (procedure for behavior modification in the ordinary classroom| 2.) specify the desired outcome, what needs to be changed, and how it will be evaluated b.] establish a favorable environment by removing unfavorable stimuli that might complicate learning c.i choose the proper reinforcers for desired behavioral manifestation begin shaping di behavior by using immediate reinforcers for desired behavior sired behaviors has begun, slacken the number of times reinforcers are once 2 pattern of di development4 Types of Behaviorism 2.) Methodological Behaviorism > It is @ normative theory about the scientific conduct of psychology and claims that it should concern itself with the behavior of organisms (human and non- human animals). Methodological behaviorism is 2 dominant theme in the writings of John Watson. > Share with analytical behaviorism from the influence of positivism. One of the goals of positivism is to unify psychology with natural science. Watson wrote that “psychology as behaviorists, views it as a purely objective experimental branch of natural science. Its theoretical goal is prediction and control. "To predict, given the stimulus, what reaction will take place; or given the reaction, state what the situation of stimulus is that has caused the reaction. b.] Psychological Behaviorism > Itexplained the human and animal behavior in terms of external physical stimuli, responses, learcing histories, and reinforcements. Psychological behaviorism is present in the work of Ivan Pavloy (1849-1936), Edward Thorndike (1874-1949), a3 well as Watsons. Its fullest and most influential expression is 8. F. Skinner (1904-1990) who worked on schedules of reinforcement, > The historical roots of this behaviorism consist, in part, in the classical associationism of the British Empiricists, such as John Locke (1632-1704) and David Hume (1711-176). According to classical associationism, intelligent behavior is the product of associative learning. As a result of associations or pairings between perceptual experiences or stimulation on the one hand, and ideas or thoughts on the others, persons and animals acquire knowledge of their environment and lear how to act, Association is viewed as the acquisition of knowledge about relations between events. The task of psychological events control behavior, discover and elucidate causal regularities or laws which govern the formation of associations, and predict how behavior will change as ©.) Analytical Behaviorism ndaning or semantics of mental terms or concepts. It says that the very notion of a mental state or condition is the notion of a behavioral disposition or family of behavioral tendencies.> Traces its historical roots to the p 15 ssopical movement known as Logical positivism. Logical positivism proposes that the meaning of sentences in science can be understood in terms of the experimental conditions or observations that verify thelr truth. This positivist doctrine is known as "Verificationism", 5.) Phenomenology > the man behind phenomenological movement was a Mathematician who was turned philosopher - Edmund Huser! (1859-1938) born in Czecholocakian Moravia and was educated in schools and universities in Austria and Germany. earned doctorate degree in Mathematics. > this aim is very much similar to Descartes- to arrive at philosophy as a “rigorous science" or "science of ultimate grounds" by rigorous science he meant a "presuppositionless phil philosophy not without presupposition (for that would be impo: but a philosophy containing the least number of primary presuppositions, so basic and immediately evident that they need not be classified any further or reduced to other presuppositions how does one arrive at this kind of philosophy? ¢ According to Husserl, one has to transcend the so-called "Natural Attitude" © Natural Attitude was used by Husserl to refer to the most predominant attitude of his time, namely the "Scientific Attitude.” ‘+ the scientific attitude when cerried to the extreme and used as the only way of looking at things, become "Scientistic" ‘© the scientific attitude observe things, expresses their workings in singular judgement, then in universal judgements, and by the process of induction and deduction arrive at concrete results, This is the way science makes progress. But for Husser|, this attitude contains a number of assumptions: a.) it assumes that there is no need to ask how we know. 'o.) it assumes that the world (the object) is out there, existing and explainable in objective laws, while man (the subject) is pure consciousness, transparent to itself and facing the world to know itasitis, Cc.) it takes for granted the world totality + in less technical terms, the natural attitude looks at reality as things. Its way of knowing things is fragmented, partial, fixed,16 clear, precise, and manipulative. There is no room for mystery in the natural attitude, itis in the words of Husser|, "a fact world, + in less technical terms, the natural attitude looks at reality as things. Its way of knowing things is fragmented, partial, fixed, clear, precise, and manipulative. There is no room for mystery in the natural attitude. |t is in the words of Husserl, "a fact world. Thus Husserl saw that philosophy needed a new starting point and method different from that of the sciences. He realized the sciences were getting farther and farther from the heart of things. And so he cried for a going "back to things themselves.” By "back to things themselves" he meant the entire field of original experience. He came to the point that the ultimate root of philosophy and of all rational assertions was not to be found in a concept, nor in a principle but in the whole field of our lived experience. This new method would attempt to go back to phenomenon, to that which presents itself to man, seeing things as they really are, independent of any prejucice. This method would be a logus of the phenomenon, in short Phenomenology. * The phenomenologist posits the unity first before analyzing the Parts or aspects of this unity. What are perceived in original experience is an integral unified whole «The phenomenologist does not reason from particular instances to general statement (induction) nor deduces from a general law some particular cases (deduction) but describes. The phenomenologist simply esplicates, unfolds what is already there. Since the totality is already there, what is left to do is to reveal structures of this reality. Original experience can only be described, not deducted or induced because it is already there, the ultimate, the origin. Thus, the phenomenologist describes meticulously, and since reality is rich and inexhaustible, there is no conclusive end to his description. Whatever he describes will only be a "bite" of reality. the phenomenologist is essentially concerned about experience and man, His world is not the world of formal typifications and models, of constructs (like the scientist) but the world as lived by man. What concerns him is man's being in the world with others, the problems he encounters in life like death, love, etc, his awareness now, his memories of the past and his anticipation of the future. All these, he must bring light to. ‘* In his attempt to be faithful to experience, the phenomenologist uses "epoche" . This is @ term coined and borrowed by Husser! from mathematics to refer to a stepping from prejudice, suspension of judgement, and bracketing of the natural attitude.v 6.) Marxism (otherwise known as Communism) Communism is not merely an economic system: it is a concept of the universe, the presentation of an ideal and of a civilization which renovates the whole man. It contains a philosophy which find its crowning point in anti-religion, a sociology consisting in a new code of morals, 8 new educational system, a new law concerning the family, @ political system and doctrine concerning the state, and finally an economic system (Delaye, p. 7). Communism is founded on the philosophy of dialectical materialism, interpreted by Marx and Engels, and reduced to practice in modern Russia since 1917 by Lenin and his followers (Ryan and Redden, p. 457). In communist morality, the end justifies the means: expediency is the key to decision. Thus, the theory is materialistic in its basic philosophy and ‘economic in its emphasis. Tenets of Communism (Ibid., pp. 460-461). A brief summary of the main tenets of communism as a philosophy of life follows: 1. Communism holds that there is no "First Cause"; that motion is imminent in matter. Thus, ‘communism denies the existence of God and the existence of the soul, which denial necessarily means the elimination of all religion. "Religion is the opium of the people.” 2. Communism affirms that man is essentially @ product of matter and, therefore, like plants and animals is subject solely to the laws of nature. 3, Man and his activities are in a continual state of change. Man's origin and life, his past and his present, can be interpreted only in the light of a materialistic evolution. 4, Man and his environment continually change. The cause of that change is attributed to his economic environment, and Is the logical consequence of “class struggles” between those who exploit and those who are exploited. 5. All human activities are determined and molded by these "class struggles," which communism describes as economic forces. 6. As a consequence of the machine age, human socioty is reduced to two classes, the capitalist and the laborer, the employer and the employee. 7. In the process of materialistic evolution, the capitalist becomes richer and the laborer poorer, so that successive economic crises develop. The final result of these crises must be the violent overthrow of the capitalist by the workers and the creation of a classless society." Fifth Module: The Educational Philosophies of Frontier Thinkers of Education18 The following are the educational philosophies of the pioneer thinkers of education which are applied in different schools today: A) East 1. Jesus Christ a.) Right relationship with God should precede all kinds and types of education, "But seel ye first the kingdom of God, and His righteousness; and all these things shall be added unto you..." (Matt 6: 33) ,) Education should be used for service. "Give thyself” is the philosophy of service of Jesus. Every Christian teacher has Jesus Christ for a model. The crucifix hangs on the walls of classrooms and various pictures or images of Jesus lie on top of the teacher's desk, and almost everywhere. Many reasons are given why Jesus is the model teacher, He taught Us how to love one another; he taught by example; he devised teaching methods still effective today; he taught without fear; he was kind and patient to children. Jesus lived during the first century and within the geograohical bounds of the Roman Empire, When Augustus Caesar died in 14 A. D. Tiberius succeeded him and reigned until 37 A. D. Pontius Pilate was the governor of Judea and Herod Antipas the tetrarch of Galilee, Jesus entered history and expounded his doctrines under the reign of these human powers. Jesus taught in a Jewish world heavily flavored with Graeco-Roman culture, The most frequently used title of Jesus in the Gospels is "Teacher" (Rabbi, Master). Jesus taught only for three years yet his short teaching ministry far outweighs the impact of the combined 130 years of teaching of the great Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. The teachings of Jesus evolved a new relationship between teacher and pupil. It Is no longer that of the speaker-teacher where the teacher was absolute and the pupil only had to listen. Jesus dignified the status of the pupil. In Jesus teaching has become a relationship or love, as between a father and his children Jesus's method of teaching is simply addressing the needs of his audience and adapting ‘to their intellectual capacity. He conveyed the most sublhme and abstract truths in a manner understandable to the people. His style is dialogical, related to concrete experiences, and the use of simple and vivid language. Jesus! way is akin to the Socratic-platonic dialogue where students were made active participants in the learning process, He often left his audience with his questions to ponder upon and answer themselves. When a lawyer, for example, asked him "Who is my neighbor?" he told the story of the good Samaritan (Lk 10, 29-37), There is no way of19 knowing if Jesus had a direct or indirect knowledge of the Greek educators. If there are similarities in doctrine and methodology, it could be happy coincidence, Jesus tool familiar things in the natural or social order and attached moral and religious lessons to them. In this way assimilation and retention were made easy. A lesson was inseparably correlated with the previous knowledge of his hearers; it was associated With the truths of nature and experience. Jesus used forms of speech and illustrations entirely within the comprehension of his hearers, The farmer could not forget the parable of the sower (Mt. 3, 13ff ; Lk 8,5ff), the Pharisees that of the husbands and his wicked servants (Mt 21, 13ff ; Lk 20, 10ff ; Mk 12,2ff), and the people that of the marriage feast (Mt 22,2ff). The lilies of the field and the birds of the air (Mt 6,25ft), the sheepfold (Lk 15,3ff): all had sublime lessons associated with them Another thing that made Jesus an unconventional teacher during his time was that he did not confine his teaching in the synagogue. He taught wherever and whenever the need arose so he taught everywhere: by the lake, in the homes of his friends, along the roads, on the hills, and in market places, he taught even at night as in the case of Nicodemus. Jesus is the teacher by example par excellence. He did what he said; he practiced what he preached, "Love one another as | have loved you" (Jn 15, 12) summarizes Jesus, ‘teachings. He gave the perfect exemple of loving; he gave his life for those whom he loved. When Jesus finally left this world he commissioned his followers: "Go therefore and make disciples of all nations...teaching them to observe all that | have commanded you" (Mit 28, 19-20). Thus, Jesus' students are to follow his own example: to be teachers, to teach, and perhaps to die teaching, "How beautiful are the feet of those who teach the good news!" (Rm 10, 15). Consequently, Jesus ‘inagaurated a new era of education: education for all. He anticipated the thrust of the United Nations that 1990-2000 is the decade dedicated to education for all (EFA). Like Confucius before him, Jesus taught everybody without distinction. "There is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither slave nor free, there is, neither male nor female; for all are one in Christ Jesus" (Gal 3, 28). 2. Confucius (§51-478 B.C.) a.) The teacher must be creative and not mechanical. b,) The teacher must be earnest in learning. ) The teacher is a teacher for all, d.) The teacher teaches best by example,20 Confucius is the inspiration of Chinese education. He is revered as the First Teacher, the Sagest of the Sage. Pursuit of the ethical life was the aim of his teachings and this is a life of filial piety and civil service. He proposes methods of observing children's behavior and develops 2 methodology of teaching based on one-on-one or small group interactions with students. Confucius sets problems for his students to solve, and teaches them about loyalty, ritual, sincerity, end humanness. He believes that, in order for his students to leern completely, they must implement what they are taught into their own lives. Confucius’ teachings are found in the Analetics, his contribution to the Four Books, the main sources of the confucian School, Confucian doctrine maintains that the state is a continuation of the family. Good families, therefore, make up good sate, In fact education is the best means to filial piety and civil service. For Confucius, filial piety is the root of all virtues, It implies tie proper attitude of an individual towards anyone above him in social position. This is expressed in the five relationships: subject or citizen to ruler or magistrate, son to father or daughter or mother, younger brother or sister to older sister, friend to friend, and wife to husband. Filial piety begins in the home and extends to all levels and ranks in society. Givil service, self-less and honest service in the government, is another priority of Confucian teaching. Education, for the ancient Chinese, meant to be able to render government service, Civil service examinations for officials in the government was practiced in China as early as 200 B.C. (Monroe, p. 16ff. The cause of corruption in the government and injustice in society from ancient China to this day is basically the unequal distribution of wealth. There is an urgent need to learn and echo the fundamentally humanistic teachings of ancient Confucius. 3. Lao Tzu (604-515 B.C) Lao Tzu, founder of the Taoist school, is the second great master of ancient China. With the aim of solving the political and social evils of the time, he attempted to investigate the law of nature which regulates life and human existence. This law is the unchanging norm which lies behind all thd changes in the world and behind man's action as well. His inquiry lead him to the concept of Tao, which is the most fundamental teaching. Thus, Lao Tzu was more of a philosopher than Confucius. In all of Chinese classics, the character Tao is the most ambiguous. Its exact meaning can hardly be determined. It has undergone an evolution from an ethical to metaphysical concepts in the course of the development of Chine7e norm. In the Chinese classical dictionary, it has 13 different meanings. All these meanings converge perhaps inte this: Taoism is a way life which at once is a mystic religion and a philosophy advocating simplicity, frugality and the joys of being close to nature and being in harmony with the whole universe.1 Harmeny with nature, which today we call Ecology is the concern oe early Chinese through the teaching of Lao Tzu. This harmony is further extended to that of universal brotherhood. Firfally, Taoism also envision harmony with the transcendent Tao. According to tradition, he is the author of the Daiodejing (Classic of the Way and its, Virtue], a philosophical treatise, By far the most translated Chinese literary work, this small book has had an enormous influence on Chinese thought and culture. It teaches that "the way" (Dao or Tao} is realized through recognition and acceptance of nothingness; that is, wisdom is understanding that weakness truly equals strength, that happiness depends on disaster, and that passivity is the greatest action. B.) West 41. Socrates (c, 470-399 B.C.) a.) The end of life is knowledge. Knowledge is virtue. "Know thyself.” b.) Social and individual interests should be harmonized. ¢.] Man's self is rational and universal. There is no work attributed to Socrates. All we know of his personal life and ideas are from the writings mainly of Plato, one of his students, As 2 teacher, Socrates spent his, whole life teaching about truth, He was the first philosopher to shift the quest for truth from the world outside to the world within. For Socrates, man himself has become the center of investigation and the measure of all things. To Socrates is attributed the dictum: Know yourself. He believed that an unexamined life is not worth living (Plato, Apology, #38). Socrates may be rightly called the father of introspection. Perhaps Socrates’ greatest contribution to education is the method of teaching which bears his name. For him, teaching was personal, dialogical, and conducted according to the needs of his pupils. Socrates intended to develop a broad and universal knowledge from the limited information already in the mind of the pupil. It is an inductive method conducted through a series of questions. This method was to make knowledge personal. Learning was not just blind acceptance but the pupil himself, out of experience, would arrive at conclusions, Socrates was very much concerned with ethical questions. Knowledge must serve as a guide to right conduct; knowledge leads to virtue. Education is the means to attain a virtuous life. Education is not to give the individual information or data to be stored in one's memory. It is rather to develop the power of investigating the basis of facts and ideas. Education is the power of analysis, of being able to personally distinguish good from evil and prudently act on it. 2. Plato (427-347 B.C.)22 a.) Each person should devote his life to that which is best fitted to do. ,) The function of education is to determine what each individual is by nature fitted to do. «.| Social Justice (Give what is to whom it is due) d.) Intellectual Aristocracy (The rule of the intellectual elite) The doctrine of dualism which holds the primacy of the spirit over matter naturally led to the Idealism of Plato. The ideal is more real than the concrete, the universal is prior to the particular, the general over the individual, reasoning over experience and sense knowlege, deductive method is more reliable than the inductive method, Indeed, Plato is the founder of the formal discipline that trains the powers of the intellect and the will. The group of young Athenians that informally gathered to listen to the teachings of Plato became known as the "Academy’, whence our words "academe", academic" Plato was certainly influenced by Socrates’ pedagogical method. Socrates introduced orally the dizlogical method; Plato used it in his writings, The many existing literary works of Plato are in the form of dialogue, where Socrates is the main character. The most known dialogues are Republic, Apology, Phaedo, and Protagores. Most of his works were entitled after the names of his followers The educational theories of Plato are found mainly in the Republic, The aim of education Is the training of both the mind or soul and the body. The former was done through studies in music and literature while the latter through athletics or gymnastics and military training (Republic, #404-405, #467, passim; Laws, #804, 640-644, passim) Training in mind and body had to be conducted early, for Plato knew that the early development of the child was the most crucial. Thus, the family played an important role in the life process of education. Plato already believed that the selection of teachers and subject matter are most important for the young and tender. Though corporal punishment was the practice during his time, Plato believed that education must not be done by compulsion and constraint. 3, Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) a.) Virtue is not possession of knowledge but state of the will, ‘b,) The end of education is not knowledge alone, but the union of the intellect and the will, or knowledge expressed in action. c.) Reality, not ideas but the performance, is the highest function. d.) Adaptation of education to the form of government. 2.) Objective and scientific not introspective method of education23 Aristotle, perhaps the greatest of the Greek philosophers, was an outstanding student and teacher, As a student, he excelled in the Academy; as a teacher, he founded the "Lyceum" and put down his teachings in numerous writings. Aristotle was the tutor of Alexender the Great, @ very influential personality in world history. Aristotle’ fame os father of science did not come merely because of his early writings on the natural sciences; he rather made the whole range of knowledge scientific or systematic. Aristotle classified knowledge into theoretical, productive, and practical. Theoretical eclence is the highast form of knowledge since it involves the use of reason at its purest, It has no ulterior motive but to study truth for its own sake and to understand the workings of reality and the universe without effecting any change in it. Such includes Metaphysics, Physics, and Mathematics. In the productive science, reason is put to service of man's immediate needs. The rational faculty that produces the product is the art or skill, "techne" in the original Greek, whence "technology". Practical science deals with the use of the product after it is made. It deals with the use of reason for the organization of life itself, for living a good life. Man is now a moral agent instead of just being a producer, The practical sciences are ethics and politics. Aristotle gave emphasis on the good of intellectual activity: "A life guided by intelligence is the best and most pleasant for man, in as much as intelligence, above all else, is man. Consequently, this kind of life is the happiest." The opening statement of Aristotle's Metaphysics is "All men by nature desire to know." Thus, man is basically & rational being, and to be fully human is to satisfy his intellectual or rational desire, Curiosity is the beginning of wisdom or scientific knowledge for at this stage the child manifests his desire to know. When he begins to ask questions, what is most natural in him develops. Since man asks questions throughout his life, the acquisition of knowledge, therefore, is a life-time process. Thus, education is life itself. Many teachers today cannot stand the curiosity of their students. Instead, they consider entertaining students questions as either a waste of class time or as a personal affront againts them. Such attitude hinders the natural development of the human intellect. Attainment of the gocd, which consists of man's happiness, is the basic tone of Aristotelian ethics (Nicomachean Ethics, 1, #11022, passim Politics, Vil, # 1332a, passim). Scientific knowledge is the means to attain the good. Education then should ultimately lead to 2 virtous life, Aristotle's extensive writings on ethics and politics led him to discover the concepts of individual freedom, choice, and responsibility (Nicomachean Ehics, Ill). The idea that man by nature is a “political animal" is original of Aristotle (Politics, 1, #1253a). For Aristotle, the consummation and totality of morality is expressed in @ political life in the state. Thus, education is essentially for citizenship. 4, John Amos Comenius (1592-1670)a.) Development of the whole man »,) Follow the order of nature «) Train for character d,) Both sexes should be included in education John Amos Comenius (or Komensky], a Moravian Protestant bishop, theclogian and educator, was a more practical follower of Bacon than Ratke. Combining theory and practice, Comenius anticipated many contemporary principles of classroorn organization and administration, Historians consider Comenius the Father of Modern Education since he started the secularization of education. He shifted the direction or education from the dominant religious aims of Christian education into the secular aims, that is, education for this world, Nevertheless, he still maintained that the ultimate goal of educator was eternal happiness with God. Comenius stated this purpose as the primary principle of the Great Didactie, But this, he believed, could come about only through the right kind of right living, He explained that the ultimate religious goal was to be attained in three stages: knowledge of one's self and if things around him (erudition), control over one's self (virtue), and direction of one's self to God (religion). ‘The immediate aim of education, according to Comenius, was to prepare the youth for the activities of life through utilization of a wealth of knowledge. Comenius believed that three instruments are necessary for the attainment of a complete education: good books, good teachers, and good method. He concentrated his writings on good method, For him, good method is nature's way, i.e., the process of natural growth, Comenius believed in education for all: that the young of both sexes, both noble and ignoble, rich and poor, should be educated. For this, schools are necessary. "Let none be excluded unless God has denied him senses and intelligence." Comenius advocated schools as the best agency of education, that is, a graded system of education based on the natural psychological development of pupils. He believed that the educational ‘objectives could be realized only by a careful organized system An ardent proponent of Bacon's new method, Comenius was a forerunner of later educators like Rousseau and Pestalozzi who believe that proper training is necessary to realize the natural capacities of children towards adulthood. Comenius’ influence can be seen in the 20th century Montessori school for he already proposed that materials used in school should be adapted to the abilities and interests of children. 5, John Locke (1632-4704) 2.) Tabula rasa or "blank paper" theory - A child is born with a blank mind (neither good or bad), b.) Education can shape the pupil according to the win or the teacher. ¢,) Formal discipline (Training gained in one area can be applied in another area.) John Locke is more known in the field of psychology than in education. He has been called the Father of English Empiricism, a philosophy opposed to Rationalism advocated25 by Rene Descartes, Empiricism and Rationalism differed chiefly in their views on the origin and nature of human knowledge. On his main work Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690), Locke maintained that the mind is at first a tabula rasa, that is, blank sheet that has to be filled up by experience. This is a philosophical doctrine ‘opposed to that of inborn ideas or innate knowledge. Experience, according to John Locke, was the source of all ideas as well as the foundation and criterion of true knowledge. Experience is knowledge through sensation ‘or the perception of external phenomena by means of the senses. Empirical knowledge is accompanied by inductive or a posteriori reasoning and not by deductive or a priori. In philosophy as well as in education Locke held many views in common with Bacon. His theory of knowledge evidently overflows into his educational theories. Locke's educational aim is threefold: (1) vigor of body, (2) virtue of the soul manifested in good breeding and wise conduct, and (3) knowledge or mental acquisition at the service of the body and the soul There is so much wealth in Locke's thoughts concerning education. In the conclusion of his classic book he humbly. wrote that there were a a thousand other things which he could have written, His final words were an exhortation to parents. There was really no blueprint or ideal formula in achieving the aims of education. Parents should rather “consult their own reason in the education of their children, rather than wholly to rely ‘on old custom." As to the role of teachers, " The teacher should not force any system arbitrarily upon his pupils, but should try to help then develop their own ideas. The teacher should not use old authoritarian approach, but should try to teach his students to examine the subject matter critically and to reeson on their own. The teacher should not exert pressure on his pupils, but should help them develop their own initaitive , so that they might grow to be forceful, mature individuals. For this reason the teacher should try to plumb the natural dispositions and the individual differences of his charges and to treat then accordingly Johannes Hirschberger, The History of Philosophy, vol. p.220)." 6. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) a.) Development of the child according to his nature b,) A man should live a simple life ) The child, the important factor in education d.) Use of instinctive tendencies as the starting point of education "Everything is good that proceeds from the hands of the Creator of all things, everything degenerates which comes from the hands of men" runs the first proposition of Rousseau's masterpiece Emile (1762). This thought is the core of his philosophy of education: to educate the child as he is in himself and with all his natural dispositions, Rousseau introduced 2 new method of education, what we call today "child-centered education". Child-centered education is founded on nature and proceeds according to26 it. This underlying philosophy of Rousseau found fulk expression in the 19th century educators. Rousseau dreamed of recovering the original state of nature. Man was free, happy, and equal in the natural state. Man has, therefore, to go back to nature, to regain the original state. To do so, he has to enter into a contract wherein he has to surrender some of his individual liberties for a common welfare. This contract could be changed at the will of the people. Thus, Rousseau reintroduced in the 8th century the principle of popular sovereignty, making him the father of modern democracy. ' "Back to nature" or the doctrine of naturalism in education aimed at developing the chid according to nature. Through this, natural virtues as the natural state of man would be preserved and an ideal society based upon the individual rights be established. Ultimately, it was envisioned by Rousseau that each individual would attain virtues such ‘as equality, fraternity, simplicity, and liberty. Education, then, was a negative or preventive as well as @ “Laissez faire" or hands-off process. It implied that efforts be made on the pert of the teacher to protect the child form unnatural influences and at the same time to allow him full, free, and spontaneous expressions of native inclinations, instincts, and feelings, Education should give rise to new social order where men bound by mutual contract and where individual liberty was preserved. It ‘was to be democratic and universal in the sense thet education wes one of the natural rights of all free men. Based on equality, the rich and poor should be educated together in the same way. Briefly, Rosseau's philosophy of education as outlined in Emile is that education is @ natural and not an artificial process. It is a development from within; it comes through the workings of natural instinct and interest, not through external force; it is an expansion of natural powers, not acquisition of information. Education is life itself, not a preparation for a future state, The teacher is that of an adviser and a facilitator. Rousseau's philosophy of education was a direct challenge to the antiquated philosophy dominant in the 18th century. Whereas before education was subject-centered. The teacher as the central figure in the educative process was replaced by the child. Instead of stress on mastery of different subjects, attention was focused on the needs and interests of the pupil. From these shifts of emphasis, the following trends clearly felt in the 19th century educational psychology and at present arose: appreciating the value of discovery learning and problem-solving; confining the child's early learndng to things that are within his own experience and therefore have meaning to him; stress on the rights of each child to individual considerations, freedom, and happiness; realizing the need to understand the child's nature and the way this develops through boyhood and adolescence; and treating the child as a being in his own right, not just a miniatuge adult. 7.Johann Pestalozzi2 a.) Education as the process of organized growth b,) Education should be founded upon the laws of natural development of the child. c.) Use of objectives in teaching ,) Emphasis on method and technique of teaching To improve sccial conditions and remedy the plight of teachers, Pestalozzi tured to proper education, Like Rousseau, he felt the injustice, unnaturalness, end degradation of the existing society. Pestalozzi firmly believed that education could purify social conditions and elevate the people by intellectual, moral and industrial training. He had great faith in education as the best means for making better people and eventually a better society, Education merely furnishes the situation for the unfolding of the child's nature. The teacher guides the individual to help himself. Consequently, education is an orgenic development of the child's nature. There are three aspects of the individual: the intellectual symbolized by the head; the physical symbolized by the hand; and the moral and religious symbolized by the heart. in summary, Pestalozzi's achievements contained the germ of modern pedagogy as well as of education reform. Instead of accepting formal principles and traditional processes, he stimulated educators to work out carefully the natural development of the child. From him have come the prevailing reforms in the present teaching of languages, arithmetic, drawing, writing, reading, geography, elementary science, and music. In harmony of this methods, Pectalozzi alsa started the kindly type of school discipline different from the traditional authoritarian one. Even in his lifetime, Pestalozzi's philosophy was propagated by his writings, collaborators, and students. It spread throughout Europe especially In Germany and England, Between 1800 to 1860, America was full of Pestalozzian literature, e.g., Henry Bernard's American Journal, the American Annals, Horace Mann's Seventh Report, Pestalozzian methods were also introduced in American teacher's institutes mainly through the efforts of Edward Sheldon, superintendent of schools of Oswego, New York. ‘The state normal school administered by Sheldon gave birth to the Oswego Movernent that influenced teacher programs of New York and the Midwest states. 8, Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776-1841) a.) Doctrine of appreciation b,) Education should be scientific c) Mind is @ unity, possessing but one power, that of entering into rel environment n with its Herbart believed that the aim of education can be attained through instruction that takes Into consideration each pupil's thought masses, temperament, and mental capacity. There Is not much likelihood of the pupil's receiving ideas of virtue that will8 develop into glowing ideas conduct when his studies do not appeal to his thought systems and are consequently regarded with indifference and aversion. They must coalesce with the ideas he already has so that the learning process becomes personal and practical. Through the development of this doctrine of interests and association of ideas, Herbart made one of the great advances of modern education. Herbart's contribution to educational science consists chiefly in his formulation of psychological principles as basis of method, What Pestalozzi learned through experience or sympathetic insight, Herbart placed on a scientifi basis In accordance with his psychological views, He considered Pestalozzi’s emphasis upon the study of the physical world to be merely 3 stepping-stone to his "moral revelation of the world." He tried to show how ideas are assimilated through apperception and maintained the possibility of making all materials tend toward moral development. After Germany, the country most influence by Herbart's doctrines was the United States. Herbartian influence reached the U. S. through the efforts of American educational leaders who had studied in Germany during the last two decades of the 19th century and involved Herbartian principles. The followers of Herbart founded the National Herbartian Society in 1892 which later became the National Society for the Study of Education, The American normal schools took up Herbartianism in earnest adopting the Five Formal Steps as providing the best method of instruction. The principle of correlation influenced the organization of curriculum for both elementary and secondary schools and stimulated efforts to discover some basis of unity among the school subjects. 9, Friedrich Wilhelm Froebel (1782-1852) a.) Self-activity as the means of education b.) Play, spontaneous activity, manual and industrial development utilized to promote self a realization c.) Process of education determined by the nature of the child Froebel, another German philosopher and educator, pursued the principle of natural development of the child through education. He originated the concept of Kindergarten. As philosopher, Froebel was influenced by the German idealists Immanuel Kant (1724- 1804) and Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831), as educator by Comenius, Rousseau, and Pestalozzi. Froebel established a school in Blakenberg, Thuringia, for children between ages three to seven. The general method used was self-activity, that is, the process of development from within by which the child freely expresses his impulses and thoughts. Froebel stressed the important of creativeriess on the part of the child. This school became known as the Kindergarten. "Kindergarten" comes from the German words "Kind"23 meaning child (plural, "Kinder" meaning children) and "Garten" meaning garden. The school is compared to a garden where plants freely grow. On this basis Froebel stated that the aim of education is "the development of the child's inborn capacities and powers in accord with his nature, and the redirection of undesirable native impulses." Froebel was the first educator in modern times to introduce play as an essential part of school work. Play, which is the highest form by which children express their inner being and which they lave to do most, should be utilized and developed positively, Play is @ great factor in physical, mental, emotional, and social development of the child. Play promotes the values of cooperation and teamwork, sportsmanship and fair play. ‘Competition and rivalry promote striving for excellence. However, it also has its moral disadvantages as generating jealousy and some undesirable habits The psychological principle of motor expression to enhance self-activity and creativeness is the chief characteristics of Froebel's method. Rousseau had also recommended motor activity as a means of learning, but he had insisted upon an isolated and unsocial aspects of education for Emile. On the other hand, Froebel stressed the social aspects of education. In fact, he held that increasing salf-realization through self-ectivity must come through a precess of socialization. The social instinct is inborn so that the child can truly be educated only in the company of others. The life of the child is necessarily bound up with participetion in instructional life. Each of the various institutions of society- home, school, church, the state- becomes 2 medium for the activity of the child, and at the same time @ means of social control. As soon as the child enters into social life, he is to receive the development needed for the present, and thereby to be prepared also for the future. Through imitation of co operative activities in play, he obtains not only physical but intellectual and moral training, Froebel conceived of the Kindergarten as a micro-society on which the child can learn to move freely but with consideration for his fellow little ones. 10, Herbert Spencer (1802-1903) a.) Knowledge that is best for use in life is also best for the development of power ’.) Emphasis on physical education c.) Important of science in education Spencer defined education as a preparation for complete living. With this aim of education, the important question in determining the schoo! curriculum is not whether such or such knowledge is of value, but what its relative value is. To this end Spencer made utility the measure of values, that is, the practical bearing of the subject upon some phase of life. Since the end of education is complete living, the. subjects and methods of instruction are to be chosen with deliberate reference to this end. Their selection is to be determined, not by the fashion of the time, nor the opinion of parents, but by their respective values in relation to the end in view.30 In sum, Spencer proposed to reform the curricule and methods of the schools. On intellectual training, he upheld many principles of psychologists, as for instance, the cultivation of the powers of observation, object teaching, learning through self- instruction and in a pleasurable manner. On morel training, while not touching on religion, he shared views with Rousseau in advocating that the child should learn naturally from the natural consequences of his acts end in opposing artificial punishments. On physical training, he opposed Locke who preferred to impose strict discipline, Rather Spencer believed that the regimen of the school should conform to the established truth of modern science. Spencer's educational ideas gained influence in England and the United States. Through his advocacy the inductive method gained much ground. He helped popularize laisser- faire in economics; inspired many sociologists to adopt an organismic conception of society; prometed the idea of biological evolution and the development of what is known as Social Darwinism. Though most of his ideas have been superseded because of the steady advancement of the sclencer, Spencer's contribution to education lies in the impetus he gave to scientific stucies. 11. William James (1842-1910) a.) Mental Activity is functional b.) Knowledge is instrumental c,) itis the consequences that make the choice good or bad ‘William James, often considered the father of American psychology of education, was the prominent promoter of the empirical and experimental approach to education. His Principles of Psychology (1890) and Talks to Teachers on Psychology (1899) gave definite direction to American educational theory and practice. James’ tenet that man is primarily a behaving organism, supported Froebel’s thesis that motor expression was fundamental to physical and mental growth. He maintained the interdependence of the mental and physical life. He favored the experimental approach to truth and held that we settle our problems by experimentation. He emphasized the early development of the individual and class habits in the teaching process for the purpose of producing @ more integrated society. His doctrine of habit was basically individus He believed that the purpose of education |s the organization of acquired habits in the individual with a view of promoting his personal well-being. James founded his educational theories on the philosophy of pragmatism which is highly similar to utilitarianism or functionalism. 12, John Dewey (1859-1952)31 a.) Education is life. b,) Education is growth. c.| Education isa social process, d.) Education is 2 continuous reconstruction of experience John Dewey is perhaps the most influential educator of the 20th century. His philosophy of education made a tremendous impact not only in his country but also wherever American imperialism extended. Dewey's success as an educator was supported by his being a respected philosopher and a socio-psychologist all at once. Dewey's early works The School and Society (1899) and The Child and The Curriculum (1902) present the socio-psychological basis of his educational principles which are fundamentally Froebeliant Dewey's writings are full of references to the method of Montessori who was also inspired by Froebel. Dewey advocated that the educative process must, for both psychological and sociological reasons, consist of a series of problems that are within the normal experience of the child. He urged that "the educational process must begin with and build up on the interests of the child; thai it must provide opportunity for the interplay of thinking and doing on the child's classroom experience; that the school should be organized as @ miniature community’ that the teacher should be a guide and co-worker with the pupils, rather than a taskmaker...and that the goal of education is the growth of the child in all aspects of being.” The educative process must then be a practice in cooperative social activity. Today's emphasis on sociological objectives and techniques, in addition to the psychological, is due to the influence of Dewey. Sixth Module: The Educational Philosophies of Filipino Educators Some Filipino educators also developed their own philosophies of education. The Filipino philosophies of education are comparable to or in some cases more sound and practical than32 the philosopies of education of the great educational thinkers of the past. The following are the major tenets of Filipino philosophies of education (Bernardino and Fresnoza, pp.39-40): 1, Jose Rizal The school is the book in which is written the future of the nations. Show us the schools if a people and we will tell you what those people are and will be. 2. Apolinario Mabini "Thou shalt cultivate the special gifts which had been granted thee, working and studying according to thy ability, never leaving the path of righteousness and justice in order to attain thine own perfection,” 3. T. H. Pardo de Tavera ‘Our education should instill love for work, spirit of tolerance, resgect for law, love for peace, and practice of thrift 4. Jorge Bocobo To my humble way of thinking education (college) has for its supreme and overshadowing aim the formulation of a sound and noble outlook of life. 5, Camilo Osias Education must secure freedom, efficiency, and happiness for all eople. 6, Rafael Palma Education must produce individuals who are both useful to themselves and to society.33 7. Francises Benitez The qualities that should distinguish the educated Filipinos of today are: a.) power to do »,) knowledge of the past and current events ¢.) possession of the elements of conduct that are the accomplishments of culture and morality 8, Venancio Trinidad Education should aim to develop men and women who are as deeply concerned in the development and uplift our communities, particularly in the rural areas, 2s in the promotion of their own personal or individual well-being,34 Conclusion: A Message of Inspiration Learning is said to be dynamic and is a continuous process. That no matter how time catches up with us, this is one need that we can never outgrow, Through education, one's knowledge, skills, ability or even character is developed and enhanced, thus in the process, it makes all of us a better thinking individual Truly, one might also learn from a spoken word or even undergoing through one specific experience but still, none is a complete as obtaining the insight and understanding from, the training a person attains through complete teaching or study. How far you go in life depends on a lot of factors and among them is your capacity and ability to adjust and edapt to the change in demand of time. Natural talent, intelligence or looks- none of these guarantee success. A wonderful education is something that can stand and see one in adversity, In matters of principle, it stands like a rock, which one can move and would remain even in the most challenging of intensity. Few things will pay you bigger dividends than the time and trouble you take to learn and get education for yourself. Almost nothing will add to your stature as an executive and a person. Nothing will give you greater satisfaction or bring you more self-actualization. if a man does not continue learning things as he advances through life he will soon find himself left out and alone, Of all things granted by wisdom, nine is greater or better that educating one's self. Itis like a sound health wherein its value is seldom known until one ligament has been paralyzed and does not enable you to move. It needs nurturing; it needs proper care and attention; it travels, with time. You will find, as you look back upon your life that indeed a wonderful education makes all ‘things possible. It makes all things easy. And it makes all things work to your advantage. For knowing is using what we have learned. Some put it into practice and let it change their lives. Others don't. That's the difference between a novice and an expert.35 Bibliography Aristotle, Nichomachean Ethics, W.D. Ross, trans. in Great Books of the Western World, vol. 9. Encyclopedia Brittanica, Inc. (1989 edition}. pp. 339-436). . Politics, Benjamin Jowett, trans. in Great Books of the Western World, vol. 9. po, 445-548, Bernardino, Vitaliano, and Florenzo P. Fresnoza. Principles of Education, Manila: Abiva Publishing House Inc., Bustos, Alicia S,, Psychological, Anthropological and Sociological Foundations of Education Calderon, Jose F., Foundations of Education. Quezon: Rex Printing Company, 2001. DeHovre, F., and Jordan, €., Catholicism in Education. New York: Benziger Bros., 1934. Delays, €., What is Communism? (Trans. by 8. Schumacher) St. Louis: B. Herder Book Company, 1938. Estioko, Leonardo R., SVD. History of Education. Philippines: LOGOS Publications, Inc., 1994. Good, Carter V. Editor. Dictionary of Education. Second Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1859. Lacueste, Manuel 6. et all. Historical, Philosophical and Legal Foundations of Educetion. Quezon City: Katha Publishing Company, Inc., 1986. Monroe, Paul, A Brief Course in the History of Education. New York: The MacMillan Company, 1915. Plato, The Dialogues of Plato. Edith Hamilton and Huntington Cairns, eds. New York; Bollingen Foundation, 1964, Redden, J. And Ryan, F, A Catholic Philosophy of Education. Milwaukee: The Bruce Publishing. Company, 1942. Shaffer, David R., Developmental Psychology and Childhood and Adolescence, 4th end., 1996, USA Shaw, Larry J., Teacher Education 954, Humanistic and Social Aspects of Teaching