Chapter 2: Performance Characteristics of

Instruments
Goals for this Chapter
 Define classification of sensors and some terminologies
 Introduce various types of sensors for measurement
purpose and their applications
Example: Displacement, motion, level, pressure, temperature, …

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Introduction

• Sensors
• Elements which generate variation of electrical quantities (EQ)
in response to variation of non-electrical quantities (NEQ)

Examples of EQ
• Temperature, displacement, humidity, fluid flow, speed, pressure,…

• Sensor are sometimes called transducers

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Cont’d…

 Advantages of using sensors include

1. Mechanical effects such as friction is reduced to the minimum
possibility
2. Very small power is required for controlling the electrical system
3. The electrical output can be amplified to any desired level
4. The electrical output can be detected and recorded remotely at a
distance from the sensing medium and use modern digital computers
5. etc …

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Introduction - Use of Sensors
1. Information gathering: Provide data for display purpose
 This gives an understanding of the current status of the system
parameters
 Example: Car speed sensor and speedometer, which records the
speed of a car against time
2. System control: Signal from the sensor is an input to a
controller.

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Range and Span
 Range: Is the limits between which the input can vary
 Range of an instrument defines the minimum and
maximum values of a quantity that the instrument is
designed to measure, i.e.,
 Input range – Imin , Imax
 Output range – Omin , Omax

 E.g., a resistance thermometer sensor might be quoted as

having a range of 00C to +8000C
 Span: Is defined as the algebraic difference between
upper and lower range values an instrument can
measure.
• Input span – Imax – Imin
• Output span – Omax – Omin
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Linearity
 The output reading of an instrument is linearly proportional
to the quantity being measured
 Input output relation is governed by a straight line

 One desirable property of instruments

7
Sensitivity
 Ratio of the change in output to
the corresponding change in
input under steady-state
conditions
 Is the slope of the input-output
curve
 Indicates by how much the
output of an instrument changes
when the quantity being
measured changes by a given
amount
 The sensitivity can be linear or
non-linear

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Threshold and Resolution
 Threshold
 If the instrument’s input is increased very gradually from zero,
there will be some minimum value below which no output change
can be detected
 This minimum value defines the threshold of the instrument

 Resolution
 Smallest possible increment discernible between measured values
 Or the minimum input change that can be detected by the system
 As the term is used, higher resolution means smaller increments
 An instrument with a five-digit display (say, 0.0000 to 9.9999) is
said to have higher resolution than an identical instrument with a
three-digit display (say, 0.00 to 9.99)

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Hysteresis
 This is an effect of producing different readings when the
measured quantity is approached from above or below
 Instrument will not have the same output for the same input in
repeated trials
 It may be the result of mechanical friction, or thermal
effects Curve B
Variable decreasing
Output
variable

Curve A-Variable increasing

Maximum
output hysteresis

Measured variable

Maximum input
hysteresis

Dead Space

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Accuracy
 Is defined as the closeness of indicated value to the true
value of the quantity being measured.
 Accuracy of an instrument is a measure of how close the output
reading of the instrument is to the true/correct value
 Equivalently, accuracy is the extent to which the value indicated
by a measurement system or element might be wrong

 Often expressed as a percentage of full scale reading

 E.g., the accuracy of an instrument is stated to be 1% accuracy
over a full scale pressure reading of 100 kPa will be accurate
within 1 kPa.
(Accuracy = 1% of span of instrument or 1% of 100= 1 )
 Plus or minus inaccuracies are also termed as
measurement uncertainties

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Precision
 Indicates the ability of an instrument to reproduce a certain
reading of a constant input with a given accuracy

 In practice, the readings will be clustered around a value in

random manner.

 The more number of readings fall very close to the value,

the more precise the instrument is.

 High precision measurement instrument gives a small

spread of readings and vice versa

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Accuracy vs. Precision

Low precision High precision High precision

Low accuracy Low accuracy High accuracy

13
System Disturbances (or Environmental Effects)
 Zero drift or bias or interfering input
 Describes the effect where the zero reading (or intercept) of an
instrument is modified by a change in the ambient conditions

 Causes a constant error that exists over the full range of

measurement of the instrument

 Sensitivity drift or scale factor drift or modifying input

 Defines the amount by which an instrument’s sensitivity varies as
ambient conditions change
 It is quantified by sensitivity drift coefficient

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Sensitivity to Disturbance
 Instrument’s specifications are
valid only under controlled
conditions of temperature,
pressure etc…

 As variations occur in the

ambient temperature etc., certain
static instrument characteristics
change
 E.g., sensitivity can be affected by
zero and sensitivity drift as shown
in the figure

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Error
 Two types of errors, namely systematic and random errors
 Systematic error: Cause repeated readings to be in error
by the same amount, i.e., consistent error signs
 Due to instrument short coming and environmental effects
 Related to calibration errors and can be eliminated by correct
calibration
 Accuracy is related to such type of errors
 Random errors: Caused by random electronic fluctuations
in instruments, unpredictable behavior of the instrument,
influences of friction, etc…
 Such errors are related to precision
 Characterized by positive and negative errors
 Random fluctuations usually follow certain statistical distribution

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Error
 Difference between result of measurement and true value
of the quantity being measured
Error  xm  xtrue
xm  x true
Percentage error   100%
xfull
 E.g., If the measured value is 10.1 when the true value is
10.0, the error is +0.1. If the measured value is 9.9 when
the true value is 10.0, the error is-0.1.

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Tolerance
 A term that is closely related to accuracy and defines the
maximum error that is to be expected in some value
 When used correctly, tolerance describes the maximum deviation
of a manufactured component from some specified value
 Electric circuit components such as resistors have tolerances of
perhaps 5%
 One resistor chosen at random from a batch having a nominal value
1000 ohm and tolerance 5% might have an actual value anywhere
between 950 ohm and 1050 ohm

18
Overview
 Static characteristics
 Dynamic characteristics

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Dynamic Characteristics of Instruments
 Describe behaviors between the time an input quantity
changes its value and the time when the instrument output
attains a steady value
 Are useful when the input signal is rapidly varying
 Used to study performance under transient conditions

 In general, both static and dynamic characteristics are

important to characterize a given instrument
 Ordinary linear differential equation with constant
coefficients is the most widely used mathematical model to
study dynamic response in the form
 Usually linear, time-invariant (LTI) system assumed

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Dynamic Characteristics …
 In an LTI system, input and output, for time t > 0, are
related as:
d n qo d n 1qo dqo
an n
 a n 1 n 1
 ...  a1  ao qo
dt dt dt
d m qi d m1qi dq (2.1)
 bm m  bm1 m1  ...  b1 i  bo qi
dt dt dt
 where qi is the measured (input) quantity, q0 is the output reading
and a0 . . . an, b0 . . . bm are constants

 Using the method of Laplace-transform, equation (2.1) is

(an S n  an1S n1  ...  a1S  ao )Qo (S )  (bm S m  bm1S m1  ...  b1S  bo )Qi (S )

 Or Qo ( S ) bm S m  bm1S m1  ...  b1S  bo

 H (S ) 
Qi ( S ) an S n  an1S n1  ...  a1S  ao
(2.2)
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Dynamic Characteristics ….
 If we limit consideration to step changes in the measured
quantity only, then Equation (2.1) reduces to:
d n qo d n 1qo dqo
an n
 an 1 n 1  ...  a1  ao qo  bo qi (2.3)
dt dt dt

bo
 So that H (S ) 
an S n  an1 S n1  ...  a1 S  ao

 Based on the order of Equation (2.3), equipments are

classified as zero-, first-, and second-order instruments

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Zero-order Instrument
 When all the coefficients a1 . . . an other than a0 and bo are
assumed to be zero, Equation (2.3) then degenerates into
a0 qo  b0 qi (2.4)
 Any instrument that closely obeys Equation (2.4) is defined to be a
zero-order instrument

 The two constants can be combined to give

bo (2.5)
qo  qi  Kqi
ao

 where K=bo/ao is static sensitivity

 From Equation (2.4), no matter how qi might vary with time,
the output follows it perfectly with no distortion or time lag
 Zero-order instrument represents ideal or perfect dynamic
performance
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Zero-order Instrument …
 Example: Displacement measuring potentiometer
 Given linear distribution of resistance along length L, the
output voltage eo can be written as
xi
eo  Eb  Kqi
L
 Measurement error em = Kqi - eo = o (ideal)

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First-order Instrument
 If all the coefficients a2 . . . an except for a0, a1, and b0 are
assumed zero in equation (2.3) then:
dqo
a1  ao qo  bo qi (2.6)
dt
 Using the Laplace transform and rearranging, we get
b0 / a0 (2.7)
Qo  Qi
1  (a1 / a0 ) S

 Defining K = b0/a0 as the static sensitivity and =a1/a0 as

the time constant of the system, equation (2.7) becomes
K
Qo  Qi (2.8)
1  S

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First-order Instrument …
 Examples of first-order instruments
 Temperature measurement system
 Amplifiers
 Electromechanical and electronic meters
 Graphical recorders

 The dynamic behavior can be studied with the response of

the system due to standard test inputs
 Example: Impulse, step, ramp, sinusoidal inputs

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First-order Instrument …
 If equation (2.8) is solved analytically, the output q0 in
response to a step change in qi at time t is shown in the
figure below
 Time constant  is the time taken for the output quantity q0 to
reach 63% of its final value

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Performance Parameters
 Dynamic characteristics that are useful in characterizing
the speed of response of any instrument include
 Rise Time: Time required for a response to reach 90% of
the step input (final value)
 Settling time: Time to reach and stay within a stated 
tolerance value around its final value
 Knowing fast response requires a small value of 
 Need to know which parameters to vary to reduced settling time

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Second-order Instrument
 If all coefficients a3 . . . an other than a0, a1 and a2 in
equation (2.2) are assumed zero, then we get:
d 2 qo dqo
a2 2
 a1  ao qo  bo qi
dt dt
 Applying Laplace transform and rearranging:
bo
H (S )  (2.9)
a2 S 2  a1S  ao

 Defining K (static sensitivity), ωn (un-damped natural

frequency) and  (damping ratio) as
K  b0 / a0 ; n  a0 / a2 ;   a1 /(2 a0 a2 )
 Equation (2.9), in terms of K, ω and , becomes
K K n2
H (S )  2 2  (2.10)
S /  n  2S / n  1 S 2  2n S   n2

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Second-order Instrument …
 If equation (2.10) is solved analytically, the shape of the step
response depends on the value of 
A. = 0 is no damping case and
constant amplitude oscillations
B. = 0.2, we is still oscillatory
response, but the oscillations
gradually die down
C. When  is increased further,
oscillations reduces and overshoot
(see curves (C) and (D))
D. Over damped response as shown
by curve (E)
• Output reading creeps up
slowly towards the correct
reading

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Dynamic characteristics of Measurement System
 Measurement Systems especially in industrial, aerospace
and Biological applications are subject to inputs which are
not static but dynamic in nature i.e. the inputs vary with
time and also the output vary with time.
 The Dynamic characteristics of any measurement system
described by
1. Speed of Response
2. Measuring Lag
3. Fidelity
4. Dynamic Error

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Terms used for dynamic characteristics
1. Response time: Time elapsed between an input is applied and
the time in which the system gives an output corresponding to
some specified percentage, e.g. 95%, of its final value
Rise time: Time taken for the output
to rise to some specified percentage
of the steady-state output. Often the
rise time refers to the time taken for
the output to rise from 10% of the
steady-state value to 90% of the
steady-state value.
Settling time: This is the time taken
for the output to settle to within some
percentage, e.g. 2%, of the steady-
state value

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Contd.
2. Measuring Lag:-An instrument does not immediately react
a change in output.
Measuring Lag is defined as the delay in the response of
an instrument to a change in a Measuring quantity.
Two types of Measuring Lag
1. Retardation type:-In this case the response of the instrument
begins immediately after a change in the measured has occurred.
2. Time Delay type:-In this case the response of the system begins
after a “Dead Time” that means after the application of the input.
3. Fidelity of a measurement system is defined as the ability
of the system to reproduce the output in the same
variation of the input.
In Fidelity measurement system , there is no time lag
or Phase shift between the input and output
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Contd.
4. Dynamic Error is the difference between the measured
value of the instrument changing with time and the value
indicated by the instrument if no static error is assumed.

Standard signals of Instrumentation system

Dynamic behavior of measurement systems can be studied
with the help of certain standard signals.
These standard signals are Step Input, Ramp Input and
Sinusoidal input

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Example
A Step input of 5A is applied to the Analogue current meter.
the Analogue current meter pointer swings to 5.18A and
finally comes to rest at 5.02A.
a) Determine the Overshoot of the reading in Ampere and in
percentage of final reading
b) Determine the percentage error of the instrument.

Given
ISTEP= 5 A
I1A= 5.18 A
I2A= 5.02 A

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Solution
A) The overshoot of the reading
Overshoot Reading= I1A - I2A =5.18 A – 5.02 A =0.16 A

Overshoot Reading 0.16

% of Overshoot   x100  3.2%
Final Reading of ammeter 5.02

B) The percentage of Errors becomes

I A2  I S
r  x100
IS
QmF  Qt
 x100
Qt
5.02  5
 x100
5
 0 .4 %

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37