7 .

NAVEDTRA 10531-D
Naval Education and June 1988 TrainingManual
Training Command 0502-LP-2 1 1 -7700 (TRAM AN)

Machinery
Repairman 1 &C

DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.

Nonfederal government personnel wanting a copy of this document

must use the purchasing instructions on the inside cover.

linn mil inn Hill limn Hill III Hill Hill Hill Illll 1 II! Illll till 1111
1
 The terms training manual (TRAMAN) and
nonresident training course (NRTC) are now the
terms used to describe Navy nonresident training
program materials. Specifically, a TRAMAN
in-
cludes a rate training manual (RTM), officer text
(OT), single subject training manual (SSTM), or
modular single or multiple subject training manual
(MODULE); and an NRTC includes nonresident
career course(NRCC), officer correspondence
course (OCC), enlisted correspondence course
(ECC), or combination thereof.

Although the words "he," "him," and "his"

are used sparingly in this manual to enhance
communication, they are not intended to be
gender driven nor to affront or discriminate
against anyone reading this text.

ERRATA FOR NAVEDTRA 10531-D

To
avoid confusion as you read this text, make the following
changes:

1. Pages 2-12 and 2-13: Switch the figure numbers and titles. The figure
on page 2-12 is actually figure 2-12, not figure 2-11. The figure on
page 2-13 is figure 2-11, not figure 2-12.

2. Page 2-18, second line under "Rolling the Gear Blank": change
"waterline" to "center line"

3. Page 2-21, step number 9: change "diameter" to "radius"

DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.

Nonfederal government personnel wanting a copy of this document must write to Superintendent of Documents,
Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402 OR Commanding Officer, Naval Publications and Forms
Center, 5801 Tabor Avenue, Philadelphia, PA 19120-5099, Attention: Cash Sales, for price and availability.
MACHINERY REPAIRMAN
1 &C
NAVEDTRA 10531-D

1988 Edition Prepared by

MRCM Key R. Romero
 PREFACE

This Rate Training Manual and Nonresident Career Course (RTM/NRCC)

form a self-study package to teach the theoretical knowledge and mental skills
needed by the Machinery Repairman First Class and Chief Machinery
Repairman. To most effectively train Machinery Repairmen, this package may
be combined with on-the-job training to provide the necessary elements of
practical experience and observation of techniques demonstrated by more
senior Machinery Repairmen.

Completion of the NRCC provides the usual way of satisfying the require-
ments for completing the RTM. The set of assignments in the NRCC includes
learning objectives and supporting questions designed to help the student learn
the materials in the RTM.

1988 Edition

Stock Ordering No.

0502-LP-21 1-7700

Published by
NAVAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING PROGRAM
MANAGEMENT SUPPORT ACTIVITY

UNITED STATES
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON, D.C.: 1988
 THE UNITED STATES NAVY
GUARDEAN OF OUR COUNTRY
The United States Navy is responsible for maintaining control of the
sea and is a ready force on watch at home and overseas, capable of
strong action to preserve the peace or of instant offensive action to
win in war.

It is upon the maintenance of this control that our country's glorious

future depends; the United States Navy exists to make it so.

WE SERVE WITH HONOR

Tradition, valor, and victory are the Navy's heritage from the past. To
these may be added dedication, discipline, and vigilance as the
watchwords of the present and the future.

At home or on distant stations we serve with pride, confident in the

respect of our country, our shipmates, and our families.

Our responsibilities sober us; our adversities strengthen us.

Service to God and Country is our special privilege. We serve with

honor.

THE FUTURE OF THE NAVY

The Navy will always employ new weapons, new techniques, and
greaterpower to protect and defend the United States on the sea,
under the sea, and in the air.

Now and in the future, control of the sea gives the United States her
greatest advantage for the maintenance of peace and for victory in
war.

Mobility, surprise, dispersal, and offensive power are the keynotes of

the new Navy. The roots of the Navy lie in a strong belief in the
future, in continued dedication to our tasks, and in reflection on our
heritage from the past.

Never have our opportunities and our responsibilities been greater.

CHAPTER Page

1 . The Machinery Repairman 1-1

2. Gears and Gear Cutting 2-1

3. Grinding Inspections 3-1

4. Aligning and Balancing 4-1

5. Metallurgy and Heat Treatment 5-1

6. Machine Tool Maintenance 6-1

7. Machine Shop Management 7-1

8. Ship Maintenance and Modernization 8-1

APPENDIX
I. Occupational Standards AI-1

INDEX INDEX-1
 CREDITS

The illustrations indicated below are included in this edition of Machinery

Repairman 1 & C through the courtesy of the designated companies,
publishers, and associations. Permission to use these illustrations is gratefully
acknowledged. Permission to reproduce these illustrations and other materials
in this publication should be obtained from the source.

Source Figure

American Society of Mechanical 2-24, 3-4, 3-5, 3-19,

Engineers and 3-20

American Society of Metals 5-17

Boston Gear Work 2-1

Brown and Sharpe Manufacturing 2-22A and 2-22B

Company

Carpenter Technology Corporation 5-24

Cincinnati Milarcon Machine Tool 2-2, 2-8, and 2-15

Division

C. I. Hayes Incorporated 5-7

GAR Electroforming Division, 3-16, 3-17, and 3-18

Electroformer Incorporated

Giddings and Lewis Machine Tool 4-10, 4-11, 4-13,

Company 4-21 to 4-33, and 6-1

Illinois Gear Product Division 2-9 and 2-18

Leed and Northrup 5-10

Magnaflux Corporation 3-3

McGraw-Hill Book Company 3-6

Sheffield Measuring Division 3-9, 3-11, 3-12, 3-14

USX Corporation 5-2, 5-3, and 5-21

Warner and Swasey Company 4-1, 4-2, 4-3, and 4-6

IV
 CHAPTER 1

THE MACHINERY REPAIRMAN

This rate training manual (RTM) has been things you should know about this training
prepared for members of the Regular Navy and manual.
the Naval Reserve. It will help you meet the designed to give you information on the
It is

occupational qualifications for advancement to occupational standards for advancement to MR1

Machinery Repairman (MR1) or Chief
First Class and MRC.
Machinery Repairman (MRC). With each ad- You must satisfactorily complete its non-
vancement in rating, you accept an increasing resident career course (NRCC) before you can
responsibility. This chapter covers the advance- advance to MR1 or MRC, whether you are in the
ment system, sources of information, and finally, Regular Navy or in the Naval Reserve.
your role as an MR1 or MRC. Leadership, super- It is not designed to give you information on
vision, and training will be discussed in a later the military requirements for advancement to PO1
chapter. or CPO. Rate training manuals that are specially
prepared to give information on the military
requirements are discussed in the next section
of this chapter, which deals with sources of
PREPARING FOR ADVANCEMENT information.

Remember that the requirements for advance-

ment may change from time to time. Check with
SOURCES OF INFORMATION
your division officer or with your training officer
to be sureyou have the most recent requirements.
You will be better able to prepare for advance-
It very important for you to have an
is

ment and to help lower-rated personnel prepare

extensive knowledge of the references to consult
in preparing for advancement. They contain
for advancement.
detailed, authoritative, up-to-date information on
To prepare for advancement, you need to be all subjects related to the military requirements
familiar with the military requirements and the
Manual
and to the occupational qualifications of the MR
occupational standards given in (1) the
rating.
of Navy Enlisted Manpower and Personnel Some of the publications discussed here are
Classifications and Occupational Standards,
subject to change or revision from time to time
NAVPERS 18068; (2) Personnel Advancement
some at regular intervals, others as the need arises.
Requirements (PAR), NAVPERS 1414; (3) Be sure you have the latest and be sure
edition,
appropriate rate training manuals and any other
material that may be required or recommended;
you have a copy in which all official changes have
been entered.
and (4) the Bibliography for Advancement Study,
NAVEDTRA 10052. These materials are dis-
OCCUPATIONAL STANDARDS
cussed later in the section of this chapter that
deals with sources of information.
The Manual of Navy Enlisted Manpower and
Personnel Classifications and Occupational
Standards, NAVPERS18068 (with changes), gives
SCOPE OF THIS the minimum requirements for advancement to
TRAINING MANUAL each rate within each rating. This manual lists the
military requirements that apply to all ratings and
Before studying this book, it is a good idea the occupational standards that are specific to
to know its purpose and scope. Here are some each rating.

1-1
 The standards manual is kept current by NAVAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING
numbered changes. These changes are issued (NAVEDTRA) PUBLICATIONS
more frequently than most rate training manuals
can be revised; therefore, the training manuals Rate training manuals (RTMs), nonresident
cannot always reflect the latest occupational career courses (NRCCs), and other training texts
standards for advancement. When preparing and courses designed to help you become more
for advancement, always check the latest knowledgeable in your career field are prepared
standards manual and the latest changes to by the Naval Education and Training Program
be sure that you know the current require- Management Support Activity. This center is a
ments for advancement. For your convenience, field activity of the Chief of Naval Education and
the occupational standards for MR1 and MRC Training, and the training materials are designated
(current as of the date this text was written) are as NAVEDTRA publications. Some training
listed in appendix I. materials may be still designated as NAVPERS
or NAVTRA publications, but as they are
When studying the occupational standards for updated their designations will be changed to
advancement, remember these two things: NAVEDTRA.
The naval training publications described here
1. The standards are the minimum require- include some that are absolutely essential for
ments for advancement to each rate within each anyone seeking advancement and some that,
rating. If you study more than the required although not essential, are extremely helpful.
minimum, you will have a great advantage when
you take the written examinations for
advancement. NAVEDTRA 10052

2. Each standard has a designated paygrade
E-4, E-5, E-6, or E-7. You are responsible for
meeting all standards specified for advancement
to your next paygrade and all standards specified
for your current and lower paygrades.
A special form known as the Personnel Ad-
vancement Requirements, NAVPERS 1414/4, is
used to record the satisfactory completion of the
standards, both military and occupational, listed
in the standards manual. This form is available
for each rating. Whenever you demonstrate your
ability to perform a practical factor, appropriate
entries must be made in the DATE and INITIALS
columns. As an MR1 or MRC, you will often be
required to check the performance of lower-rated
personnel and to report the results to your super-
vising officer. To facilitate record keeping, group
records of practical factors are often maintained
aboard ship. Entries from the group records must
be transferred to each individual's record at ap-
propriate intervals.
As changes are made periodically to the stand-
ards manual, new forms of NAVPERS 1414/4
are provided when necessary. This information
should also be kept in each person's service
record and should be forwarded with the
service record to the next duty station. Each
Bibliography for Advancement Study, NAV-
EDTRA 10052, is a very important publication
for anyone preparing for advancement. This
publication lists required and recommended
RTMs and other reference material to be used by
personnel working for advancement. NAVED-
TRA 10052 is revised and issued once each year
by the Naval Education and Training Program
Management Support Activity. Each revised
edition is identified by a letter following the
NAVEDTRA number. Be sure you have the most
recent edition. If extensive changes in standards
occur in any rating between the annual revisions
NAVEDTRA
of 10052, a supplementary list of
issued in the form of a
study material may be
SUPERS notice.
The required and recommended references are
listed by rate. Remember that you are responsible
for all references at lower rate levels, as well as
those listed for the rate to which you are seeking
advancement.
TheRTMs that are marked with an asterisk
mandatory at the indicated rate levels. You
(*) are
may complete a mandatory training manual by
passing the appropriate NRCC, based on the
mandatory training manual.
All references listed in NAVEDTRA 10052,
whether mandatory or recommended, may be

Rate training manuals are written as training
information and to help you prepare for advance-
ment. Some manuals are general in nature and
are intended for use by more than one rating;
others (such as this one) are specific to the
particular rating.
Rate training manuals are revised from time
to time to bring them up to date. The edition of
a rate training manual is identified by a letter
following the NAVEDTRA number. You can tell
whether a training manual is the latest edition by
comparing your manual with the same manual
listed in the most recent edition of the List of
Training Manuals and Nonresident Training
Courses, NAVEDTRA 10061.
Some training manuals
are specially prepared
to information on the military re-
present
quirements for advancement. The following
manuals are of interest to MR1 and MRC
advancement candidates:
Military Requirements for Petty Officer
First Class,NAVEDTRA 10046.
Military Requirements for Chief Petty
Officer, NAVEDTRA 10047.
Each of the military requirements manuals is
mandatory at the indicated rate levels. They
contain information on the military requirements
and on the enlisted rating structure. They help you
learn how to prepare for advancement; how to
supervise, train, and lead other people; and how
to meet your increasing responsibilities as you
advance.
Some of the RTMs that may be useful to you
as you prepare to meet the occupational standards
for advancement to MR1 and MRC are discussed
briefly in the following paragraphs. For a
complete listing of RTMs, consult the List of
Training Manuals and Nonresident Training
Courses, NAVEDTRA 10061.
Tools and Their Uses, NAVEDTRA
10085.
Portions of this training manual are listed
as recommended reading for those preparing
for advancement to third class in the MR
rating. However, you may wish to review
the manual as you prepare for advancement
to higher rates.
Blueprint Reading and Sketching, NAVED-
TRA 10077. This manual will be useful for review
as you prepare for advancement to MR1 and
MRC.
1-3
and Mathematics, volume 2, NAVEDTRA 10071.
These two training manuals are very valuable to
the MR. If you are not adept at working with
numbers, consult volume 1 and chapters 1, 2, 3,
and 4 of volume 2. You need to become
proficient in the mathematics associated with
helical, bevel, and worm gearing. You must be
familiar with transposing and logarithms, and be
able to use the tables of natural trigonometric
functions.
Machinery Repairman 3 & 2, NAVEDTRA
10530. Satisfactory completion of this training
manual is required for advancement to MR3 and
MR2. You have already met this requirement, but
you should at least glance through the latest
edition of the manual. Much of the information
given in the latest edition of Machinery Repair-
man 1 &C
assumes that you are familiar with the
contents of Machinery Repairman 3 & 2, NAV-
EDTRA 10530.
Other NAVEDTRA Publications
Some additional and useful NAVEDTRA
publications are listed and described in the
following paragraphs. You may also want to
consult the training manuals for other ratings in
occupational fields 3 and 4 (Engineering and
Hull). The manuals prepared for Machinist Mate,
Engineman, and Boiler Technician are likely to
be of particular interest to you. These manuals
will add to your knowledge of the duties of others
in the engineering department and help you
prepare for your next promotion.
Another valuable publication is The Metric
System, NAVEDTRA 475-01-00-79, which is
packaged with a self-study course. Over the next
few years, the metric system will be more widely
used by the Navy as well as by the civilian world.
You will find it easy to work with metrics once
you have mastered the basic terms. It will be
difficult to translate values from our present
system to the metric system, but this operation
will become unnecessary once the new measure-
ments are totally adopted. See your educational
services officer for information on how to obtain
this study package.
Officer Texts
Officer texts that you may find helpful include
the latest editions of Engineering Administration,
NAVEDTRA 10858, and Principles of Naval
NAVEDTRA
Engineering, 10788.
 Most rate training manuals and officer texts
are used as the basis for correspondence courses.
You can complete a mandatory training manual
by passing its correspondence course. You may
find helpful to take other correspondence
it
courses. They can help you master the informa-
tion given in the training manual or text and also
give you a pretty good idea of how much you have
learned from studying the book.
NAVSEA PUBLICATIONS
The publications issued by the Naval Sea
Systems Command (NAVSEA) are of particular
importance to engineering department personnel.
Although you do not need to know everything in
these publications, you should have a general idea
of where to find the information in them.
Naval Ships' Technical Manual
The Naval Ships' Technical Manual
NAVSEA's basic engineering doctrine publica-
tion. Information in this publication is organized
by chapters and updated by revisions as often as
needed.
The manufacturers' technical manuals that are
furnished with most machinery units and many
types of equipment are also valuable publication
sources. They contain information on operation,
maintenance, and repair, and are sometimes given
NAVSHIPS numbers.
NAVSEA Deckplate
This is a bimonthly technical magazine
published by NAVSEA. It has information
on the design, construction, conversion, oper-
ation, maintenance, and repair of naval vessels
and their equipment. Also, other technical
equipment and programs under the authority
of the command are discussed. This magazine
is very useful because it has additional infor-
mation that helps explain the subject matter
in the Naval Ships' Technical Manual. New
Developments in naval engineering are also
covered in the magazine. The NAVSEA publica-
tion deckplate was formerly known as the
NAVSEA Journal.
You should be familiar with the OPNAV
publications discussed in the following para-
graphs. These publications are subject to change,
and it is important that you use an edition that
contains all the changes.
Thebasic doctrine publication concerning the
3-M Systems is the Ships' Maintenance and
Material Management (3-M) Manual, OPNAV-
INST 4790.4, Volumes 1, 2, and 3. Since you are
required to have a knowledge of the 3-M Systems,
we will briefly discuss it in a later chapter.
OPNAV Instruction 5510.1 (current edition),
Department of the Navy Information Security
Program Regulations, is the basic reference on
security matters. As a petty officer, you are
required to know the purpose of the security
program, the need-to-know concept, regulations
for the circulation and control of classified
matter, methods of destroying classified material,
and the duties of witnessing officials. Regulations
covering reproduction of classified material and
a number of other matters relating to security are
is
also found in the above publication.
While written mainly as a guide for super-
Accident Prevention Manual, OPNAV-
visors, the
INST 5101.2, also serves as a basic source of
information for all personnel. Its intention is to
improve the of safety throughout the Navy.
level
Safety is a command
function that is to be
implemented by all subordinate levels of super-
vision.
PERSONNEL QUALIFICATION
STANDARDS (PQS)
The Personnel Qualification Standards (PQS)
Program, OPNAVINST 3500.34, is a method of
qualifying officer and enlisted personnel to
perform assigned duty. The PQS is a written
compilation of knowledge and skills required to
qualify for a specific watch station, maintain a
specificequipment or system, or perform as a
team member within the assigned unit. The PQS
isin the format of a qualification guide, which
asks the questions a trainee must answer to verify
readiness to perform a given task. It also provides
a record of the progress and final certification.
The PQS approach to training is based on
individual learning. The learner has the complete
written program in hand. The operational
1-4
supervisor serves as both a source for specific
assistance and as quality control over the learn-
ing process through certification of completion
of each step. NAVEDTRA 43100-1, Handbook
on Personnel Qualification Standards, provides
information on the PQS concept and describes its
implementation into the training program of the
operational units of the Navy.
TRAINING FILMS
Training films available to naval person-
nel are a valuable source of supplementary
information on many technical subjects. When
selecting a film, note its date of issue listed
in the film catalog. As you know, procedures
sometimes change rapidly. Thus, some films
become obsolete rapidly. If a film is obsolete
only in part, you may sometimes use it
effectively. Before or during its showing, you
should carefully point out to trainees the pro-
cedures that have changed. For this reason, if you
plan to show a training film, try to take a look
at it in advance. To identify films that may be of
interest to you, review the Department of the
Navy Catalogue of Audiovisual Production
Products, OPNAVINST 3157.1.
 CHAPTER 2
GEARS AND GEAR CUTTING
This chapter covers the manufacture of helical
gears, bevel gears, stub tooth gears, worms, worm
gears, splines, and sprockets.
Before you begin studying this chapter, secure
a copy of Machinery Repairman 3 & 2 and review
the portion that deals with the manufacture of
spur gears. Basic Machines also provides a good
review of gearing basics.
THE MANUFACTURE OF GEARS
Gears have always been a highly essential
element in machinery used aboard ships and at
naval shore facilities. In today's Navy, the
emphasis on speed, power, and compactness in
naval machinery has created special problems for
the machinist cutting a gear. Today's machinists
must be able to turn out a noiseless, practically
unbreakable gear capable of transmitting large
amounts of power in small spaces. Making gears
of this type requires skill and precision of a high
order.
In some Navy machine shops, gear hobbing
machines or gear shapers are used to cut gears.
However, most machine shops use the milling
machine because of the relatively small number
of gears that are manufactured.
Therefore, this chapter will cover only gear
cutting practices on a standard milling machine.
If you encounter a difficult problem in calculating
or cutting gears, consult a machinist's handbook
for more detailed information.
MATERIALS USED FOR GEARS
The choice of material for a particular gear
isusually based on the function of the gear. This
involves considering factors such as the speed of
operation, the type of stress to be encountered,
the importance of quiet operation, and the need
for resistance to corrosion. The easiest way to
determine what material to use for a replacement
gear is to find out what material was used for the
gear you must replace. In most cases, you will
have the original gear to go by. If you do not have
the original gear, you may have to find the
specifications or blueprints for the original gear.
In some cases you may even have to consult a
machinist's handbook, which prescribes various
materials, in order to make certain that the
material you are using will actually hold up under
the particular stresses the gear will encounter.
Gears are made from ferrous, nonferrous, and
nonmetallic materials. Steel, for example, is
used whenever great strength and toughness are
required. Nonferrous metals such as bronze and
brass are often used aboard naval ships for gears
that must be resistant to saltwater corrosion.
Monel and aluminum may be used for certain
types of gears, where corrosion resistance is of
primary importance. Nonmetallic gearing is
frequently used where quietness of operation is
important. Nonmetallic gears are most effective
when used for high-speed use; however, they do
not always hold up properly against the wide
fluctuations of load and the high shock loads that
may be encountered at low speeds. Although gears
made of nonmetallic materials have a lower
tensile strength than those constructed of metallic
materials, their greater resiliency gives them
approximately the same power-transmitting
capacity as cast iron.
HELICAL GEARS
A helix is a line that spirals around a
cylindrical object, like a stripe that spirals around
a barber pole.
 A helical gear is a gear whose teeth spiral
around the gear body. Helical gears are used to
transmit motion from one shaft to another. The
shafts can be either parallel or set at an angle to
each other, as long as their axes do not intersect
(fig. 2-1).
Helical gears operate more quietly and more
smoothly than spur gears because of the sliding
action of the spiral teeth as they mesh. Also, as
helical gears mesh, several teeth make contact at
the same time.
This multitooth contact makes a helical gear
stronger than a comparable spur gear. However,
the sliding action of one tooth on another creates
friction that could generate excessive heat and
wear. Thus, helical gears are usually run in an oil
bath.
A helical gear can be either right-handed
or left-handed. To determine the hand of
A. HELICAL GEAR ON PARALLEL SHAFT.
B. HELICAL GEAR ON SHAFT AT ANGLE FROM EACH
a helical gear, simply put the gear on a
table with its rotational axis perpendicular
to the table top. If the helix moves upward
toward the right, the gear is right-handed.
If the helix moves upward to the left, the gear is
left-handed.
Milling a helical gear requires the use of a
dividing head, a tailstock, and a lead driving
mechanism for the dividing head (fig. 2-2) to cause
the gear blank to rotate at a constant rate as the
cut advances. This equipment is an integral part
of a universal knee and column type of milling
machine.
When a helical gear is manufactured correctly,
it will mesh with a spur gear of the same diametral
pitch (DP), with one gear sitting at an angle to
the other. The dimensions of a helical gear would
be the same as those of a comparable spur gear
if the helical gear's teeth were not cut at an angle.
OTHER.
s a

O
JO

113
a
"
bl

Ml

s
e .~
A Qj

Cutting 20 one-quarter-inch wide slots
spaced one-quarter of an inch apart
parallel to the gear's axis of rotation
requires a 10-inch circular blank. But cut-
ting 20 one-quarter-inch wide slots one-
quarter of an inch apart at an angle of
1922' to the axis of rotation requires a
10.6-inch circular blank (fig. 2-3).
Helical gears are measured at a right angle to
the tooth face in the same manner as spur gears
The lead of a helical gear is the longitudir
distance a point on the gear travels during o:
complete revolution of the gear. During the ge
manufacturing process, lead relates to the tra\
of the table.
The helix angle is the angle between a pla:
parallel to the rotational axis of the workpiece ai
the helix line generated on the workpiece. Tf
angle is used in setting the milling machine tat
to cut the gear. The helix angle is also used
establish the relationships between the re

with the same diametral pitch. dimensions and the normal dimensions on
helical gear.

DIMENSIONS OF A HELICAL Determining the Dimensions

GEAR, REAL AND NORMAL of a Helical Gear

The easiest helical gear dimension to determi

Every helical gear contains a theoretical spur
gear. Any gear element formula used to calculate
is the RPD. Simply subtract twice the addendu
a spur gear dimension can also be used to from the ROD, or
determine an equivalent helical gear dimension. RPD = ROD - 2 ADD
However, the helical gear dimension is known as
a normal dimension. For example, the number of To determine the other major dimensions, y<
teeth (NT) on a helical gear is considered a must relate real and normal dimensio
normal dimension. Remember, though, all trigonometrically through the helix angle. Th
normal gear elements are calculated dimensions by knowing two of the three components of t
and therefore cannot be measured. trigonometric relationship, you can determine t
third component.
For example: Look at figure 2-4, view A, and recall that t
helix angle is the angle between the gear's axis
NT =
Normal pitch diameter (NPD) rotation and the helix. In this view, the RPD ai

Although most helical gear dimensions are

normal dimensions, a few dimensions are real
(measurable) dimensions. Examples of real
dimensions are the outside diameter (OD), called
the real outside diameter (ROD), and the pitch
diameter, called the real pitch diameter (RPD).
AXIS OF
ROTATION
- HYPOTENOUS
ADJACENT PITCH DIAMETERS (PD)
Sec I922' = VIEW A
.250

=
X
1.06
.250
X = 1.06 x .250

X = .265

265 x 40 = SIZE OF CIRCLE

106 = SIZE OFCIRCLE

CHORD AL THICKNESSES (CT)

VIEW B

Figure 2-3. Development of evenly spaced slots with

an included angle. Figure 2-4. Development of the helix angle.

2-4
the NPD are related through the secant and cosine that we could use to solve for the lead
functions. That is, (fig. 2-5, view A).

c
Secant* u
H = or ^
Cosine u
H = NPD Figure 2-5, view B, shows a triangle, one leg
NPD RPD being the real pitch circumference and the other
being the lead. Notice that the hypotenuse of the
In figure 2-4, view B, the triangle has been triangle is the tooth path and has no numerical
mathematically shifted so that we can compare value.
the real chordal thickness (CTR) and the normal
chordal thickness (CTN). The CTR is the To solve for the lead of a helical gear, when
thickness of the tooth measured parallel to the you know the RPD and the helix angle, simply
gear's face, while the CTN is measured at a right change RPD to RFC (real pitch circumference)
angle to the face of the tooth. The two by multiplying RPD by 3.1416 (rr) (fig. 2-5, view
dimensions are also related through the secant and C), then use the formula:
cosine functions. That is,

Lead = RPC x Cotangent /H.

Secant H = CTR or Cosine H = CTN
CTN CTR
If we could open the gear on the pitch Selecting a Helical Gear Cutter
diameter (PD), we would have a triangle
When you cut a spur gear, you base selection
of the cutter on the gear's DP and on
/
the NT to be cut. To cut a helical gear,
S you must base cutter selection on the helical
TOOTH PATH
gear's DP and on a hypothetical number
RPD AXIS
of teeth set at a right angle to the tooth
path. This hypothetical number of teeth takes
1 into account the helix angle and the lead
of the helix, and is known as the number
VIEW A
of teeth for cutter selection (NTCS). This
hypothetical development is based on the
RFC = REAL PITCH CIRCUMFERENCE
fact that the cutter follows an elliptical path
as it cuts the teeth (fig. 2-6).

The basic formula for determining the

NTCS involves multiplying the actual NT on the

SECTION Y-Y
VIEW B APPEARANCE OF
GROOVE CUT WITH
A KEYWAY CUTTER
WITH PARALLEL
SIDES

RFC
SAME GROOVE CUT WITH
AN END MILL HELD IN
EITHER A VERTICAL OR
HORISONTAL POSITION

LEAD

VIEW C

Figure 2-5. Formulation of a lead triangle and a helix angle. Figure 2-6. Helix cut with two different cutters.
 so a simplified method to cube the secant of the
helix angle was developed (see table 2-1). The
simplified method involves multiplying the by NT
a factor (K) you obtain from the table.

NTCS = NT x K (factor)

To determine the constant K, locate on table

2-1 the helix angle you plan to cut. If the angle is
other than a whole number, such as 15 6', select
the next highest whole number of degrees, in this
case 16. The factor for 156' is 1.127.
The following section will show you how to
use the numerical value of the NTCS to compute
corrected chordal addenda and chordal thick-
nesses.

Corrected Chorda! Addendum

Figure 2-7. Formation of helical gear cutter selection.
and Chordal Thickness
As in spur gearing, you must determine
helical gear by the cube of the secant of the helix corrected chordal addenda and chordal thick-
angle, or nesses since you will be measuring circular
distances with a gear tooth vernier caliper that was
NTCS = NT x sec
designed to measure only straight distances.
This formula is taken from the triangle in In helical gearing, the NTCS, rather than the
figure 2-7. actual NT, is used to select the constant for
Computing the NTCS with the above formula determining the chordal addendum (CA) and the
is somewhat complicated for some machinist's, chordal thickness (CT). Table 2-2 provides these

Table 2-1. "K" Factor Table

2-7
constants. Remember, the numbers listed in the Table 2-3. Maximum Backlash Allowance
Number of Teeth column are not actual numbers
of teeth, but are NTCS values. After you have DP Backlash
determined the chordal addendum and chordal
thickness constants, you can calculate the 4 .011
corrected chordal addendum by using the 5 .009
following formula: 6 .008
7 .007
Chordal addendum constant CA constant 8 .006
CADD = DP 9 .006
Diametral pitch
10 .005
and the corrected chordal thickness by using this 12 .005
formula: 14 .005

Chordal thickness constant CT constant A. Maximum Backlash Allowance for Spur

CCT and Helical Gear.
Diametral pitch DP

As an example, calculate the corrected DP Backlash

chordal addendum and the corrected chordal
DP of 10, a helix 4 .012
thickness for a helical gear with a
5 .012
angle of 15, and 20 teeth.
6 .008
7 .008
NTCS = NT x K
8 .007
= 20 x l 1 1 from table 2-1) 10 .007
.
(constant
12 .004
= 23 14 .004

NOTE: If the calculated NTCS is other than a

B. Maximum Backlash Allowance for Bevel
whole number, go to the next highest whole Gear.
number.

From table 2-2, an NTCS of 23 provides the To determine the proper amount of backlash,
following: multiply the maximum allowable amount of
backlash found in table 2-3A by 2 and add the
CA constant = result to the calculated whole depth. In this case
1.0268; CT constant = 1.56958
the maximum backlash allowance is a constant.

Therefore, CADD = 1<(

%68
10
= 0.102680 CENTER-TO-CENTER DISTANCE

and We stated earlier in this chapter that the main

CCT = = 0.156958
Backlash Allowance for Helical Gears
The backlash allowance for helical gears is the
same as that for spur gears. Backlash is obtained
by decreasing the thickness of the tooth at the
pitch line and should be indicated by a chordal
dimension. Table 2-3 gives maximum allowable
backlash in inches between the teeth of the mating
gears.
purpose of gearing is motion between
to transmit
two or more most cases these shafts are
shafts. In
in fixed positions with little or no adjustments
available. Therefore, it is important for you to
know the center-to-center (C-C) distance between
the gear and the pinion.
Knowing the tooth elements of a helical gear,
we cansay that when the real pitch radius of the
gear (RPR^) is added to the real pitch radius of
the pinion (RPRp ), we can determine the C-C
distance of the two gears (gear and pinion).
The ratio of the NT on the gear and the
pinion is equal to the ratio of the PD of the gear
and the pinion. This will enable us to solve for
the necessary elements of both gear and the helix. A right handed helix is set by removing gea
pinion, knowing only the C-C distance and the Y and reversing gear X.
ratio of the gear and the pinion.
Before you can determine which gear
GEAR TRAIN RATIO are required obtain a given lead, yoi
to
must know or determine the lead of the millhi;
When a helix is milled on a workpiece, the machine. The lead of the machine is the distanc
workpiece must be made to rotate at the same time the milling machine table must move ii
it is fed into the revolving cutter. This is done by order to rotate the spindle of the dividin;
gearing the dividing head to the milling machine head one revolution. Most milling machine
table screw. To achieve a given lead, you must have a table screw of 4 threads per ind
select gears having a ratio that will cause the work with a lead of 0.250 inch (1/4 inch) am
to rotate at a given speed while it advances a given a dividing head (index head) with a 40:
distance toward the cutter. This distance will be worm-to-spindle ratio. When the index heai
the lead of the helical gear. The lead of the helix is connected to the table through a 1:
is determined by the size and the placement of the ratio, it will cut a lead of 10 inches. Thus
change gears, labeled A, B, C, and D in figure 40 turns of the lead screw are requirei
2-8. Gears Xand Y are set up to mill a left-handed to make the spindle revolve one complet

B
(LOCATED
BEHIND
GEAR C)

LEAD SCREW

126.1123
and showing location o
Figure 2-8. Standard universal dividing head driving mechanism connected to the dividing head,
change gear's A, B, C, and D.
revolution (40x0.250 inch =10 inches). Thus, gears with 40 and 24 teeth become the
Therefore, 10 will be the constant in our gear train driving gears, and gears with 40 and 36 teeth
ratio formula, become the driven gears.
These gears would be arranged in the gear
Lead
GTR = 10
train as follows:

Gear A (on the dividing-head worm shaft)

All ratios other than 1 : 1 require modification of 40 teeth (driven)
the gear train. Gear B (first gear on the idler stud)
From this formula, we can also say that the 24 teeth (driving)
Gear C (second gear on the idler stud)
Lead of Product of the driving 36 teeth (driven)
the machine gears tooth numbers Gear D (gear on the table screw)
Lead of the Product of the driven 40 teeth (driving)
helix to be cut gears tooth numbers
The positions of the driving gears may be
Example: interchanged without changing their products;
likewise, the driven gears. Thus, several different
Determine the change gears required for a lead combinations of driving and driven gears will
of 15 inches. Assume the milling machine has a
produce a helix with the same lead.
lead of 10 inches. Before starting the entire process of figuring
your change gear, check your office library for
Lead of Driving gears a ready-made table for the selection of gears
machine _ 10 _
~ tooth numbers product
~~ devised by the Cincinnati Milling Machine
Lead of 15 Driven gears
Company. These gears have been determined
helix desired tooth numbers product
using the formula, If you have already
If a simple gear train could be used (one
calculated your lead, match it with the lead in the
driving and one driven gear), a 10-tooth gear on
table and select the gears for that lead.
the table screw meshed with a 15-tooth gear on
the dividing-head worm shaft would produce the
15-inch lead required. However, gears of 10 and
MANUFACTURING A HELICAL GEAR
15 teeth are not available, and the drive system
At this point of the chapter, you are ready to
is designed for a compound gear train of four
manufacture a helical gear. In a case where you
gears. Therefore, the fraction 10/15 must be split
into two fractions whose product equals 10/15.
must manufacture a helical gear from a sample,
This is done by factoring as follows: you should do the following:
1. Find the DP.
K) _ 5x2 ~
_ Driving gears tooth product 2. Measure the outside diameter. This is also
15 5 x 3 Driven gears tooth product the ROD.
3. Find the ADD.
If gears with 5 and 2 teeth were possible, they
4. Find the RPD.
would be the driving gears, and gears with 5 and
5. Find the NT.
3 teeth would be the driven gears. But since this
6. Find the NPD.
is not possible, each of the fractions must be ex-
7. Find the /YL.
panded by multiplying both the numerator and
8. Find the RPC.
the denominator by a number that will result in
a product that corresponds to the number of teeth 9. Find the lead.

on available gears: 10. Find the change gear.

11. Find the NTCS.
5
x
X
8 _ 40 2 12 _ 24 12. Make sure cutter has the correct DP and
X
5 8-40 and 3 T2~36 cutter number.
13. Find your corrected chordal addendum and
or chordal thickness.
14. Find your corrected whole depth (WD).
5x2 _ 40x24 Driving gears tooth product 15. Determine what kind of material the
5x3 40 x 36 Driven gears tooth product sample gear is to be made of.
 Now you are ready to machine your gear. Before cutting the teeth to the proper
Use the following hints in manufacturing a depth, double check the set-up, the alignment, and
helical gear: all calculations.

Make all necessary calculations that are Now you are ready to cut your gear.
needed to compute the dimensions of the gear.
Remove and deburr the gear.
Set up the milling machine attachments for
machining.

Select and mount a gear cutter. Use the BEVEL GEARS

formula
Bevel gears have a conical shape (fig. 2-9) and
NTCS (X) are used to connect intersecting shafts. Bevel gears
NT with shafts set at less than 90 are shown in
figure 2-10, view A. Gears with shafts set at more
@ Swivel the milling machine table to the
than 90 are shown in figure 2-10, view B. There
helix angle for a right-hand helix; face the machine
are several kinds of bevel gear designs. The one
and push the milling machine table with your right
we will be discussing is the straight-tooth bevel
hand. For a left-hand helix, push the table with
gear, which is used most commonly in the Navy.
your left hand.
The teeth are straight but the sides are tapered.
The centerline of the teeth will intersect at a given
Set the milling machine for the proper
point.
feeds and speeds.
Bevel gears are usually manufactured on
Mount the change gears. Use the gear train gear-cutting machines. However, a Machinery
ratio formula to determine your change gears. Repairman occasionally has to make a bevel gear
on a universal milling machine.
Mount the gear blank for machining. This section of the chapter deals with the angle
nomenclature of a bevel gear as well as the
Set up the indexing head for the correct development of the triangles needed to manu-
number of divisions. facture a bevel gear.

B
A. With shafts less than 90 apart
B. With shafts more than 90 apart
126.113X
Figure 2-9. Bevel gear and pinion. Figure 2-10. Other forms of bevel gears.
 When two bevel gears whose shaft angles all in ratio. Therefore, we can use any of these

equal 90 are in mesh (fig. 2-11, view A) three sets to find the pitch cone angle (PCA).
a triangleis formed. This triangle is called the Example: A
10 diametral pitch (DP) gear with
mating gear triangle. The cones (fig. 2-11, view B) 60 teeth has a pitch diameter (PD) of 6.000 and
which form the basis of the bevel gears are a 10 DP pinion having 40 teeth has a PD of 4.000.
called the pitch cones. These cones are not Therefore, the ratio of the gear and the pinion
visibleat all on the finished gear, but are is 3:2.

very important elements in bevel gear design. We can determine the PCA by simply
substituting the known values into the formula:
The angle that is formed at the lower left-hand
corner of the triangle (fig. 2-1 1 ,
view C) is called
the pitch cone angle of the pinion. The altitude Tan
of the triangle is called the pitch diameter of the
pinion, and the base of the triangle is called the or
pitch diameter of the gear.

The hypotenuse of the triangle is twice the PEL _ (6) _

= -3 ratio
pitch cone radius. PD, (4)

The pitch diameter (gear and pinion), the NOTE: The pitch cone angle of the pinion
number of teeth (gear and pinion), and the (PCAp) is the compliment of the pitch cone angle
actual ratio between the gear and the pinion are of the gear (PCAg).

AXIS

ADD

FA - FACE ANGLE -
OD OUTSIDE DIAMETER
PCA - PITCH CONE ANGLE -
ANG ADD ANGULOR ADDENDUM
CA - CUTTING ANGLE -
FW FACE WIDTH
/ADD - ADDENDUM ANGLE -
PCR PITCH CONE RADIUS
/PEP -
DEDENDUM ANGLE PR - PITCH RADIUS
BCA - BACK CONE ANGLE -
ADD ADDENDUM
PD - PITCH DIAMETER -
DED DEDENDUM

Figure 2-11. Development of the mating gear triangle.

BEVEL GEAR NOMENCLATURE b. The gear blank is machined to this

angle.
The dimension nomenclature of the bevel gear c. The face angle is obtained by adding one
is the same as that of a spur gear, with the
addendum angle (/ADD) to the pitch cone
exception of the angular addendum. Refer to
figure 2-12.
angle (/PC).
2. Pitch cone angle (PC A
or ^,/TC)
/
1 . Face angle (FA) a. This angle is formed by a line down

a. This angle is formed by the top edge of one addendum on the tooth and the axis of the
the teeth and the axis of the gear. gear.

VIEW A

VIEW B
 b. This angle cannot be measured, but it 5. Dedendum angle (/PEP) (fig. 2-12)
isvery important in calculations. a This angle is formed by a line one
. ADD
3. Cutting angle (/ or CA) down on the tooth and a line drawn through the
a. This angle is formed by the bottom of bottom tooth.
the tooth and the axis of the gear. b This angle cannot be measured, but it
.

b. The index head is set at this angle when is used in calculations.

the gear is cut. c In the triangle shown in figure 2-13,

.

c . This angle obtained by subtracting the

is view B, the side opposite the dedendum angle is
dedendum angle (/PEP) from the pitch cone the dedendum and the side adjacent is the pitch
angle (/PC). / / PCR
4. Addendum angle (/ADD)
cone radius. Therefore, Cot z/BED = DED .

a. This angle is formed by the top of the

6. Back cone angle (BCA or /BC) (fig.
tooth and a line one ADD
down on the tooth.
2-12) This angle is formed by the large
b. This angle cannot be measured, but it
end of the tooth and the pitch diameter of
is used in making calculations for the gear.
the gear. It is equal in value to the pitch
c. In the triangle shown in figure 2-13,
cone angle (PC A).
view A, the side adjacent to the addendum angle is
the pitch cone radius and the side opposite is the 7. Pitch diameter (PD) This is the diameter

addendum. Therefore, Cot

/ PCR of the gear blank oneADD down at the large end
of the gear.

VIEW A
VIEW D

VIEW B

VIEW C VIEW E
 8. Outside diameter (OD) the pitch cone radius and the face width.
PCR5 = PCR - FW.
a . This is the maximum diameter of the
gear. 14. Face width ratio (FWR)
b. The gear blank is machined to this
OD. a. This is the ratio of the pitch cone
c . The outside diameter
obtained by is
and the FWR = PCR
adding the pitch diameter and twice the angular
radius face width.
FW
addendum. b. The small tooth dimensions are
calculated from this ratio.
9. Angular addendum (ANG ADD)
15. Proportional tooth factor (PTF) The
This is one half the difference between
a .
proportional tooth factor is the ratio between the
the pitch diameter and the outside diameter. pitch cone radius small and the pitch cone radius.
b. In the triangle shown in figure 2-13,
PTF = PCR.
view C, the hypotenuse is the addendum and the PCR-
side adjacent the angle (BCA) is known as the
angular addendum. 16. Small tooth dimensions By multiply-
c. To obtain the angular addendum ing any large tooth dimension by the pro-
(ANG ADD), simply multiply the addendum of portional tooth faction, you can obtain the
the gear by the cosine of angle BCA. dimension of the small tooth of the gear
or pinion.
ANG ADD = ADD x COS
17. Number of teeth for cutter selection
10. Tooth dimensions (TD) (NTCS)

All tooth dimensions at the large end

a . In the triangle shown in figure 2-13,
a.
are the as a spur gear of the same DP.
same view E, the NTCS is the hypotenuse and the side
b All tooth dimensions at the small end
.
adjacent is the number of teeth of the gear.
are a percentage of the large end, depending on b. The known angle in this case is the
the face width ratio. pitch cone angle, or the back cone angle.
c. To obtain the NTCS, simply multiply
11. Face width (FW) (fig. 2-12) the secant of /PCby the NT. NTCS = NT
x Sec /PC.
a. This is the length of the tooth. d. The NTCS is taken from the number
b. The gear blank is machined to this of teeth on an imaginary spur gear that has a dif-
dimension. ferent pitch diameter (PD) than the pitch diameter
(PD) of a bevel gear.
12. Pitch cone radius (PCR) e. When your computation for the
NTCS contains a decimal number, round the
a . This is the length of the side of a cone computation to the next higher whole number.
formed by the bevel gear.
b. This radius is used extensively in
calculations. Chordal Addendum
cIn the triangle shown in figure 2-13,
. and Chordal Thickness
view D, the hypotenuse is the pitch cone radius
and the side opposite the pitch cone angle ( /PC) In order for you to measure a manufactured
is equal to one-half the pitch diameter (0.5 PD). gear tooth accurately, you must first know the
d. By using our knowledge of trigo- chordal addendum and the chordal thickness.
nometry, we can obtain the PCR by using These dimensions are used to measure the size of
the cosec of /PC and one-half the pitch the gear tooth.
diameter. PCR = cosec /PC x 0.5 PD.
Chordal addendum (corrected addendum)
13. Pitch cone radius small (PCR5 ) Pitch a c the distance from the top of a gear tooth to
cone radius small is the difference between the chord across the gear tooth at the pitch circle
 The procedure for solving the chordal
thickness of the large tooth of a bevel gear is the
same as that for a spur gear.

Chordal thickness (t c ) (large tooth) = Constant

DP
You can determine the chordal addendum
(corrected addendum) a c small and the chordal
thickness of the small tooth by simply multiply-
ing the value of the large tooth by the proportional
tooth factor (PTF).
VIEW A
Backlash Allowance of a Bevel Gear

As you have learned for spur gearing, backlash

isthe amount (measured by a device) by which
the width of a gear tooth space, when two gears
CH. TH. = 2W are meshed together, exceeds the thickness of the
W = SIN X (RADIUS
engaging tooth on the pitch circles.
OF PITCH
CIRCLE) Theoretically, gear teeth when meshed should
run without appreciable backlash. However, this
is impossible because of manufacturing tolerances

of the gears. Space must be provided between the

gear teeth for lubrication and for expansion due
to temperature changes at high speeds.
C.ADD = ADD + Y Just as with helical gearing, a certain amount
Y = RADIUS P.C. Z
Z = COSINE X (RADIUS OF
of freedom between the gear teeth is required so
PITCH CIRCLE) they will not bind when the gears turn. Table 2-3B
VIEW B shows the recommended backlash allowance
corresponding the gear's diametral pitch (DP).
Figure 2-14. Formulas for calculating chordal thickness. To determine the chordal thickness with
backlash at the large end of the tooth, use the
following formula:
(fig. 2-14, view A). This is the point at which the
chordal thickness is measured. Constant 1 , , , ,
Chordal thickness backlash allowance
jgp 2
Chordal thickness of a gear tooth (t c ) the
distance in a straight line (chord) from one side
of the tooth to the other side at the points where NOTE: Obtain the constant from table 2-3B.
the pitch circle passes through the gear tooth (fig.
2-14, view A).
To determine the corrected working depth
(WD) with backlash at the large end of the tooth,
The methods for calculating the chordal use the following formula:
addendum and the chordal thickness are as
follows:
2.157
DP + (2 x backlash allowance)
You can calculate thedimensions by using the
formulas shown in figure 2-14, view B. However,
you can also secure tables (table 2-3B) to make SELECTING A BEVEL GEAR CUTTER
bevel gear calculations. Simply substitute the
constant into the following formula: To cut bevel gears on the milling machine, you
must use special form relieved cutters. These
Chordal addendum Constant x cos
__ /PC + I cutters are similar in appearance and size to those
(a c ) (large tooth) used to cut spur gears, but are made with thinner
teeth. Bevel gear cutters are made to cut gears
NOTE: Obtain the constant from table 2-3B. having a face width not greater than one-third nor
lessthan one-eighth of the distance from the back
of the gear to the apex of the cone.
The contour of the cutter teeth is made for CUTTER
the large end of the gear. The tooth shape at any
other section, then, is only an approximation of
the current form for that section. However, it is
possible to approximate the dimensions and form
of the teeth with sufficient accuracy to meet the
repair needs aboard ship.
To obtain the best results in milling bevel gear
teeth, you should select a cutter not for the
actual number of teeth in the bevel gear, but for
the number of teeth in an imaginary spur gear.
This imaginary spur gear has an entirely different
diameter than the actual bevel gear.
To determine the number of teeth in the GEAR
imaginary spur gear, multiply the number of teeth BLANK
in the actual gear by the secant of the pitch cone
angle. That is:
DIVIDING
HEAD
NTCS = NT x

Where:

NTCS = number of teeth of the imaginary spur

gear 126.21X
NT = number of teeth in the actual bevel gear
Bevel gear set to the cutting angle by
Figure 2-15.
XPC = pitch cone angle swiveling the dividing head in the vertical plane.

Suppose you plan to cut a bevel gear having

30 teeth and a 45 pitch cone angle. Using the
NTCS formula, you will find the imaginary spur
gear to have 43 teeth.
NTCS = NT x Sec
= 30 x Sec
= 30 x 1.4142
= 42.4260 or
= 43
Therefore, by using a standard chart, you can
determine the proper cutter for this gear to be a
number 3 cutter having a 6 diametral pitch.
MILLING THE BEVEL GEAR TEETH
Mount the gear blank in the dividing head with
the larger end of the blank toward the dividing
Milling the bevel gear teeth involves three
distinct operations. The teeth are first gashed
into the gear blank, and then each side of the teeth
is milled to obtain the correct tooth thickness.
In the first operation, center the blank on the
selected cutter, which you have mounted on the
machine arbor. Then bring the milling
milling
machine table up to cut the whole depth you
determined for the large end of the gear. After
you cut the first tooth, index the gear blank in
the same manner as you would to cut a spur gear,
and gash the remaining teeth.
In the second and third operations, mill the
sides of the teeth that were formed in the gashing
operation.
When you prepare to cut a bevel gear,
remember that the only machine available to you
is the milling machine. Therefore, you must take

head. Set the gear blank to the cutting angle by
swiveling the dividing head in the vertical plane
(fig. 2-15). To determine the cutting angle,
subtract the dedendum angle from the pitch cone
angle. The cutting angle is not the same angle as
the one to which the gear blank was machined in
the lathe.
steps likeoffsetting the cutter (moving the
milling machine table a calculated amount) and
rolling the gear blank to cut the correct profile
on the gear tooth. This section of the chapter will
provide you information necessary to calculate the
amount of offset in inches and the roll of the gear
blank in degrees.
 AXIS OF 57.3 = constant (degrees per radian)
THE CUTTER CTLC = tooth thickness (cutter), large end
CTSC = tooth thickness (cutter) small end
CP = circular pitch
PD = pitch diameter
PCR = pitch cord radius
FW = width
MOVE GEAR
IN THIS and the roll is expressed in degrees.
DIRECTION

To accomplish the roll, you must know the

amount of index crank movement. The follow-
ing formula was developed to aid you in
AXIS OF THE
BEVEL GEAR determining the amount of index crank
movement.
VIEW A

NHR = CR x NHC
MOVE TABLE IN THIS DIRECTION

VIEW B
Where:

Figure 2-16. Rolling and offsetting a bevel gear. NHR = number of holes to roll
CR = calculated roll in degrees
NHC = number of holes circle to index properly
OFFSETTING THE CUTTER 9 (express in degrees one turn of the
index crank)
One way to produce the correct tooth profile
isby offsetting the cutter. Offset the cutter by Use the largest hole circle available when
moving it from the axis of the gear blank a selecting your number of hole circles because the
calculated distance, as shown in figure 2-16, view largest hole circle has less arc between holes.
A. Determine the distance to move the cutter by After you have milled the bevel gear teeth
using the following formula: completely, measure the tooth thickness of the
pitch line of both the large and the small ends of
Offs e, = CTLC - CTSC the gear. These measurements should be equal to
xFWR the dimensions you previously determined in
your basic calculation. If they are not, check the
Where:
setup and your calculations to identify your
errors.
CTLC = Tooth thickness, large end Remember, you cannot machine a perfect
CTSC = Tooth thickness, small end As you learned
bevel gear in a milling machine.
FWR = Face width ratio

INVOLUTE TOOTH
FORM MADE WITH CUTTER
ROLLING THE GEAR BLANK
After you have offset the gear blank, roll it
back to the waterline of the small end of the tooth INVOLUTE TOOTH FORM
by turning the index crank (fig. 2-16, view B). The MADE BY PROFILING
roll is always in the opposite direction of the
offset. Determine the amount of roll by using the
following formula:

Ron = 5L3 TCP _

PD I 2 FW Figure 2-17. Profiling a bevel gear.

2-18
 mis type " ,
.

"endless screw," with the worm being

the driver
2-19
and the worm gear being driven. Figure
identifies the parts of a worm
and a worm wheel.

WORM AND WORM WHEEL

NOMENCLATURE AND FORMULA
DEVELOPMENT
will
The following are terms and formulas you
a
need to use when you plan and manufacture
worm and a worm wheel.
1. Linear pitch (LP)

a. The distance from a point

on one thread
next thread.
to a corresponding point on the

126.114X

Figure 2-18. Worm and worm gear.

cutter's contour
earlier, you only use part of the
when you machine the small end of the tooth. So,
to finish the bevel
gear teeth properly you must
2-17. This
file the contour as illustrated in figure
is known to a Machinery Repairman as profiling
the gear.
To file a tooth, start at the top of the large
end of the tooth and gradually work
to the pitch

line at the small end of the tooth.

the gear is
After you have determined that
touch by
properly formed, give the gear a final
deburring it.

WORMS AND WORM GEARS

A worm gear, sometimes called a wormthe
wheel,
axis
isa gear having teeth cut at an angle to
The teeth
of rotation and radially in the gear face.
on the worm gear are helical and
conform to the
helix angle of the teeth on the
worm. WOD - WORM OUTSIDE DIAMETER
WORM PITCH DIAMETER
for heavy-duty work WPO -

Wormgears are used DEDn - DEDENDUM

where a large reduction of speed is required. They ADOn - ADDENDUM
THROAT RADIUS
are used extensively in speed reducers.
TR -

A worm, sometimes called a worm thread, WORM PITCH RADIUS

WPR -

CC - CENTER TO CENTER DISTANCE

resembles an Acme thread. Worms
can be either
ROD - RIM OUTSIDE DIAMETER
a shaft. Both
solid or cylinder-type mounted on WOD WORM WHEEL OUTSIDE DIAMETER
-

are installed perpendicularly to the

worm
gear WWPR - WORM WHEEU PITCH RADIUS
BW - BLANK WIDTH
(fig. 2-18).
Worms may have single, double, or
triple threads. One
revolution of a worm having
a single thread turns the circumference of the worm and worm gear.
Figure 2-19. Parts of a
worm gear an amount equal to the distance

2-19
 a. The distance traveled by a thread

during one complete revolution of the worm c. The number of starts multiplied by the
around its axis. linear pitch equals the lead.
b. The lead and the linear pitch are
the same on a single-start worm. On a double-start No. of S x LP = Lead

VIEW A

VIEW B

Figure 2-20. Development of lead angle and linear pitch (normal).

2-20
 d. The lead is needed to determine the b. By using this theory, we can derive the
proper gear train ratio for setting the table travel following formulas:
on the milling machine and to perform work on
the lathe machine.
(1) WWPC D (real)

3. Lead angle (/L)

NT x CP or (LP)
71
a. The angle formed by the thread
= LPx 0.3183 x NT
and a line drawn at a right angle to the axis of
the worm.
(2) ADD (real)
= LP x 0.3183

b. Can be obtained by dividing the 7.Throat diameter

lead into the worm's pitch circle. The result a. Obtained by adding the worm wheel
is the cotangent of the lead angle (fig. 2-20, pitch diameter and twice the addendum normal.
view A).
WWPD + 2 ADD rt
= Throat diameter

Therefore: COT /i = WPC

Lead b. Measured at the base of the throat
radius.

4. Tooth dimensions 8. Rim diameter

a. Linear pitch normal (LPN)
a. single- and double-start worms,
For
the rim diameter can be obtained by multiplying
(1) Measurement of the thread (tooth)
a right angle to its face. the linear pitch by the constant 0.4775 and
at
(2) Can be obtained by multiplying the
adding the result of the throat diameter.
linear pitch by the cosine of the lead angle = (LP x 0.4775)
Rim diameter
(fig. 2-20, view B).
+ Throat diameter
LPN = LP x COS b. For 3 or more starts, the rim diameter
can be obtained by multiplying the linear pitch
(3) The tooth parts in worm gearing are by the constant 0.3183 and adding the result to
the same as in spur gearing. the throat diameter.
b. The following formulas are used to
solve for all normal tooth dimensions. Rim diameter = (LP x 0.3183)
+ Throat diameter
Addendum normal LPN x 0.3183
Clearance normal LPNx 0.0637 or 9.Throat radius
ADD n x 0.2 a. Obtained by subtracting one adden-
Dedendum normal LPN x 0.382 dum (normal) from the pitch radius of the worm.
Whole depth normal LPN x 0.7
Circular thickness normal LPN x 0.5 Throat radius = pitch diameter (worm)
- 1 ADD M
NOTE: All worm tooth constants are derived
b. This dimension is taken from the
from a worm having a 1-inch linear pitch.
worm but is machined on the worm wheel blank.
10. Blank width
5. Length of the worm (LOW)
a. For single- and double-start worms,
a. Obtained by using the following
the blank width can be obtained by multiplying
formula:
the linear pitch by the constant 2.38 and adding
the result to the constant 0.250.
LOW = [(NT x 0.02) + 4.5] x LP
Blank width = (LP x 2.38) + 0.250
b. The worm is longer than is required to
obtain complete meshing between the worm and b. For 3 and more starts, the blank width
the worm wheel. can be obtained by multiplying the linear pitch
6. Worm wheel pitch diameter (WWPD)
by the constant 2.15 and adding the result to the
a. You learned in spur gearing that for constant 0.20.
every tooth in the gear there is a circular pitch on
the pitch circle, and for every tooth on the gear Blank width (for 3 or more starts)
= T P* 7 i * 4. n 9n
worm. 1 ne linear piicn ana tne circular pitcn are

of equal value. As you swivel the cutter to a predeterrr

angle to cut the calculated throat ra
12. Number of teeth (NT) The number of you will form a right triangle (fig. 2
worm gearing is obtained by multiplying
teeth in By using this triangle, you can obtain the de
the number of starts by the ratio of the worm to radius.
the worm wheel.
Desired radius = Cutter radius x cosec
Number of teeth (NT) = No. of starts
x ratio of the worm to the worm wheel. Where:

= Angle at which the throat radi

cut.

To determine the depth of cut, subtract the tl

When you machine the throat radius of a diameter from the rim diameter and divide by
worm wheel, select a two or four lip end mill with
a radius smaller than the calculated throat radius, Depth of cut = Rim diameter - Throat diai
because as the cutter is swiveled from its vertical

VERTICLE

HORIZONTAL

DESIRED RADIUS IS YOUR THROAT RADIUS

ANGLE V IS WHERE YOUR CUTTER IS SET

Figure 2-21. Formulation of desired radius.

2-22
CENTER-TO-CENTER DISTANCE hob and to the number of teeth in the worm
in the
(WORM AND WORM WHEEL) Try to avoid a common factor between the
gear.
number of threads and the number of gashes. For
As with other systems of gearing that you have example, if the worm is a double-thread worm,
previously studied, worm gearing is designed to the number of gashes should be 7 or 9 rather than
transfer motion between two planes at a fix ratio. 8. If the worm is a triple-thread worm, select 7
The majority of spur and have
helical gears or 11 gashes rather than 6 or 9, as both 6 and 9
adjustments for the center-to-center distance and have a factor in common with 3.
for backlash. In worm gearing, the center-to- It is also best to avoid having a common

center distance between the worm (driven) is of factor between the number of threads in the hob
prime importance since worm gearing systems are and the number of teeth in the worm gear. For
designed to transfer as much power as possible example, if the number of teeth is 28, a triple
in the smallest practical space. thread would be satisfactory since 3 is not a
This section of the chapter will provide you factor of 28.
with information necessary to manufacture a The cutter you select for gashing the hob
worm and a worm wheel using the center-to-center should be 1/8 to 1/4 inch thick at the periphery,
distance and the ratio between the worm (driver) depending on the pitch of the hob thread. The
and the worm wheel (driven). width of the gash at the periphery of the hob
To obtain the center-to-center distance of a should be about 0.4 times the pitch of the flutes.
worm and worm wheel, add the worm
a pitch The depth of the gash should be about 3/16 to
radius and the worm wheel pitch radius. 1/4 inch below the root of the thread.

C-C = WPR + WWPR, or

C-C = WPD + WWPD Types of Hobs

The three types of hobs are as follows:

WORM WHEEL HOBS

1 . Shell has a straight bore with a keyway
A hob isa cylindrical worm converted into a to hold the arbor that drives the hob.
2. Straight shank is the integral part of the
cutting tool. Hobs resemble worms in appearance
and are ideal for cutting a worm wheel. The hob's shaft. It is used between centers.
teeth are cut on the outside of a cylinder Tapered shankhas a milling machine
3.

following a helical path corresponding to the
thread line of a worm. The cutting edges of the
hob are formed when flutes are cut into the worm.
For small lead angles, flutes are cut parallel to
the axis; while for large lead angles (6 and
above), flutes are cut helically at a right angle to
the thread line of the worm.
As a general
rule, there should not be a
common factor between the number of starts and
the number of flutes. Even numbers of starts (6,
8, or 10) should have odd number of flutes (7 or
taper (Brown and Sharpe). The outside end is
supported by either a line or a dead center.
Hob Nomenclature
Since the hob is a cutting tool, the top of
the tooth on the hob is a dedendum. The bottom
of the hob tooth forms the top of the worm wheel
tooth and must be provided with a clearance.
Therefore, it also equals a dedendum of the gear

11).
you are cutting. The working depth of the hob
You can usually find the approximate number (cutting portion) is the addendum plus the
of gashes (flutes) by multiplying the diameter of dedendum of the gear you are cutting.
the hob by 3 and dividing this product
The following nomenclature of the hob is the
by twice
the linear pitch. same as that of the worm:
Chorda! thickness (normal), linear pitch, lead,
3 x hob's OP pressure angle, and the pitch diameter. The
Number of flutes = outside diameter of the hob has two clearances,
2xLP
and both are larger than the worm's outside
There are, however, certain modifications that diameter:
you may have to make. The number of gashes
 Hobs can be ordered through the supply
system or bought commercially, as well as made
by a machinist. If you order a hob, furnish
drawings or blueprints of both the worm and the
worm wheel and any information such as bore size
for the shell type hob in order to get the right hob.
CUTTING WORM WHEEL TEETH
ON A MILLING MACHINE
The teeth of a worm gear may
milling machine. Usually, two operations are
necessary. The first is called gashing the teeth
(fig. an involute spur-gear
2-22, view A). Seat
and number according
cutter of the correct pitch
to the number of teeth and pitch of the worm
gear. The gashing operation requires that the
milling machine table be set at an angle equal to
the lead or helix angle of the worm thread. Be sure
to center the gear blank under the cutter. Perform
the gashing operation by raising the table a
distance equal to the whole depth of the tooth.
You can obtain uniformity of depth for each tooth
by using the graduated vertical feed dial. Index
each tooth, using the dividing head with a dog
clamped to the mandrel to drive the gear blank.
The second operation for finishing the gear
teeth is called hobbing (fig.2-22, view B). First,
the gashed slots. When you start the machine,
the rotating hob will rotate the gear blank.
As the hob and gear blank rotate, raise the
table gradually until the teeth are cut to the
correct depth. Use the worm to be used with
the worm gear to obtain the correct center-
to-center distance beforeyou remove the worm
gear from the milling machine.
be cut on a STUB TOOTH GEARS
Stub tooth gears are widely used throughout
the automotive industry in transmissions because
their great strength enables them to transmit
maximum power. Cranes and rock crushers are
examples of high-torque equipment that use stub
tooth gears. This type of gear has a 20-degree
pressure angle and is short and thick. A
stub tooth
gear compared to other gears has a shorter
addendum (ADD). This results in a stronger
tooth, but causes the gears to operate with more
noise.
Stub tooth gears come in two forms. One form
has straight teeth, like spur gears. The other form
has teeth similar to those on helical gears. Gears
with helically shaped teeth are used when smooth
operation is required.

mount the hob on a cutter arbor. Then The basic rule you should learn for spur,
set the table back to zero, or at a right helical, and bevel gears is that the statement "for
angle to the machine spindle. Remove the every tooth on the gear, there is a circular pitch
dog so the gear blank can rotate freely. Line (CP) on the pitch circle" also applies to stub tooth
up the gear blank so the hob meshes with gearing systems.

126.22X
TTiftliro *>_'>'> Vlilli
 We will discuss three stub tooth gearing 8. To get the circular thickness, divide 1.5708

systems: The American Standard System, the by the diametral pitch (DP).
Fellows Stub Tooth Gears System, and the
Nuttals Stub Tooth System. 1.5708
CT = DP
AMERICAN STANDARD SYSTEM
This system bases tooth dimensions on specific FELLOWS STUB TOOTH GEARS
formulas:
This system was introduced by the Fellows
1. The tooth depth or whole depth (WD) Stub Tooth Gear Company. The system uses a
equals 1.8 divided by the diametral pitch (DP). 20-degree pressure angle and is based on the use
of two diametral pitches (DP). In the formulas
1.8 we will use, the numerator (DPL) the circular
WD =
DP
is

measurement, which consists of the pitch diameter

(PD) and the number of teeth (NT). The
2. To find the outside diameter (OD), add 1.6 denominator (DPS) is the radial measurement.
to the number of teeth and then divide by the
diametral pitch (DP). There are eight standard pitches in this system.

They are 4/5, 5/7, 6/8, 7/9, 8/10, 9/11, 10/12,

OD NT + 1.6 and 12/14.

DP
The formulas for the basic dimensions are as
3. To find the addendum, divide 0.8 by the follows:
diametral pitch.

1. Addendum (ADD) =
ADD = 08
DP
2. Outside diameter (OD) = NT +
rT 2
4. To find the clearance, divide 0.2 by the
diameter pitch.

3. Whole depth (WD) =

0.2
CL = DP
4. Clearance (CL) = WD - 2 ADD
5. When the addendum (ADD) is added to the
clearance (CL) the result is the dedendum (DED). 5. Dedendum (DED) = ADD + CL

DED = ADD + CL 6. Circular pitch (CP) =

6. All circular measurements a stub of
tooth gear, including the number of teeth 1.5708
7. Circular thickness =
and the pitch diameter, are the same as those of DPL
a spur gear. To obtain the pitch diameter,
simply divide the number of teeth (NT) by the 8. Number of teeth (NT) = DPL x PD
diametral pitch (DP).
9. Diametral pitch

PD = NT
DP NT
9. a. TPL =
00 -
7. To get the circular pitch (CP), divide n
(3.1416) by the diametral pitch (DP).
b. DPS =
NT
3.1416
OD - NT
CP = DP
 Remember, all radial teeth dimensions are
based on circular pitch (CP) times a constant.
Side X = Root radius x Cos /UP
1. ADD =
0.250 xCP
2. DED =
0.300 x CP To determine the depth increase, subtract
3. CL = 0.050 x CP side x from the root radius: Depth increase
4. WD
= 0.550 x CP = Root radius - Side X. The cutting procedure
is as follows:
On the other hand, circular measurements are
derived using standard spur or helical gear 1. Center the cutter on the gear blank.
formulas, i.e., PD, NT, CP, and CT. 2. Offset the calculated setover away from the
column. The direction of the offset is optional.

5. Outside diameter (OD) = PD + 2 ADD 3. Move the cutter down to the whole depth

= of the tooth, plus the calculated amount of depth

6. Diameter pitch (DP)
increase in increments to suit the machine and the
setup. Cut the teeth all the way around the blank
until one side of the tooth is complete.
METHOD OF MANUFACTURE 4. Move the cutter back to the center line and
offset toward the column face the calculated
The procedure for manufacturing a straight amount of setover. Cut to the full depth of the
or helical stub tooth gear is the same as that for tooth plus the amount of depth increase. At this
spur and helical gearing when you use a stub tooth time, your stub tooth gear is ready to be
gear cutter that is bought commercially. Fly deburred.
cutting is one method for cutting the gear. When
you use this method, grind a single-point tool bit
to the desired shape by using the old gear as a
pattern. SPLINES

A properly fitted gear must have a setover and A splined

a depth increase, which you should calculate after
you have selected a cutter. The only way to select
a cutter is by sight. Obtain a large selection of
bevel gear cutters. Then match a bevel gear
cutter to the side of a good tooth.
To find the amount of setover, first establish
the circular pitch angle (/&P). One circular pitch
equals 360. Therefore, dividing 360 (one
circular pitch) by the number of teeth (NT) will
give you the circular pitch angle {/&) You can
solve for the amount of setover by using the
triangle in figure 2-23, view A.
Setover = Root radius x Tan /CP
Where the root radius is the outside diameter (OD)
divided by 2 minus the whole depth (WD).
shaft has a series of parallel keys
formed integrally with the shaft that mate with
corresponding grooves cut in a hub or fitting; this
is in contrast to a hub or fitting having a series
of keys or feathers fitted into slots cut into the
shaft. This latter construction weakens the shaft
to a considerable degree because of the slots cut
into it and, as a consequence, reduces its torque-
transmitting capacity.
Splined shafts are most generally used in three
types of applications: (1) for coupling shafts when
relatively heavy torques are to be transmitted
without slippage; (2) for transmitting power to
sliding or permanently fixed gears, pulleys, and
other rotating members; and (3) for attaching
parts that may require removal for indexing or
change in angular position.
Splines having straight-sided teeth have been

Root radius = ~ - WD used in many applications; however, the use of

splines with involute teeth has increased steadily.
Splines with involute teeth are becoming more
To find the amount of depth increase set up popular because (1) involute spline couplings have
the triangle shown in figure 2-23, view B. In this greater torque-transmitting capacity than any

2-26
 BEVEL GEAR CUTTER

AMOUNT OF
SET OVER

VIEW A

VIEW B

Figure 2-23. Development of set-over and depth increase.

other type; (2) they can be produced by the same TOOTH NUMBERS
techniques and equipment used to cut gears; and
(3) they have a self-centering action under load, The American National Standard covers
even when there is backlash between mating involute splines having tooth numbers ranging
members. from 6 to 60 with a 30 or 37.5-degree pressure
angle and from 6 to 100 with a 45-degree pressure
These splines or multiple keys are similar angle. In selecting the number of teeth for a given
in form to internal and external involute spline application, keep in mind that there are no
gears. The general practice is to form external advantages to be gained by using odd numbers
splines by hobbing, rolling, or on a gear of teeth and that the diameters of splines with odd
shaper, and internal splines either by broach- tooth numbers, particularly internal splines, are
ing or on a vertical shaper. The internal troublesome to measure with pins since no two
spline is held to basic dimensions, and the spaces are diametrically opposite each other.
external spline is varied to control the fit.

Involute splines have maximum strength at

the base; they can be accurately spaced and SPROCKETS
are self-centering, thus equalizing the bearing
and stresses; and they can be measured and Webster's dictionary defines a sprocket wheel
fitted accurately. as "a wheel with cogs or sprockets to engage with

2-27
 sprockets is a matter of drive application
judgment. The usual moderate to slow speed
commercial drive is adequately served by
TYPE A - PLAIN PLATE commercial sprockets. Where a combination of
extremely high speed and high load is involved,
or where the drive involves fixed centers, critical
timing, or register problems, or close clearance
with outside interference, the use of precision
TYPE B - HUB ON ONE SIDE ONLY sprockets may be more appropriate.

MATERIAL FOR SPROCKETS

For large sprockets, cast iron is commonly
-
used, especially in drives with large speed ratios,
TYPE C HUB ON BOTH SIDES
since the teeth of the larger sprockets are subjected
to fewer chain engagements in a given time. For
severe service, cast steel or steel plate is preferred.
The smaller sprockets of a drive are usually
made of steel. With this material, the body of the
sprocket can be heat-treated to produce toughness
-
for shock resistance, and the tooth surfaces can
TYPE D HUB DETACHABLE
be hardened to resist wear.
126.115X Stainless steel or bronze may be used
Figure 2-24. Types of sprockets. for corrosion resistance, and formica, nylon,
or other suitable plastic materials for special
applications.
the links of a chain." Most sprockets are
of one of the four types shown in figure 2-24. MANUFACTURE OF SPROCKETS
The following is a discussion of the classes
and the manufacture of sprocket wheels (simply Cast sprockets have cut teeth, and the rim, hub
referred to as sprockets). Should you desire face, and bore are machined. The smaller
a more in-depth study of sprockets, refer to sprockets are generally cut from steel bar stock
ANSI B29.1 (American National Standard) and and are finished all over. Sprockets are often
to Machinery's Handbook. made from forgings or forged bars. The
extent of finishing depends on the particular
CLASSES OF SPROCKETS specifications that are applicable. Many sprockets
are made by welding a steel hub to a steel plate.
The ANSI B29.1 (American National Stand- This process produces a one-piece sprocket of
ard) provides two classes of sprockets, commercial desired proportions and one that can be heat-
and precision. The use of commercial or precision treated.
 CHAPTER 3
GRINDING INSPECTIONS
Grinding inspections are conducted for two
primary purposes: (1) to identify injury to ground
surfaces and (2) to evaluate surface finishes. You
as a machinist, must know the surface finish
symbols used in grinding, you will also have to
interpret the surface
quality specifications
indicated on drawings and blueprints. General
information on grinding wheels, grinding
machines, and the principles of grinding opera-
tions are provided in Machinery Repairman 3 &
2, NAVEDTRA 10530.
As an MR1, you be required to inspect,
will
or to supervise the performance of, grinding or
grinding-related operations. These operations
include the repair of valves in place, miscellaneous
portable grinding, and various inspections for
detecting injuries to ground surfaces.
INJURY TO GROUND SURFACES
A metal surface may be injured during the
grinding operation in several ways; it may be
cracked, burned, or left in a highly stressed
condition. There are other undesirable effects that
may result from grinding; however, they are not
necessarily injurious. Effects of grinding are
injurious only if they render a piece useless or if
they shorten the useful life of the piece.
SURFACE BURNS
The most common injury to a ground surface
isburning. Burn marks are an indication that high
surface temperatures were reached during the
grinding operation. This may leave the surface of
the piece in a highly stressed condition that could
result in failure of the piece during service.
Hardened steel tools, such as milling cutters or
tool bits, may soften due to burning, resulting in
tool failure or premature dulling of the cutting
edge. Severe burning may also cause softening and
almost simultaneous re-hardening, resulting in an
extremely hard and brittle surface.
3-1
Burn marks can be removed from the surface
of a part; however, this does not remove the
effects of the burn. If, after removing burn marks,
you apply a solution of nital (nitric acid and ethyl
alcohol) to the area of the burn, the surface of
the burned area will darken. This experiment
shows that removal of the burn marks will not
eliminate the effects of the burn on the temper
of the material.
Mild burning that does not penetrate deeply
usually does no real harm. Even on tool bits or
cutters, a slight discoloration may not affect the
tool's life or its cutting efficiency. No specific rules
are written concerning whether or not a burn is
harmful. Therefore, to eliminate the possibility
of injury from burning, select the correct wheel
for the job, keep it sharp and free-cutting, avoid
too severe a grinding action, and where possible,
use a cutting fluid to carry off heat generated
during grinding.
GRINDING CRACKS
A less common, but generally much more
serious, form of injury encountered in grinding
operations is cracking. A
very slight crack, upon
being subjected to the high pressures generated
during operating conditions, may enlarge and
become an extremely weak area; so you must
avoid causing even the smallest cracks.
Not all cracks found in a ground surface are
a result of the grinding operation. Some of these
cracks may be the result of heat treatment. These
heat treatment cracks are usually long and deep.
Generally, grinding cracks (or checks) are short
and shallow. Their pattern is similar to the
pattern of the grain marks left by the grinding
wheel. You should attempt to find heat treatment
cracks prior to the grinding operation. You can
do this by using the methods described later in
this chapter.
 PRODS
DIRECTION OF
In themajority of applications, surface CURRENT
stresses have no effect on the life or the usefulness
of a ground part. There are, however, some
instances where surface stress may cause the part
A
SECTION
to fail prematurely or where it might cause cracks OF PIPE
to develop because of the stressed condition. You CIRCULAR MAGNETIC
IRONPARTICALE
INDICATION OF
can lessen the possibility of surface stress LINES OF FORCE DEFECT
considerably by using the correct wheel and by
avoiding too severe a grinding action.

METHODS OF DETECTION
There are a number of nondestructive
inspection tests that may be used in detecting
cracks in metal. These tests include visual
inspection, magnetic particle inspection, and
liquid penetrant inspection. Some of these tests
and inspections are used throughout the Navy.
Note, however, that for all critical work, final
acceptance or rejection should only be made by
a qualified nondestructive inspector, if one is
available.

VISUAL INSPECTION 18.80.1

Figure 3-1. Circular magnetization- -prod method.

Visual inspection is useful for detecting large
cracks only. Even with the use of a powerful
magnifying glass there may be cracks that
cannot be detected, even by an experienced
inspector. If, during visual inspection, you find
any imperfections that may be cracks, you should
follow up with one of the more positive methods
of detecting injuries. Two of these methods are
the magnetic particle inspection and the liquid
penetrant inspection.
MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION
Magnetic particle inspection can be used to
detect weld defects in metals or alloys in which
magnetism can be induced. While the test piece
is magnetized, finely divided iron powder is
applied to it. As long as the magnetic field is not
disturbed, the iron particles will form a regular
pattern on the surface of the test piece. If the
magnetic field is disturbed by a crack or some
other defect in the metal, the pattern is interrupted
and the particles cluster around the defect.
The test piece may be magnetized either by
having an electric current pass through it (fig. 3-1),
or by having an electric current pass through a
coil of wire that surrounds the test piece (fig. 3-2).
In order for a defect to show up as a disturbance
in the patterns of the iron particles, the direction
of the magnetic field must be nearly at a right
angle to the major axis of the defect. Since the
orientation of the defect is unknown, different
current directions must be used during the test.
When an electric currentflows in a straight line
from one contact point to the other (fig. 3-1, view
A), magnetic lines of force are formed in a
circular direction. This circular magnetism is
used to locate lengthwise cracks. When the
current flow is through a coil around the test piece
(fig. 3-2, view A), longitudinal magnetic lines of
force are induced through the test piece to locate
transverse cracks.
In general, magnetic particle inspection is
satisfactory for detecting surface cracks and
cracks that are not more than 1/4 inch below the
surface.
The type of magnetic particle inspection unit
most commonly used in the Navy is the portable
unit shown in figures 3-1 and 3-2. It is a high-
amperage, low-voltage unit having a maximum
magnetizing current output of 1000 amperes,
either alternating or direct current. It is ready to

3-2
 The unit can be used in either of two ways:
A LONGITUDINAL MAGNETIC
LINES OF FORCE
(1) with prods, attached to the flexible cable,
used as contacts through which current is passed
into and out of a portion of the test piece,
setting up circular magnetization between the prod
contact points, or (2) with flexible cable wrapped
SECTION around the work to form a coil which induces
OF PIPE
longitudinal magnetism in the part of the
DIRECTION OF
CURRENT workpiece that is surrounded by the coiled cable.
IRON PARTICALE
INDICATION OF DEFECT Although either of these two methods may be
used, the prod test is usually easier to apply. In
most instances, it effectively serves to detect
surface defects. With the prods, however, only
a relatively small area of the test piece can be
magnetized at any one time. This magnetized area
is limited to the distance between prod contact

points and to a few inches on each side of the

Figure 3-2. Longitudinal magnetization coil
operate when it is plugged into the voltage
supply specified by the manufacturer.
unit consists of a magnetizing current source,
controls, indicating meters, three 10-foot lengths
of flexible cable for carrying the current to the
and a prod kit. The prod kit includes
test piece,
an insulated prod grip fitted with an ON-OFF
relay or current control switch, a pair of heavy
copper contact prods, and two 5-foot lengths of
flexible cable. Cable fittings are designed so that
either end of any cable may be fitted to the unit,
to the prods, or to any other cable. The unit has
current path. To check the entire surface, it is
necessary to successively test adjacent areas by
changing the location of the prod contact points
after a given area has been tested. Each area of
the test piece must be inspected twice once with
the current passing through the metal in one
direction and once with the current passing
through the metal in a direction at right angles
to the direction of the first test. One of the
18.80.2 advantages of the prod method of magnetic
method. particle inspection is that the current can be
easily passed through the metal in any desired
direction. Thus, if a given area is suspected of
being defective, magnetic fields of various
The orientations can be established during the test.
To use the prod method, adjust the unit for
a current output suitable for the particular metal
you wish to test. The amperage setting depends
on the distance between prod contact points. If
you use the prod kit supplied with the unit, set
the space between the prod contact points at 4 to
6 inches. For this space, select a current setting
between 300 and 400 amperes if the material you
will test is less than 3/4 inch thick. If the material
is 3/4 inch thick or greater, use 400 to 600

three outlets on the front panel for the operator amperes. To obtain the same magnetic field force,
to use in selecting either alternating current or less amperage is required if the prod contact points
direct current. The outlet on the left is labeled are closer together. With prods constantly at the
A.C., the center is COMMON,and the right is same spacing, a greater amperage will induce a
D.C. One cable will always be plugged into the stronger field.
COMMON outlet, with the other cable plugged After adjusting the unit, place the prods in
into the A.C. or D.C. outlet, as required. For position. Hold them in firm contact with the metal
most work, alternating current magnetization and turn on the current. Then, apply magnetic
effectively locates fatigue cracks and similar particles to the test area with the duster bulb and
subsurface defects extending to the surface. observe any indicator patterns. With the current
When more sensitive inspection is required still on, remove the excess particles from the test
to detect defects below the surface, direct area with a blower bulb and complete the
current is used. inspection. Do not move the prods until after the
the current to arc, resulting in a flash similar to when been used to induce the
direct current has
that occurring in arc welding. magnetic field. not as necessary when
It is

Through the use of magnetic particle inspec-
tion, hairline cracks that are otherwise invisible
are readily detected, since the particles form an
unmistakable outline of the defect. Large voids
beneath the surface are more easily detected than
small voids, but any defect below the surface is
more difficult to detect than one that extends to
the surface. Since false indications occur
frequently, you must be able to accurately inter-
pret the particle indications you observe.
Factors that can help you interpret the test
results include the amount of magnetizing current
applied, the shape of the indication, the sharp-
ness of the outline, the width of the pattern, and
the height or buildup of the particles. Although
these characteristics do not determine the
seriousness of the indication, they can help you
identify the kind of defect indicated.
The indication of a crack is a sharp, well-
defined pattern of magnetic particles having a
definite buildup. This indication is produced by
a relatively low magnetizing current. Seams are
revealed by a straight, sharp, fine indication. The
buildup of particles is relatively weak, and the
magnetizing current must be higher than that
required to detect cracks. Small porosity and
rounded indications or similar defects are
for the inexperienced inspector to detect. A high
magnetizing current continuously applied is
usually required. The particle patterns for these
defects are fuzzy in outline and have a medium
buildup.
Whether or not an indicated defect is to be
chipped or ground out and repaired by welding
depends on the specifications governing the job.
Surface cracks are always removed and repaired.
You should evaluate all indications of subsurface
defects detected by magnetic particle inspection.
If you believe the indication is positive, it is
best to grind or chip down to solid metal and
make the repair. Until you have had considerable
experience and can differentiate accurately
between true and false indications, you should
restrict your application of magnetic particle
inspection to the detection of surface defects. For
this application,
magnetic particle inspection is
almost foolproof.
After indicated defects have been repaired,
reinspect the areas to ensure that the repair is
sound. The final step in magnetic particle inspec-
tion is to demagnetize the workpiece. This is
especially important when the workpiece is made
alternating current has been used in the test. In
fact, the usual demagnetization procedure
involves placing the workpiece in an ac coil or
solenoid and slowly withdrawing it while the
current passes through the coil.
Demagnetization can be done with the
portable unit, ifa special demagnetizer is not
available. To demagnetize with the portable unit,
form a coil or flexible cable around the workpiece.
Be sure the cable is plugged into the unit's A.C.
outlet. Set the current regulator to deliver a
current identical to that used for the inspection,
and turn on the unit. Then gradually decrease the
amperage until the ammeter indicates zero. If the
piece is large, it may be necessary to demagnetize
a small portion of the work at a time.
You may check for the presence of a magnetic
field(and thus the need for demagnetization) by
using a small compass. A
deviation of the needle
from its normal position when the compass is held
near the workpiece is an indication that a magnetic
field is present.
LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION
Liquid penetrant inspection is used to inspect
difficult metals for surface defects similar to those revealed
by magnetic particle inspection. Unlike magnetic
particle inspection, which can reveal subsurface
defects, liquid penetrant inspection reveals only
those defects that are open to the surface. In
general, the only metals that are inspected by
liquid penetrant methods are nonferrous metals
and nonmagnetic steels.
Four groups of liquid penetrants are used.
Group I consists of nonwater-washable dye
penetrants. Group II consists of water-washable
dye penetrants. Groups and IV consist of
III
usually fluorescent Always follow the
penetrants.
appropriate MIL-STD-271 document whenever
you perform liquid penetrant tests. Follow the
directions prescribed for each penetrant carefully,
since there are some differences in procedure and
some differences in safety precautions associated
with the various penetrants.
Before using a liquid penetrant to inspect a
weld, remove all slag from the surface. Except
where a specific finish is required, it is not
necessary to grind the weld surface as long as the
weld surface meets applicable specifications and
as long as the weld contour blends into the base
metals without undercutting. If a specific finish

3-4
is required, you MAY
make a liquid penetrant
inspection before the surface is finished to detect
defects that extend beyond the final dimensions;
but you MUST make a final liquid penetrant
inspection AFTER the surface is finished.
Before using a liquid penetrant, clean the
surface of the material including areas adjacent
to the inspection area very carefully. You can
clean the surface by swabbing it with a clean, lint-
free cloth saturated in a nonvolatile solvent, or
by dipping the entire piece into a solvent. After
you have cleaned the surface, remove all traces
of the cleaning materials. It is
important that you remove all dirt, grease, scale,
or other material, and make sure that
lint, salts,
the surface is entirely dry before you use the
liquid penetrant.
You MUST maintain the temperature of the
liquid penetrant and of the piece to be inspected
in the temperature range of 50 to 100 F. Do
NOT attempt to use liquid penetrant if you
cannot maintain this temperature range. Do NOT
use an open flame to increase the temperature,
since the liquid penetrant materials are flammable.
After thoroughly cleaning and drying the
surface, coat the surface with the liquid penetrant.
You may spray or brush the penetrant on the
piece, oryou may immerse the entire piece in the
penetrant. In order to allow time for the penetrant
to get into all cracks, crevices, or other defects
that are open to the surface, keep the surface of
the piece wet with the penetrant for a minimum
of either 15 minutes or 30 minutes, depending
upon the group of penetrants you use. Follow the
instructions prescribed by the appropriate MIL-
STD-271 document concerning the length of time
the surface must be kept wet.
PENETRATION
A. PENETRANT ON SURFACE SEEPS B.
INTO CRACK.
After keeping the surface wet with the
penetrant for the required length of time, remove
the excess penetrant from the surface with a clean,
dry cloth or absorbent paper towel. Then, dampen
a clean, lint-free cloth or absorbent paper towel
with penetrant remover and wipe the remaining
excess penetrant from the test surface. Dry the
test surfaces after removing the excess penetrant
only by normal evaporation or with the clean, lint-
free cloth or absorbent paper towel mentioned
above. In drying the surface, be very careful to
avoid contaminating the surface with oil, lint,
extremely dust, or other materials that would interfere with
the inspection.
After the surface has dried, apply the
"developer." The developer (powder or liquid)
must stay on the surface for a minimum of 7
minutes before you start the inspection, but it
should not remain on the surface for more than
30 minutes, thus allowing you a total of 23
minutes to evaluate the indications.
Let's stop and go back for a moment and ex-
amine what takes place when these penetrant
materials are applied. First, the penetrant,
normally red in color, applied to the surface of the
material will seep into any passageway open to the
surface (fig. 3-3, view A). Next, the excess pene-
trant is removed from the surface of the metal
with the penetrant remover and a lint-free absorb-
ent material. Only the penetrant on top of the
metal surface is removed (fig. 3-3, view B), leav-
ing the penetrant that has seeped into the defect.
Finally, the white developer is applied to the
surface of the metal (fig. 3-3, view C). The
developer, an absorbing material, will actually
draw the penetrant from the defect. Therefore,
the red penetrant in the white developer indicates
EXCESS PENETRANT DEVELOPMENT
8EMOVED
CLEANING REMOVES PENETRANT FROM C DEVELOPER DRAWS PENETRANT FROM
SURFACE BUT NOT FROM CRACK. CRACK.
Courtesy of MAGNAFLUX Corporation.
the defective area(s). The amount of red penetrant
drawn from the defective area(s) will give an
indication of the size and, sometimes, the type of
defect.
When dye penetrants are used, the lighting in
the test area must be bright enough so that you
can see any indications of defects shown on the
test surface.
Be sure to interpret and evaluate carefully the
indications you observe during a liquid penetrant
inspection. In almost any inspection, some
insignificant indications are present. Most of these
insignificant indications are caused by failure to
remove all excess penetrant from the surface. At
least 10 percent of all indications must be removed
from the surface to determine whether defects are
actually present or whether the indications are
merely caused by excess penetrant. If a second
liquid penetrant inspection does not reveal
indications in the same locations, you may usually
assume that the first indications were not really
indications of defects.
Remove all penetrant inspection materials as
soon as possible after you make the final
inspection. Use water or solvent, as appropriate.
A number of safety precautions are associated
with liquid penetrant materials. Since the
materials are flammable, they must not be used
near open flames and they must not be applied
to any surface that is at a temperature higher than
100 F. In addition to being flammable, many of
the solvents are poisonous in the vapor form and
are highly irritating to the skin in the liquid form.
Handle all penetrant inspection materials with due
regard for their hazardous nature.
SURFACE FINISHES
AND MEASUREMENT
The smoothness of a machined surface has
always been of concern to the machinist. Serious
consideration was given to surface smoothness
wherever two machined surfaces came in contact
with each other for example, in a set of dies.
Prior to the development of a means to
measure surface roughness accurately, machined
surfaces in contact with each other had to be
broken in before they could operate at full
efficiency. When observed through a microscope,
a seemingly smooth machined surface appeared
as a series of hills and valleys. When two surfaces,
such as a shaft and a sleeve or a shaft and a
bearing, were fitted together, they fitted to a close
tolerance. After a short period of running time,
the ridges wore off of each surface, resulting in
excess clearance. The machinery had to be
stopped so the surfaces could be adjusted to
compensate for the wearing in of the ridges.
Developments in machining operations
brought smoother finished surfaces but did not
eliminate the problem of surface roughness. The
automobile industry conducted extensive research
programs to discover methods for achieving
smoother surface finish. Machining techniques
were modified to reduce the breaking-in time of
the new automobile engine. Owners were advised
to drive new automobiles only at slow speeds for
the first 500 miles so that the bore of the engine's
cylinders could be worn to a smooth finish.
Engines and bearings had to be overhauled or
replaced after a few thousand miles because
of reduced efficiency. The only method for
determining the quality of a finished surface was
to note the amount of resistance given by the
ridges when a thumbnail edge was scraped across
a machined section. Machine operations and
engineers alike used this "method." Great
strides had been made in developing accuracy
in measurement, but nothing had been done
in the field of measuring surface roughness up
to this time.
The SKF Ball Bearing Company engaged the
servicesof E. J. Abbott, who in 1936 perfected
an instrument that could accurately measure the
irregularities on a machined surface. He called the
instrument a profilometer. Abbotts' contribution
led to continuous improvement in the methods
and techniques of obtaining surfaces that are
almost free of any irregularities. Since that time
other instruments have been developed to measure
surface roughness.
Every machining process leaves its peculiar
markings on the machined surface. Each type of
cutting tool leaves its own individual pattern of
finely spaced irregularities which can be identified
easily by the experienced machinist. This pattern
is known as surface finish, or surface roughness.
Every machined surface is composed of tiny ridges
or hills and valleys (or bumps and dents). Whether
the surface is the result of turning, milling,
shaping, grinding, honing, or polishing can be
determined by close investigation. Surface finish
is important because improper surface
characteristics can make a workpiece unsuitable
for some kinds of work.
Surface irregularities are directly related
to the quality of the machining operation. It is
well known that this quality depends, in large
measure, upon the correct grinding of the cutting
tool correct clearance, rake, and cutting angle.
Surface irregularities are also caused as the chip
is forced from the work by the cleaving action of
the cutting tool. The shape of the job can also
have a contributing effect, for the vibrations of
both the job and the cutting tool leave their marks
on the finished surface. Even the wear on
improperly machined ways can be observed in the
finish of the job. An efficient grinding job
depends largely upon the selection of the correct
wheel for the metal being ground and the proper
dressing of the wheel. The quality of the surface
finish is affected by the same factors of proper
selection and wheel condition.
The most important factors contributing to the
quality of a surface finish are as follows:
The keenness and uniformity of the tool's
cutting edge
The smoothness of (1) the tool surfaces
that come in contact with the job or (2) the chip
during the machining operations
9 The feed given by the machine to the
cutting tool as it transverses the job
The condition of the machine ways that
guide the cutting tool along its path
Recall that a finished surface is seldom
perfectly flat. Close examination with surface
finish measuring instruments shows the surface
to be formed of irregular waves. On top of the
waves are other smaller irregularities known as
peaks and valleys. These peaks and valleys are
used to determine the surface roughness
measurements of height and width. The larger
waves are measured to determine the waviness
height and width measurements. Figure 3-4
illustrates the general location of the various areas
for surface finish measurements and the relation-
ship of the symbols to the surface characteristics.
The following are terms related to the surface
finish itself.
Surface texture A group of repetitive or random
deviations from the nominal surface, which form
the pattern of the surface. Surface texture includes
roughness, waviness, lay, and flaws.
Surface The boundary that separates the object
from another object, substance, or space.
Nominal surface The intended surface con-
tour, the shape and extent of which are usually
shown and dimensioned on a drawing or descrip-
tive specification.
Measured surface A surface whose finish has
been checked with an instrument or by some other
accepted means of measurement.
Profile The contour of a surface in a plane
perpendicular to the surface, unless some other
angle is specified.
Nominal profile The profile disregarding
surface texture.
Measured profile The contour of a surface
in a plane perpendicular to the surface obtained
by an instrument of other means.
Center line The line where roughness is mea-
sured. a line parallel to the direction of the
It is
profile within the limits of the roughness-width
cutoff.
Microinch One millionth of an inch (0.000001
inch). Microinches may be abbreviated as
mu (^) in.
Roughness The finer irregularities in the surface
These include the traverse feed marks and
texture.
other irregularities within the limits of the
roughness-width cutoff.
Roughness height Roughness height is the
average deviation from the specified height
expressed in microinches measured on the center
line of each ridge.
Roughness width Roughness width is the
distance parallel to the surface between peaks or
ridges that makes up the pattern of the roughness
of a surface. Roughness width is measured in
inches.
Roughness-width cutoff The distance over
which roughness height is averaged. Most surface
finish averaging instruments allow the roughness
width cutoff to be selected.
Roughness - Width cutoff is a characteristic
of the surface finish averaging instruments rather
than that of the surface being measured (fig. 3-4,
view G).
Waviness The widely spaced part of surface
texture and is generally wider than the roughness-
width cutoff. Some examples are machine or work
deflections, vibration, chatter, heat treatment, or
warping strains. Roughness may be considered as
superimposed on a "wavy" surface.
A. E.
ROUGHNESS HEIGHT RATING IS PLACED MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR CONTRACT
AT THE LEFT OF THE LONG LEG. THE 90% OR BEARING AREA WITH A MATING PART
OR REFERENCE SURFACE SHALL BE IN-
/ SPECIFICATION OF ONLY ONE RATING
DICATED BY A PERCENTAGE VALUE PLACED
63 / SHALL INDICATE THE MAXIMUN VALUE
V
V/ AND ANY LESSER VALUE SHALL BE
ACCEPTABLE
ABOVE THE EXTENSION LINE AS SHOWN.
FURTHER REQUIREMENTS MAY BE CONTROLLED
BY NOTES.

B. F.

.002-2
THE SPECIFICATION OF MAXIMUM LAY DESIGNATION IS INDICATED BY THE
63 "7
4
XX
a5
^/
//
VALUE AND MINIMUM VALUE ROUGHNESS
HEIGHT RATINGS INDICATES PERMISSIBLE
RANGE OF VALUE RATING. V LAY SYMBOL PLACED AT THE RIGHT OF THE
LONG LEG.

c. G.
.003 .002-2
633 MAXIMUM WAVINESS HEIGHT RATING IS ROUGHNESS-WIDTH CUTOFF RATING IS
PLACED BELOW THE HORIZONTAL EXTEN-
322/ PLACED ABOVE THE HORIZONTAL EXTEN-
SION. WHEN NO VALUE IS SHOWN,
\/
v SIGN. ANY LESSER RATING SHALL BE
ACCEPTABLE. 0.030 IS ASSUMED.

D. H.
.002-2 WIDTH RATING IS
002^2
WHERE REQUIRED, MAXIMUM ROUGHNESS
63
3 / PLACED ABOVE THE HORIZONTAL EXTEN-
o /i - 100 WIDTH RATING SHALL BE PLACED AT
32
2 / SION AND TO THE RIGHT OF THE WAVI- 3* /_i

_L .020 THE RIGHT OF THE LAY SYMBOL. ANY

\
v/ NESS HEIGHT RATING. ANY LESSER
RATING SHALL BE ACCEPTABLE \/ LESSER RATING SHALL BE ACCEPTABLE

LAY DIRECTION
ROUGHNESS WIDTH

^ROUGHNESS ROUGHNESS- WIDTH CUTOFF

WAVINESS HEIGHT WAVINESS WIDTH

MAXIMUM ROUGHNESS WIDTH CUTOFF
MINIMUM
LAY
ROUGHNESS HEIGHT ROUGHNESS WIDTH
(ARTHMETICAL AVERAGE)

126.100X
Figure 3-4. Relation of symbols to surface characteristics.
 Flaw

Lav Direction

Roughness
Average Ra

Centerline -*

126.100X

of symbols to surface characteristics-Continued.

Figure 3-4._Relation
 Waviness height The peak to valley distance,
measured in inches.
Waviness width The spacing of successive
wave peaks or successive wave valley, measured
in inches.
Lay The direction of the predominant surface
pattern produced by the tool marks. The symbol
indicating lay is placed to the right and slightly
above the point of the surface roughness symbol.
Figure 3-5 shows the seven symbols that are used
to indicate the direction of lay.
Flaws Irregularities which occur at only one
place or at relatively infrequent or widely
varying intervals in a surface. Flaws include such
defects as cracks, blowholes, checks, ridges, and of the more dependable methods you may use to
scratches. Unless otherwise specified, the effects evaluate surface roughness are as follows:
of flaws will not be included in the roughness-
height measurement. Touch comparison inspection. Move a
There are occasions when visual
comparison fingernail along the surface of the job and make
with the naked eye will disclose that one surface a mental note of the amount of resistance and the
is rougher than another. Thisis possible, however, depth of irregularities. Then move your finger-
only in cases of widely differing surfaces. Some nail across a series of master roughness scales that
have numbers corresponding to their measure-
ment in microinches (fig. 3-6). The machining
finish must compare satisfactorily with the
correct master.

Aided visual inspection. You can make a

visual comparison inspection with the aid of
illuminated magnifiers (fig. 3-7).

Interference microscope inspection. This

inspection uses a microscope in conjunction with
an optical flat plate and a monochromatic light

(fig. 3-8). The microscope allows you to observe

the height of the surface irregularity in light
reflected between the microscope objective and
the surface of the job. The interference fringes
indicate the intersection of the wave fronts
reflected between the job and the front surface
of the microscope objective. The distance between

Courtesy of McGraw-Hill Book Company,

Anderson & Tatro, Shop Theory, 1972

126.101X
Figure 3-6. Finger comparison scales.
the fringes represents 11 microinches. The
interference microscope is used primarily in
laboratories, so you will seldom have contact with
it. But you should be aware of the instrument in
case you encounter it during your career.
The profilometer test. The profilometer
(fig. 3-9) isthe most commonly used instrument
for finding the degree of surface roughness. It is
one of the instruments that uses the tracer method
and actually measures the differences in the depth
of the surfaceirregularity. The profilometer is a
mechanical-electronic instrument that can be
used both in the shop and in the laboratory.
The two main units of the profilometer are the
tracer and the amplimeter. Tracers are made in
several designs to measure a variety of shapes. The
tracer has a stylus with a very small radius at its
MOTORACE
tip. As the tracer is moved across the surface
being measured, the stylus follows the contours
of the irregularities left by the machine tool. These
up and down movements of the tracer stylus are
converted into a small fluctuating voltage. The
voltage is fed into the amplimeter where it is
amplified to actuate the microinch meter on the
front panel. The meter shows the variations in the
average roughness height in microinches. A
motor-driven unit, the motorace, (fig. 3-9),
provides mechanical movement of the tracer and
its stylus when manual operation is not possible
or not practical.
The radius of the stylus used on the surface-
roughness measuring instruments must conform
to the standard: 0.000500 0.000150 inch.
As the tracer moves along the surface of the
job, the profilometer automatically places a center
line through the roughness profile of the surface,
 ROUGHNESS AVERAGE

Figure 3-10. Representative portion of a surface profile.

iverts the portion of the profile below the center height of the surface profile shown in figure 3-10
ne, remembers the last two hundred irregularities follows:
hat the tracer passed over, computes the average
eight of these irregularities, and shows this Average height = YI + Y 2 + Y + Y 4 3 . . . Yn
verage height-figure on the meter in microinches. (arithmetic) n
Q this way the profilometer shows the variations
i average roughness height that occur on most where n is the total number of vertical
urfaces. measurements.

The root-mean-square (rms) average height

Figure 3-10 represents a magnified rough-
is 1 1 percent higher than the arithmetical
about
.essprofile of a short portion of a surface.
i center line is established from which the average; this difference is of little importance in
most cases. The formula for the rms average
verage-height measurement of this curve can
e plotted. The area above this center line height of the profile shown in figure 3-10
follows:
}
equal to the area below the line. The
qually spaced vertical lines, Yl, Y2, Y3,
nd so on, show the deviations of the sur- Average height = Yi
2
+ Y2 2 + Y3 2 + Y4 3
Y* n 2

(rms) n
ace from the center line. In order to
etermine the average, the parts below the
ne are treated exactly the same as the
where n is the total number of vertical
measurements.
arts above the line. The measurement of
le height of surface roughness is determined The rms average was more commonly used
y the average deviation from the center when the tracer method of measuring surface
ne.
roughness was in its infancy; arithmetical average
isnow considered the standard rating throughout
The two methods of obtaining the average the world.
eviation are (1) the arithmetical average height
nd (2) the root-mean-square (rms) average You can set the profilometer to mea-
eight. The formula for the arithmetical average sure average roughness in either arithmetical
 average or rms standards by moving a switch
ARITHMETICAL AVERAGE CAA)
(fig. 3-11).
AND THE ROOT MEAN SQUARE
No technical knowledge or special skill is
(RMS) SWITCH needed to operate these types of instruments. You
can set up the instrument on a bench or cabinet
beside the production machine (fig. 3-12) and
check the workpiece manually on the job while
it is in the machine (fig. 3-13). You can also check
work at on-the-floor inspection units (fig. 3-14).
You should always be interested in the
quality of the finish that a cutting tool has given
to the surface of the machined job. The
smoothness and regularity of the finished surface
will indicate the efficiency of the cutting tool,
whether the tool is correctly ground, and the
approaching breakdown of the cutting edge (or
the dulling, loading, and glazing of the grinding
wheel). Finish smoothness will also indicate
changes in product size and whether or not
additional machining is required.
By using a quick, reliable method of
checking surface roughness, you can save both
time and effort.
Several instruments are used for checking the
quality of surface finish. The surface analyzer
(fig. 3-15) is as a practical shop instrument
126.111X designed for the accurate measurement of
Figure 3-11. The profilometer amplimeter control panel. surface finish roughness. Like the profilometer,

126.103X
 detect result of a tearing cut, as well
the
as theridges that contribute to the rough-
ness of the finished surface. In order to give
machinists some kind of a reference surface
with which they could compare their work,

Figure 3-13. Checking surface finish on the machine.

the surface analyzer measures the irregularities

of the surface finish and records them in
microinches. This is done by a tracer stylus,
which registers the rise and fall of the peaks
and valleys on the finished surface. These
variations are amplified and indicated on
an electrical meter, which is calibrated to
read in microinches. The surface analyzer can
be calibrated to read directly in arithmetical
average or root-mean-square average and can
be fitted with various accessories for use in
specialized areas.

The simplest method of judging the roughness

of a surface has always been the fingernail test.
The human fingernail is very sensitive and will Figure 3-15. Surface analyzer.

126.104X
Figure 3-14. On-the-floor insoection of surface finish.
surface roughness scales were developed (fig.
3-16). By using touch and sight to compare the
surface of the job with the matching part of the
scale, you can determine whether or not the job
conforms to blueprint specifications. The scales
are made to duplicate machined surface standards
in appearance, pattern, and roughness value. The
scales are made of flat steel and are pocket size.
To identify its correct degree of surface roughness,
each pattern is engraved with a number represent-
ing the arithmetic average deviation from the
mean surface in microinches that is, 8 represents
8 microinches roughness. A curved set of
reference scales simplifies the measurement of
cylindrical surfaces, both internal and external
(fig. 3-17).A further development of this method
of measuring surface roughness is shown in figure
3-18. Each pattern of the reference scale is marked
with a number representing the degree of surface
roughness in microinches and a code letter
indicating the machining process; for example,

126.106X
Figure 3-17. Cylindrical roughness scales.

63M denotes 63 microinches, milled. The

reference scale can be used by sight or touch, but
as an added advantage the manufacturer supplies
a lOx hand magnifier with built-in illumination.
This complete kit consists of two scales on which

Figure 3-18.Surface-finish comparator kit, which allows

126.105X
comparison of surface roughness either by touch or by
Figure 3-16. Flat roughness scale. optical enlargement.
are machined 22 specimens of a variety of finishes, surface symbols on a drawing. Figure 3-21 shows
the lOx optical magnifier, and a carrying case. a convenient method of specifying roughness for
several operations on the same surface.

SURFACE TEXTURE SYMBOLS The study of surface roughness is still in a state

of development; however, the future should bring
Figure 3-19 shows different surface texture many refinements in machining processes and in
symbols. Figure 3-20 shows typical examples of the measurement of surface finishes.

Symbol Meaning

(a)
Basic Surface Texture Symbol. Surface may be produced by any method except when the bar
orcircle (Figure 1bor Id) is specified.

(b) Material Removal By Machining Is Required. The horizontal bar indicates that material
removal by machining is required to produce the surface and that material must be provided
for that purpose.

(c) Material Removal Allowance. The number indicates the amount of stock to be removed by
machining in millimeters (or inches). Tolerances may be added to the basic value shown or in
3.5 a general note.

(d) Material Removal Prohibited. The circle in the vee indicates that the surface must be produced
by processes such as casting, forging, hot finishing, cold finishing, die casting, powder metal-
lurgy or injection molding without subsequent removal of material.

(e)
Surface Texture Symbol. To be used when any surface characteristics are specified above the
horizontal line or to the right of the symbol. Surface may be produced by any method except
when the bar or circle (Figure 1b and 1d) is specified.

(f)

r-3X
1.5 X

OO/ 00
r 3 X APPROX.

ago/
r-3X

60' 00
I.5X
60'
LETTER HEIGHT=X

126.107X
Figure 3-19. Surface texture symbols and construction.
 MILL

UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED:

ALL SURFACES 3.2

126.108X
Figure 3-21. Convenient method of specifying roughness
Figure 3-20. Application of the surface symbols. for several operations on the same surface.
 CHAPTER 4

ALIGNING AND BALANCING

One of the biggest problems that will confront normally found on board ships and therefore will
you, as a Machinery Repairman, is that of not be discussed in this manual. You should
maintaining the alignment of machine equipment remember that the spirit level method will
aboard ship and in shore machine shops. produce, at best, only approximate levelness
Maintaining equipment alignment aboard ship is aboard ships. The test bar method is the most
especially difficult, due to the lack of stability of accurate for shipboard use. The leveling of lathes
the deck on which the equipment is mounted. actually refers to the removal of the twist in the
Some of the alignment problems, however, can bed. This twist results from setting the machine
be greatly diminished at the time of installation. on an uneven foundation. The machine is leveled
This chapter includes information on main- by adjusting one or more legs to remove the twist
taining proper alignment, adjustment, and level- in the bed so that it is straight and parallel with
ing of some of the more prominent machines that the spindle.
you will be using. Also included in this chapter
are the study of mechanical unbalance, the theory
of balancing, and the correction of unbalance. The Spirit Level Method
Although portable balancing equipment is still in
use in some tenders, it will not be discussed in this The or untwisting, operation of
leveling,
chapter due to its limited use. If you need an in- lathes the use of a very accurate
requires
depth study of a portable balancing machine, level. An ordinary carpenter's or machinist's
consult the technical manual provided by the level is not sufficiently accurate for leveling
manufacturer. lathes. A sensitive, graduated-tube spirit level
reading to10 seconds of arc per graduation
(0.0006 inch per foot) is required. The level
LEVELING, ALIGNING, AND should be adjustable and should have both
ADJUSTING MACHINE TOOLS a short base and a long tube. (Such a device
is illustrated in fig. 4-1.)
Levelness, alignment, and adjustment must be
checked constantly to ensure proper operation of
all machine tools. The information provided in
this manual pertains to lathes and horizontal
and milling machines. You should
boring, drilling,
always follow the manufacturer's instructions
when performing any of the three previously
mentioned operations. However, since you are
basically a shipboard machinist, some of these
instructions do not apply. The information
provided in this manual is intended to supplement
the instructions that do apply.

LEVELING LATHES FOR ALIGNMENT

The three basic methods of leveling lathe type 126.14X

machines are spirit level, optical, and test bar. The Figure 4-1. Proper type of device to use in leveling a turret

optical method requires special equipment not or engine lathe.

4-1
 The procedure for leveling engine and
type turret lathes is as follows:
1. Loosen the lag screws that hold the right
end legs to the deck. Do not loosen the lag screws
on the left end (headstock) legs.
2. Place the level across the bed at a right
angle to the center line of the bed near the
Figure 4-2. A. Placing the level at right angles to the center line of the
ram headstock (as shown in view A, fig. 4-2).
Adjust the level until the bubble is in the center,
and allow at least 30 seconds for the bubble
to come to rest.
3.Without changing its adjustment, move the
level to the outer end of the ways and place it
again at a right angle to the center line of the bed
126.15X
back of the headstock. B. Placing the level at right
(as shown in view B, fig. 4-2). Then, by adjusting underneath the it from slipping
level to prevent
the leveling screws on the right-hand legs, bring when the turret ismoved. Also see that the
the bubble to the center. (If the machine does not level rests firmly and does not rock as the turret
have leveling screws, use steel shims under the is moved.
legs.) 3. Move the saddle (by hand) to the
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 until the difference extreme headstock end of the bed, bringing
in the bubble readings at the two positions is less it as close to the spindle nose as it will
than one division. go. Adjust the bubble to the center, and
5. Tighten the lag screws and repeat steps 2 allow at least 30 seconds for the bubble to come
and 3 as a final check. to rest.
4. Move the saddle to the right end of
The procedure for leveling a saddle-type the bed. Then, without adjusting the level,
turret lathe is as follows: bring the bubble to the center (by adjust-
ing the leveling screws in the right end legs).
1 . Loosen the lag screws holding the right end 5. Repeat steps 3 and 4 until the difference

legs to the floor. Do not loosen the left end in the bubble readings at the two positions is less
(headstock) legs. than one division.
2. Place the level across the turret (as shown 6. Tighten the lag screws on the right
in fig. 4-3). Use two small pieces of thin paper end legs, and repeat steps 3 and 4 as a
final check.

When you level a turret lathe, do not

tamper with the bolts that hold the bed to the pan
LEVEL and the legs. These bolts have been carefully set
at the factory and their settings should not be
changed.

The Test Bar Method

The step in the test bar method is

first
to makethe test bar. A
test bar may be

any metal bar, 3 inches in diameter and

approximately 18 to 24 inches long. (See
fig. 4-4 for a sample.) Next take a light
cut on each of the two ends of the test
bar WITHOUT CHANGING THE TOOL
SETTING. Measure the diameter of each
end. A diameter indicates a
difference in
126. 16X misalignment. Adjust the machine leveling
Figure 4-3. Placing the level across the turret with two screws and repeat the procedure until a cut
small pieces of paper underneath the level. on both ends of the test bar results in the
same diameter.

ALIGNMENT OF THE TAILSTOCK

The tailstock of a lathe, after long use, can
become out of alignment with the headstock. This
is primarily due to wearing down of the ways or

the grooves in the bottom of the tailstock. To

I*-, J check this, clamp the tailstock close to the
headstock and mount a dial indicator on the
headstock spindle. Take indicator readings on the
Figure 4-4. Lathe alignment test bar. tailstock spindle. The reading on the dial indicator
should be the same at the top and the If you desire to check the turret hole align-
bottom (fig. 4-5). If the tailstock and head- ment, use a dial indicator.
stock are out of line in a horizontal plane,
correct the alignment. If the tailstock is Figure 4-6 illustrates how to perform the align-
low, you must shim or build up the bottom ment test for turret holes with a dial indicator.
surface of the tailstock. If the tailstock is Secure a piece of tubing in the chuck, and mount
high, its base must be either scraped or the dial indicator at the end of the tube. Do not
machined. Both scraping and machining should use solid bar stock, however, because its own
be done by a shipyard. weight makes it sag. The dial indicator rotates
around a ground plug which, in turn, must have
ALIGNMENT OF TURRET HOLES a good fit in the turret hole. The tubing, however,
WITH THE SPINDLE does not have to run true or straight. It has
purposely been shown (fig. 4-6) with a bend, to
One of the causes of inaccuracies of turret illustrate that the dial indicator will still travel
lathes can be traced to poor turret hole alignment. around the center of revolution of the spindle and
In order to ensure the highest possible accuracy will, therefore, give a true reading of the spindle's
in making these machines, the turret holes and alignment.
faces are often finished in the machine's own
spindle after the machine has been carefully
leveled. After the machine has been leveled ADJUSTING CLUTCHES
according to manufacturer's instructions, the
alignment between the spindle and the turret is All clutches should be adjusted so that when
automatically reestablished and requires no they are engaged they are capable of pulling the
further attention. heaviest load required, and when they are
disengaged, they will be completely free. When
clutches are allowed to slip, they wear quickly and
have to be replaced. Clutches should be adjusted
according to instructions in the manufacturer's
technical manual. If the method of adjustment
is not described in a manufacturer's technical

manual, a careful study of the parts will usually

show how an adjustment can be made.

ADJUSTING GIBS
All sliding units on engine and turret lathes
are provided with gibs, so that as the bearing
126.101 surfaces wear adjustments can be made to
Figure 4-5. Checking tailstock alignment. keep the machine tight and accurate. Most
of the gibs are tapered and can be adjusted
by means of screws, located at the end of
individual gibs. If the gibs are not tapered, they
DIAL INDICATOR can be adjusted by a series of screws along the
HEX. TURRET sides of the machine.

Gibs should be adjusted so that the sliding

units are sufficiently tight to obtain the accuracy
required. If they are too tight, the slides will be
hard to operate; and if they are too loose, the
accuracy of the machine will be lost. When
adjustment of the gibs causes the slide to bind in
one position and to be free in another, the sliding
126.17X units have worn and should be refitted according
d.-(\ Alionmonf foci fnr tttrrat ht\l tn mcmnfar'tnrpr'c inctriir'tirmc
 CHECKING THE ACCURACY
AND ALIGNMENT OF
MILLING MACHINES
DIAL INDICATOR
As an MR1 you must know how to use a test
,

bar and dial indicator to check the alignment and

accuracy of milling machines. You can assure
continuously accurate work by periodically
checking the adjustment and the alignment of the
milling machine.

You can detect end play of the spindle by

placing a dial indicator against the spindle face
and then moving the spindle back and forth along
its axis while observing the indicator reading. If

you find play, you can eliminate it by tightening 126.35

the spindle thrust nut (as shown in fig. 4-7). You Figure 4-8. Checking the accuracy of spindle rotation.
can check for looseness of the spindle bearing by
chucking a rod in the milling machine spindle
chuck and using the rod as a lever to move the To check the accuracy of the spindle, use a
spindle at 90 to its axis. Manufacturers have setup similar to the one shown in figure 4-8. Place
installed various devices such as tapered and split- a test bar in the tapered spindle hole, and attach
shell bearings, which allow adjustment of an indicator to the table of the milling machine
bearing looseness. with the indicator contact point touching the test

SPINDLE BEARINGS

-THRUST ADJUSTMENT

<D SPINDLE MOUNTED IN ROLLER BEARINGS.

SPINDLE BUSHINGS

-THRUST ADJUSTMENT
SPINDLE MOUNTED IN BUSHINGS.

126.34
bar. Then rotate the spindle while you move the
indicator along the axis of the test bar. If you
observe any deviation from concentricity (runout),
use a dial indicator to check the bore of the
spindle for runout. If there is any evidence of
runout, you may be able to correct the problem
by adjusting the spindle bearings. Be sure to repair
all small nicks and dents in the spindle bore before
you use the spindle.
To check and alignment of the
the accuracy
table, knee, and column surfaces, place a test bar
in the milling machine spindle and attach the dial
indicator as shown in figure 4-9. With the dial
indicator's contact point touching the table, move
the table parallel and at 90 to the axis of the
spindle, taking readings at various positions. Then
adjust the table to various heights and take the
readings again. Check the readings for variations
that would indicate deviation of the column from
the vertical. If the test indicates improper align-
ment, you may correct the problem by adjusting
the gibs of the machine, rescraping the bearing
surfaces of the table knee or column, or
refinishing the worktable top.
LEVELING THE HORIZONTAL
BORING, DRILLING, AND MILLING
MACHINE
Although the horizontal boring machines,
drilling machines, and milling machines are
normally leveled during initial installation or after
subsequent drydock repair, you should be familiar
with the leveling procedures. Being aware of the
steps involved will enable you to check the
machines for trueness and to use the machines
better.
DIAL INDICATORS'
126.36
To level the machine, turn the leveling screws
down against the leveling plates. Then raise the
entire machine on the leveling screws. After you
have leveled the machine through this procedure,
secure it to the foundation by means of jam nuts
on the foundation bolts. Then recheck the
machine since levelness may have been disturbed
when you set the foundation bolt nuts. Repeat the
above operation until the machine is perfectly level
and secured solidly to its foundation.
All modern boring machines have leveling
pads provided on the rear and side of the
column unit. After the machine has been
properly leveled over the bedways, the column
should be in an accurate vertical position
when the level is placed over the leveling
pads on the column, unless foreign matter has
entered between the column and the bed unit
during assembly.
ALIGNMENT
After the machine has been properly leveled,
check it for alignment. To do this, you must have
precision checking devices such as a cylindrical
post, a square, and a sweep. Figure 4-10 shows
the cylindrical post.
Cylindrical Posts
Cylindrical posts are used to check column and
end support alignment. They are easier to
126.107X
handle and provide more reliable readings than
the regular square.
Posts made from a close grain cast iron are
quite satisfactory. However, the castings should
be seasoned before the final finishing operations
are performed. A cylindrical post should have the
base cast as an integral part, and a lifting bail
should be provided to facilitate handling.
When such a post is not available, you may
use a standard precision square.
To check alignment with a cylindrical post,
you must attach dial indicators to the sliding
member of the unit to be checked and traverse
them up and down the post.
It is always advisable to take two readings, the
second reading with the post indexed to 180 An .
average of the two gives the correct reading. If
you use a standard square, follow the same
procedure. Take one reading from the edge of the
blade, then reverse the square and take a second
reading from the same edge and average the
results.
Sweeps
The sweep is used to check spindle alignment
with the column runway or tables. It should have
a balanced design and a means for fastening it
rigidly to the spindle sleeve. There should also be
a means for attaching the dial indicator to the
sweep. Do not attach the sweep directly to the
boring spindle because your readings will be
unreliable.
Attach the indicators to the sweep as closely
as possible, and use gauge dial blocks between the
surfaces to be checked and the indicator. Reduce
overhang to a minimum to avoid inaccurate
readings.
Sweeps should be made of welded steel
construction, if possible, to reduce weight and
facilitate handling; figure 4-11 shows a sweep of
approved design.
You can check the movement of the headstock
on the column ways accurately by using a solid
master square, set on the machine table. The
method most commonly used is to attach an
indicator directly to the machine spindle, with the
indicator registering against the edge of the
square. Disengage the spindle clutch so that the
spindle does not turn while you perform the
check. Then, by using feed or rapid traverse, move
the headstock up and down on the column and
take an accurate reading from the indicator.
Next, turn the square 180 and repeat the same
procedure. If the indicator shows the identical
126.108X
Figure 4-11. Drawing of a sweep.
reading within the required limits in both
positions, you may assume that the face of the
column is at 90 (right angle) in relation to the
top of the table of the machine.
Now turn the square 90 and check the edge
of the column for squareness.
If the face or edge of the column is not
accurate with the edge of the square, you can
make a correction by adjusting the leveling screw,
which is located directly under the column. When
you make the adjustment, take care not to disturb
the levelness of the bed.
SPINDLE ALIGNMENT
The next step in setting up a machine is to
check alignment of the main spindle to the top
surface and to the edge of the bed ways. To do
this, move the spindle out of the headstock, so
itextends approximately 15 inches from the face
of the spindle sleeve. Then revolve the spindle at
low speed, and check it with an indicator to
determine if it runs concentrically. Mark the mean
point of eccentricity on the spindle. For instance,
if the indicator is set at zero reading and, when
the spindle is turned, the indicator shows a reading
from zero to 0.001 inch plus, mark the point on
the spindle indicating 0.005 inch with a pencil or
crayon. Turn the spindle so that the point
indicated is both toward you and centered
between the top and bottom of the spindle. Place
an indicator on a support similar to a surface
gauge. Secure this support to the machine table
at the right-hand edge, at a point nearest the
headstock of the machine. Then move the
headstock up and down on the column ways, until
the indicator rests at a point on the center line of
the spindle. Set the indicator at zero reading, and
move the table and saddle unit in either feed or
rapid traverse toward the column. Using this
method, check the alignment of the spindle in
relation to the edge of the bedways. The
maximum tolerance for this alignment is 0.0002
inch in 12 inches.
If you need to make a correction because of
a minor error in the above alignment, you can
make the correction by changing the thickness of
the steel liner at the tongue and groove on the
right-hand side of the column. If you change this
liner, you will also have to re-ream the dowel pin
holes in the column unit.
Turn the spindle so that the mean point
marked on the spindle is up, and move the
table either right or left until the indicator
rests on the center line of the spindle. Follow
the procedure outlined above, and check
the alignment of the top of the spindle
to the top surface of the bedways. Do this
by moving the table and saddle unit in
either feed or rapid traverse, so that the
indicatormoves lengthwise over the top side
of the spindle. The allowable error for this
check is 0.001 inch in 12 inches. This error
is largely due to the overhanging weight
of the spindle, commonly called spindle sag.
Next, check the accuracy of the spindle
to the edge of the column ways. Do this
by securing some sort of solid bar or tube
directly to the face of the spindle sleeve.
Attach an indicator to the end of the bar
so that unnecessary overhang of the indicator
or bar is eliminated. Then turn the spindle
by hand so the indicator is directly
opposite the edge of the column ways below
the headstock. Using an inside micrometer,
height gauge, or Johansson blocks with the
indicator set to register a zero reading, check
the distance between the edge of the column
ways and the indicator. Revolve the spindle
by hand until the indicator is directly opposite
the edge of the column ways above the
headstock. Check the distance between the edge
of the column ways and the indicator again. The
allowable error between these two readings is 0.01
inch in 48 inches.
Now use the same method to check the
accuracy of the main spindle in relation to the
front edge of the machine table. Make the
measurements in the same manner as described
above. The allowable error for this checking is
0.01 inch in 12 inches.
CHECKING THE END SUPPORT
AND END SUPPORT BLOCK
The next step in aligning the machine is
setting and checking the end support block
accurately with the machine spindle. It is best to
place a large boring bar in the machine. The
boring bar should be long enough to reach across
the machine table with the spindle drawn fully
back into the headstock. With the table and
saddle unit moved to a point close to the column
and the end support unit moved as near as
possible to the machine table, check the alignment
of the boring bar to the top crosswise surface of
the machine table. Adjust the headstock with the
hand crank so that it is stopped on the column
in upward movement. Then clamp both the head
and the end support block. Use an indicator
mounted on a height gauge or a surface gauge,
or an inside micrometer mounted on a base, to
check the parallelism of the boring bar to the top
surface of the table.
Corrections for slight errors in this align-
ment can be made very easily on a modern
machine. For precision movement, the elevating
screws for the headstock unit on the column
and for the end support block on the end
support column are suspended from precision
bearings. However, the bearing support on
the elevating screw for movement of the
headstock unit on the column is accurate
and fixed. The bearing support on the elevating
screw for movement of the end support
block is accurate and adjustable. The screw
in support bearings is carried in an adjust-
its
able with two round adjusting nuts
sleeve
provided on the adjusting sleeve. The sleeve
is keyed in the end support column to keep
it from turning. By loosening one nut and
tightening the other, you may raise or lower
the elevating screw and secure it in the
desired position. You should anticipate wear
on the elevating screws and nuts and should
make periodic adjustments as necessary.
Before you adjust the headstock to a pre-
determined position on the column, be sure to
stop the headstock in upward movement. This is
necessary to align the end support block properly
with the main spindle to compensate for any slight
allowed backlash between gears, clutch, and other
parts.
BALANCING
Mechanical unbalance is the uneven dis-
tribution of mass (weight) causing a displacement
of the center of gravity of a workpiece from its
rotation axis. This displacement causes the
rotating workpiece to place unplanned and
unnecessary forces on its supports. The purpose
of balancing is to achieve a smooth running
condition of a rotating machine element,
consistent with the requirements of the particular
machine.
The forces created by an unbalanced con-
dition increase as the rotating speed increases.
Since one of the characteristics of modern naval
machinery is a high rotating speed, careful
consideration must be given to the balanced
condition of rotating parts. Balancing reduces
vibration and noise, ensures greater operating
efficiency, and results in longer bearing and
machinery life. Some items that will require
balancing are pump rotors, blower and ventila-
tion fans, and shafts with gears or other parts of
an assembly. In addition, armatures that have
been rewound must be balanced before being
returned to service.
All personnel must take great care to see that
nothing is done to disturb the balance of repaired
machinery or machinery parts.
When worn parts are replaced or when
machining operations are performed on a part,
the assembly must be balanced to eliminate
potential vibrations. Since unbalance is the
principal cause of vibration, this chapter will cover
the balancing of rotating parts. Vibration,
however, may result from causes other than
unbalance. These other causes of vibration and
how to determine them will also be discussed in
this chapter. The terms used in balancing are listed
at the end of this chapter.
CAUSES OF UNBALANCE
Some vibration exists in all machinery. Small
vibrations are due to mechanical defects in the
machinery or itsparts. Since a perfect machine
cannot be made, you must know how to eliminate
vibration as much possible. The defects
as
causing unbalance are due to factors such as
varying density of materials used in manufacture,
tolerances of machining, inaccuracy and out-of-
roundness of castings, blowholes, unsymmetrical
or inaccurate armature windings, and many other
causes. The most common causes are discussed
in this section.
DAMAGE TO PARTS
OR ASSEMBLIES
Shafts that are parts of an assembly, which
may include impellers, fans, couplings, wheels,
armature windings, and so forth, become
unbalanced if they are bent or sprung out of
alignment. The components of such an assembly
may independently or altogether be a source of
unbalance. Damage caused by erosion of a pump
impeller will not be uniform; hence an unbalanced
condition will occur. In addition, small amounts
of metal broken loose from the impeller blading
in one or more places will cause the rotor assembly
to be out of balance.
DISTORTION DURING OPERATION
Distortion during operation which causes
unbalance may occur in some types of fans other
flexible workpieces. In squirrel cage fans, for
example, the sheet metal blades under load at
operating speeds may stretch or distort from their
position when the blower is standing still or
operating at reduced speeds. Because of initial
stresses and variations in the thickness of the metal
blading, such distortions may not be uniform
throughout the fan, and an unbalanced condition
may result.
The majority of rotors are designed as stiff
rigid rotors. However, there are certain types of
flexible rotors and these generally fall into the
following categories:
1. Long, thin, high-speed rotors, such as
special types of paper mill rolls, and automotive
drive shafts
2. Large, exceptionally heavy generator units
used in stationary power plants
3. Certain types of high-capacity steam
turbines
CASTINGS of the formulas listed below. The appropri
formula is dictated by the speed at wh
Balanced conditions cannot be ensured when the machine will operate.
castings aremade. An impeller, for example,
may have a blade on one side heavier than U = 0.177 W (Operating speed is from to 149 rprri

the blade on the opposite side, as a result of

nonhomogeneity of the metal or improper U =
4000 W from 150 to 1,000
(Operating speed is r]
dimensional tolerances. N 2

4W
A completely machined part such as a pulley U = -TT- (Operating speed is above 1,000 rj

or gear wheel appears to be in a balanced

condition. Actually, an unbalanced condition may Where:
exist due to a blowhole underneath the machined
surface. Unbalance may also resultfrom slag U = Permissible residual unbalance for each
inclusions in the metal used in the manufacture two planes, measured in ounce-inches

of the part. Unless blowholes and slag inclusions

W = Weight of workpiece in pounds
are indicatedby surface defects of the metal, they
cannot be detected except by special examination. N = Operating speed of workpiece (not the balan<
speed)

BALANCE TOLERANCES A second but somewhat less accurate met!

of determining the tolerance of balanc
Tolerances are allowed in the machining involves the use of nomograms. This metr
of most parts. Plans or blueprints specify uses two charts, one precision balance (table A
the tolerances allowed in the manufacture and one commercial balance (table 4-2). To i

of replacement parts. When parts such as this method, use the following procedure:

pulleys and gear wheels are machined, they

may be within the allowable tolerance require- 1 Find the operating speed of the workpi
.

ments; however, this will not necessarily mean in the leftcolumn.

that the mass center of the piece coincides 2. Find the weight of the workpiece in
with the rotational axis of the bore. One right column.
side of a pulley may be heavier than the 3 Draw a line from the speed in the left c
.

other side, resulting in a certain amount
of unbalance. When machine parts are designed,
the tolerances that permit eccentricity or lack
of squareness of machined surfaces, with
respect to the rotational axis, are taken into
consideration. When you machine high-speed
rotating parts, you must ensure that the
parts are carefully balanced, as well as manu-
factured within dimensional tolerances.
One of your responsibilities in balancing
equipment is to set up unbalance tolerances.
You must consider the weight and operating speed
of the workpiece, as well as its design. For
instance, a squirrel cage fan distorts as its speed
increases.
There are several methods that you can
use to determine the proper tolerance for
balancing. The first method uses the guide-
lines outlined in the U.S. Military Standards
167-1. The tolerances are based on three
rpm ranges and can be determined by the use
umn to the weight in the right column.
4. Find the maximum permissible unbalai
in each of two planes at the point where the 1
crosses the center column.
Two other methods for determining unbalai
tolerance are the dynamic bearing load meth
and the test method. The dynamic bearing k
method is based on the unbalance tolera]
being a small percentage of the static bearing lo
The test method involves the balancing oj
workpiece to as close to zero balance as possi
and then adding weight to determine the poinl
which objectionable vibration starts. The adc
amount of weight is then divided by two to g
the permissible level of unbalance in each of t
planes.
THEORY OF BALANCING
As a rotor revolves on its rotational a?
centrifugal force acts upon the entire mass of i
Table 4-1. Example of Precision Balance

126.109

4-11
Table 4-2. Example of Commercial Balance
part, impelling each particle away from the
rotational axis in a perpendicular direction. All
forces will balance, providing the mass is evenly
distributed about the rotational axis. In other
words, if the part is in balance, it will rotate
without vibration. However, if the mass on one
side of the rotor exceeds the mass on the exact
opposite side of the rotor, the centrifugal force
on the heavy side will exceed the force on the light
side and will pull the entire rotor in the direction
of the heavy side. Figure 4-12 shows an excess of
mass on one side. The centrifugal force caused
by this excess mass pulls the rotor in the
direction of the arrow.
An excess of mass on one side is called
unbalance. As the rotor revolves, the unbalance
will exert pull to the right, then down, then to the
left, and then up in each revolution. This pull
causes the rotor and its shaft to attempt to rotate
in a circular motion or to vibrate.
EFFECTS OF CENTRIFUGAL FORCE
As we have seen, an uneven mass distribution
(unbalance) will cause a rotating part to vibrate
due to the centrifugal force exerted by the heavy
side of the part. When the part is stationary, the
heavy side exerts no force; consequently, there is
no vibration. Yet the unbalance is the same. We
may safely say, then, that the amount of
unbalance is independent of the rotational speed.
It remains the same whether the part is stationary
126.54
or is in rotation. However, as soon as rotation
starts, the unbalance will exert centrifugal force.
This force sets up vibration, and as the speed is
increased the force will increase, which increases
the vibration. Figure 4-13 illustrates that 1 ounce
of unbalance at 500 rpm produces 0.443 pound
of centrifugal force, and that at 5,000 rpm (a
speed 10 times greater) the centrifugal force has
increased to 44.3 pounds (centrifugal force 100
times greater). The centrifugal force has increased
as the square of the number of times the speed
increased. Remember though, the amount of
unbalance depends only on the uneven distribu-
tion of weight and is completely independent of
the operating speed. Therefore, it is not necessary
to balance a workpiece at its operating speed.
Another factor affecting centrifugal force is
the distance of the excess mass from the axis of
I I f I 1 ~
REVOLUTIONS PER MINUTE
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE EXERTED BY UNIT UNBALANCE
AT VARIOUS SPEEDS '(Plotted on logarithmic paper)
126.55X
 you swing a weight around your head,
rotation. If
you immediately notice that centrifugal force,
will
exerted by the weight, increases as the length of
the string increases. Therefore, the effect depends
on the weight and the distance of the weight from
the axis of rotation. This product of weight times
distance is considered a measure of unbalance and
is expressed as ounce-inches, gram-inches, and so GRAVITATIONAL AXIS
forth. This measurement of unbalance will be UNBALANCE POINT
discussed in more detail later.
126.56
Figure 4-14. Parallel displacement.

TYPES OF UNBALANCE
Unbalance may be divided into two distinct
types; STATIC (or force) unbalance and
DYNAMIC (or moment) unbalance. Static
unbalance present if the workpiece rotates when
is

it is placed on two parallel knife edges. The

workpiece rotates because the center of gravity

lies on a point off at the workpiece' s rotational

axis. Dynamic unbalance is present if the

workpiece vibrates as it rotates. Dynamic
unbalance is caused by an improper distribution
of weight in two or more transverse (perpendicular
to the rotational axis) planes. 126.57
Figure 4-15. Correcting static (force) unbalance.

Static (or Force) Unbalance

Static unbalance primarily thought of
is
as it exists in disk-shaped bodies such as
grinding wheels, flywheels, brake disks, fans,
and so on. Such a body has its principal
axis of inertia displaced parallel to the axis
of rotation (fig. 4-14). The unbalance can
be corrected by applying a correction weight
in a single plane passing through the center
of gravity of the workpiece.
As an example of static unbalance, assume
that a grinding wheel (fig. 4-15) has a heavy point
of 5 ounces located 2 inches from the rotational
axis. In this example, there is an unbalance of 10
ounce-inches. This unbalance may be corrected
by applying an equal weight (5 ounces) an equal
and opposite distance (2 inches) from the
rotational axis. However, the correction weight
does not have to be the same weight or placed the
same distance from the rotational axis as the
weight of unbalance. The unbalance could also
be corrected by applying a 2 1/2-ounce weight 4
inches from the rotational axis on the light side
of the wheel. In both cases, the unbalance of 10
ounce-inches has been corrected.
Nowlet's review the method of expressing
static unbalance. If a part has an unbalance of
10 ounces, and this heavy point is at a distance
of 5 inches from the rotational axis, we simply
multiply the weight of unbalance (W) by the
distance from the rotational axis (R) to determine
that the static unbalance is 50 ounce-inches. We
previously mentioned that the distance from the
rotational axis affects the amount of unbalance.
Now assume that a similar part has an unbalance
of 5 ounces located 10 inches from the rotational
axis. Multiplying W
x R, we find that the second
part has the same amount of static unbalance
as the first, even though the unbalance weight is
halved and the distance is doubled. That is,
10 ounces x 5 inches = 50 ounce-inches and 5
ounces x 10 inches = 50 ounce-inches. Both of
these parts can be statically balanced by using any
reasonable combination of weight and distance
that equals 50 ounce-inches. This principle can be
expressed by the formula x R = Wc
x Rc , w
where WxR is the amount of unbalance and
W c x Rc is the correction.
Since the amount of static unbalance weight
and its distance from the rotational axis are
unknown, using me static unbalance correction
procedure would consume an excessive amount
of time. It is practical only for balancing a rotating
part with a large diameter and a relatively short
ROTATIONAL AXIS
-
axis, such as a wheel used on a grinding machine. GRAVITATIONAL AXIS
(PRINCIPAL AXIS)
Although we have no way of knowing exactly how
much the static unbalance weight is or how far
it is from the rotational axis, we do know which 126.58
side is heavy. So we can add weight to the light Gravitational axis at an angle to the rotational
Figure 4-16.
side until the part no longer rotates when placed axis in a rotor with dynamic unbalance.

on knife edges.

Dynamic (or Moment) Unbalance

A rotating part may be corrected for static

unbalance and yet be dynamically unbalanced.
The rotor in figure 4-16 had a static unbalance
at point A. This unbalance was corrected by ROTATIONAL AXIS

adding the weight, B. The rotor is now in static GRAVITATIONAL AXIS

(PRINCIPAL AXIS)
balance while at rest; but when it begins rotating,
the two weights will produce opposite forces, and
the part will display dynamic unbalance. 126.59
Figure 4-17. A pure dynamic unbalance of 900 ounce-
The gravitational axis of this rotor and of all inch-inches.
other dynamically unbalanced parts is located at
an angle to the rotational axis. This is because the
two unbalances are offset on opposite sides of the
rotational axis. This type of unbalance will be
present as long as the uneven mass distribution
is on opposite sides and not in the same transverse

plane. When the rotor is rotating, each end will

try to vibrate independently and thereby give an ROTATIONAL AXIS

indication of the uneven mass distribution.

Dynamic unbalance is sometimes expressed in

terms of ounce-inch-inches. The second "inch" 126.60
dimension refers to the distance between the two Figure 4-18. A pure dynamic unbalance of 900 ounce-
planes of unbalance. For the purpose of inch-inches corrected.

illustrating corrections, we will use this term. The

amount of unbalance is determined by multiplying
the value of weight (W) x the distance from the
rotational axis (r)
x the distance between planes
(L); or, Wx r x L.
A
pure dynamic unbalance is illustrated in
figure 4-17. Each of the planes, L and R, has an
unbalance of 5 ounces at a radius of 6 inches. The
planes are 30 inches apart. Although this rotor
is badly out of balance dynamically, it would not
rotate on a pair of knife edges. This rotor has an
unbalance of W
x r x L or 5 x 6 x 30 = 900
ounce-inch-inches. The unbalance can be com-
pensated for by a correction of the same amount.
Figure 4-18 shows that our correction weights of
1.5 ounces were placed at a radius of 10 inches
on correction planes 60 inches apart. This
combination of weights and distances was deter-
mined by using the formula for dynamic
unbalance. The correction, 900 ounce-inch-inches,
will completely correct the original unbalance.
Rotating parts, if unbalanced, generally have
both static and dynamic unbalance. In fact, there
may be many points of unbalance throughout the
entire mass of the rotor>. To locate and correct
each one independently would be impossible.
When a large number of unbalance points exists,
many of them will partially counteract each other.
In practice, as few corrections as possible are
made. To accomplish this, all the static and all

4-15
the dynamic unbalances are combined and a single
correction weight is added in each of two planes
at the correct angular location (explained later on
in the chapter). Generally this is all that is
necessary to eliminate the effects of the total
unbalance.
Figure 4-19 shows a static unbalance in plane
S of 1.5 ounces at a radius of 10 inches. The
value of this static unbalance is 15 ounce-inches.
The rotor also has a dynamic unbalance of
5 ounces in planes L and R, at a radius of
6 inches. The distance between these planes
is 30 inches. Therefore, the dynamic unbalance
(W x r x L) is 900 ounce-inch-inches. Each type
of unbalance could be corrected independently
using the previously described methods. However,
since a rotor in an unbalanced condition may have
an almost infinite number of unbalance points,
the number of correction planes is
60
30"
Figure 4-19. Combined static and dynamic unbalance.
60
h 20"- -40
Figure 4-20. Combined static and dynamic unbalance
infinite. Therefore, we simplify the process
by determining the resultant unbalance and
compensating for it in only two planes of
correction, simultaneously eliminating both static
and dynamic unbalance. Figure 4-20 shows the
corrections to the unbalances shown in figure
4-19. The 1 -ounce weight on the right end of the
rotor and the 2.5-ounce weight on the left end
provide appropriate forces to counteract both the
static and dynamic unbalances.
To simplify understanding the correction of
unbalance, we have assumed that the unbalances
present in a rotor are at the same location or
exactly opposite angular locations. Actually, it
would be an extremely rare case if this were to
happen. Since the unbalances may be at many
points throughout the workpiece, determination
of the total amount of correction weight, in each
plane, and the angular locations of these weights,
also nearly must be determined by using the balancing
machine.
BALANCING MACHINES
AND THEM FUNCTIONS
We have seen that balancing is a process
whereby the distribution of mass in a rotating part
is altered by either adding or removing correction
weights to eliminate vibration. There are currently
two general steps to the process; first, locating and
measuring the corrections required to eliminate
unbalance, and second, applying the corrections
at the proper angular locations.
For correcting unbalance, we depend largely
126.61 upon the balancing machine to give accurate as
well as understandable information on the amount
of correction weight required and where it should
be placed (or removed). Agood balancing
machine must enable you, the operator, to select
correction planes for the unbalance, and then to
determine the amount of correction weight and
the angular location of the correction. Since the
Navy has many different balancing machines,
we will only cover basic general operating
characteristics. To learn how to operate a specific
machine, you will have to consult the operator's
manual for that particular machine.
BASIC OPERATING PRINCIPLES
A good balancing machine indicates directly
126.62 the amount and the angular location of
correction weight to be added or removed in each

correction planes should be based on a careful
consideration of both the design and the function
of the workpiece.
The balancing machine you use may operate
on any one of three basic operating principles
pivoted cradle, nodal bar, or electrical network.
The PIVOTED CRADLE method was
originated about 30 years ago. This setup is shown
in figure 4-21. The part to be balanced is
supported at A and B on the cradle. The cradle
is supported by a fulcrum on one end and by a
spring on the other. As the workpiece is rotated,
the amount of vibratory motion between the
cradle and the machine base away from the
fulcrum is registered on the unbalance indicator.
After the unbalance is measured on this correction
plane, the workpiece is turned around to check
the unbalance on the other correction plane. In
figure 4-21, an ideal situation, an unbalance (W)
happens to exist in a plane (R) located at the
fulcrum point. When the workpiece is rotating,
the unbalance indicator will register zero, since
the centrifugal force is confined to plane R. When
the fulcrum is placed in plane L or the workpiece
is turned end-for-end, and the piece is again
rotating, the unbalance indicator will register a
reading for plane R. Therefore, unbalance on the
correction plane in which the fulcrum is placed
does not affect the reading of the unbalance in
the plane being measured.
The pivoted cradle allows you to separate
unbalance into two planes. But unfortunately, the
dampening effect of the mass of the cradle reduces
the vibration produced by a given unbalance and
therefore reduces the accuracy of measurement.
The second method of plane separation, more
recent than the pivoted cradle, is shown in figure
4-22. It uses a NODAL BAR, and has the
workpiece flexibly supported by bearings located
at points A and B. These bearings are attached
to the nodal bar, giving it the same motion as the
workpiece.
INDICATOR,
.CRADLE
MACHINE
'L PLANE
NODAL BAR
126.64X
Figure 4-22. The nodal bar.
In figure 4-22, an unbalance W
exists in plane
R. As the workpiece is rotating, the axis
will vibratebetween lines Oi - OiandO2 - Oz.
Since the excess weight is located closer to
bearing B than to bearing A, the vibratory
motion of bearing B will be greater than that of
bearing A. At some point (N) along the axis of
rotation and at the corresponding point on the
nodal bar, there is no vibratory motion. This
point, called the nodal point, is the pivot point
of the vibration. An unbalance indicator placed
at this point will give a zero reading. If you place
an indicator at the nodal point and then clamp
the left end of the workpiece to stop left end
vibration, the indicator will show a reading of
unbalance in the right-side correction plane.
Likewise, if you clamp the right side of the
workpiece, you can read from the indicator the
unbalance of the left-side correction plane. This
method provides more accurate correction plane
location than the cradle method. However, the
mass of the nodal bar and the connecting pieces
still reduces the accuracy of measurement.
The third, and most accurate method for
locating correction planes uses ELECTRICAL
NETWORKS (fig. 4-23). In this method, the
'OUTAGE
DIVIDER
126.65X
workplace is supported by bearings A
and B. Each
bearing is connected by a rod to a coil suspended
in the magnetic field of a permanent magnet. Both
coils are connected to an electrical network that
includes a meter used as the unbalance indicator.
When the bearings move in response to an
unbalance, the coils move within their magnetic
fields. As the coils move, a voltage proportional
to the amount of bearing displacement is
generated in each of the coils.
Figure 4-23 shows an unbalance W in plane
R. As
the workpiece is rotated, its axis
rotation will vibrate between lines Oi Oi and
Oz - O2- The directions of travel of the two
coils, and the generated voltages, VAR and VBR>
are opposite each other. Since the motion of
bearing B is greater than the motion of bearing
A, voltage VBR will be greater than voltage VAR.
With a voltage divider, voltage VBR can be
reduced until it is equal in magnitude to
voltage VAR> At this point, reduced voltage
VBR (KVjsjj) is equal but opposite to voltage VAR-
The unbalance indicator will read zero because
the voltages cancel one another in the electrical
circuit. To determine the unbalance of plane R,
we simply use a left-right switch to read the ex-
cess voltage in the right side of the circuit. The
excess voltage, the difference between VBR and
VAR, will appear on the meter as an
unbalance in the right-side correction plane.
Turning the left-right switch to the left position
will reveal any unbalance in the left-side
correction plane (fig. 4-24). Turning the left-right
switch in the electrical network method serves the
126.66X
Figure 4-24. Checking both planes by the electrical-
network device.
same purpose as turning the workpiece end-for-
end in the pivoted cradle method.
MASS OF WORK-SUPPORTING
STRUCTURES
In any balancing machine, the amount of
vibratory motion of the rotating piece is the basis
for determining the amount of unbalance.
Therefore, the work supports of the machine must
be lightweight for maximum vibratory motion to
result from any given unbalance.
of
Anunbalanced part would have maximum
vibratory motion if it could rotate freely in space.
But parts must be supported while they are in a
balancing machine, and the mass of the support,
in addition to the mass of the piece, must be
moved by the forces of unbalance. This added
mass of the supports reduces the amplitude of the
vibratory motion. For example, vibrations due to
unbalance in the small electric motor shown in
figure 4-25 are definitely felt, but when the motor
is fixed to a block nine times its own mass, as
shown in figure 4-26, the vibration is hardly
noticeable. Although in each case the centrifugal
forces of unbalance are the same, the amplitude
of vibration in the motor shown in figure 4-26 is
only one-tenth of that in the motor shown in
126.67X
Figure 4-25. Vibration nf an unattached elertrir motor.
 126.69X
Figure 4-27. Work-support member of a balancing
machine.

motion is the only means of determining the

amount of required correction, it follows that

some method must be used to amplify this
126.68X motion to ensure precise measurement. (Note that
Vibration is decreased when the motor the amount of
this section stresses corrections.
Figure 4-26. is

bolted to a heavy block. The question of proper angular location of

correction will be discussed later in the chapter.)
Three types of methods are used to measure the
figure 4-25 the total mass in figure 4-26 being amount of unbalance. They are mechanical,
10 times the mass in figure 4-25. There is a similar optical, and electrical.
effect when the work supports of a balancing A mechanical device for determining the
machine are too heavy. amount of unbalance is illustrated in figure 4-28.
In general, modern balancing machines use This illustration shows that the vibratory effects
extremely lightweight members to support the of unbalance are amplified by single or compound
workpiece. This results in a negligible reduction levers, so they can be read more precisely on a
of the vibratory motion of an unbalanced rotating large scale. A
standard dial indicator may also be
piece. The work supports of some machines
seldom weigh as much as the smallest workpieces
the machines balance. When large workpieces are
balanced on these machines, the weight of the
work supports has no effect on the balancing
AMOUNT
operation. Figure 4-27 shows work support INDICATION
suspended on steel wires offering minimum
restraint to the vibratory motion, which is
transmitted to a coil within a magnet under cover
M, through rod R.

MEASUREMENT OF AMOUNT
OF UNBALANCE
126.70X
Since the vibratory motion of an unbalanced Figure 4-28. A mechanical method for measurement of
piece is small, and since measurement of such unbalance.
used forthis purpose. Because of the inertia of
theirmembers, these devices can follow only low-
frequency vibrations; and at low frequencies,
centrifugal forces are so small that they are
seriously affected by the friction of the device's
pin joints. In addition, the members of this
amplifying device reduce the amplitude of the
vibratory motion, further decreasing the device's
accuracy. The unbalance that will produce a force AMOUNT
sufficient to overcome these problems is the INDICATOR
minimum unbalance that such a device is capable AMPLIFIER
of measuring.
A method that avoids the inertia and friction 126.72X
problems mentioned uses an optical method, as Figure 4-30. An electrical method of measurement of
illustrated in figure 4-29. This method uses a unbalance.
mirror connected to the vibratory work support
to reflect a beam of concentrated light from a
fixed source onto a scale on a screen. As the An electrical method of measuring the amount
mirror's inclination is changed by the vibratory of unbalance and the amount of correction
motion of the work support, the reflected beam required is shown schematically in figure 4-30.
makes a streak of light on the scale. The length In this method, there is no lost motion
of this line is a measure of vibration amplitude between the vibratory support and the amount
and an indication of the amount of correction indicator.
needed. Amplification can be varied by changing
the length of the beam between the rotating The output of the electrical network is
mirror and the scale. One of the limitations of fed into an amplifier before reaching the
this device is that as the beam's length is amount indicator; this amplification can be
increased for greater amplification, the beam will of any desired order 1,600,000 times or
appear on the screen as a spot instead of a point. more and is easily varied to suit particular
The length of the streak of light on the screen jobs. The result is a stable meter indication large
created by the moving spot will become one spot enough to determine precisely the amount of
diameter too long. Determination of the amount unbalance.
of unbalance then becomes a matter of operator
skill in estimating the true length of the streak.

ANGULAR LOCATION
OF CORRECTION
In addition to indicating the amount of
correction required in each of the selected
planes, a balancing machine must indicate the
specific point on the periphery of the piece
ROTATING
MIRROR where the correction must be applied to
balance the piece. If the precise location of
the correction weight is not (or cannot) be
determined, the piece cannot be balanced. The
time taken to determine the precise weight
LENS of corrections will have been wasted. It is
LIGHT also essential that the accuracy of the means
SOURCE used to determine angular location be independent
of the amount of unbalance in the piece for
balancing to be possible.

126.71X Electrical-network balancing machines use

Figure 4-29. An optical method for measurement of electrical devices to indicate the angular location
unbalance. where the correction should be made. One of these

STROBOSCOPIC
LAMP
REFERENCE
POINTER
126.73X
Figure 4-31. Lamp method for indicating location for
correction.
devices is an electron tube functioning as a
stroboscopic lamp (fig. 4-31).
The stroboscopic lamp will flash each time the
voltage in the electrical network changes from
negative to positive. Even the minute vibratory
effects of the smallest unbalances can be detected
and measured with this type of balancing
machine. The stroboscopic lamp is triggered
repeatedly at the same point, in the rotation of
the workpiece, whether the unbalance is large or
small. The amplified triggering voltage for the
lamp is more than 15 times the voltage supplied
to the amount of unbalance meter. Indications of
the locations for correction are shown with an
order of accuracy greater than that for the
indication of the amount. The same stroboscopic
lamp, reference pointer, and angle band on the
piece are used to locate the unbalance in each of
the two correction planes.
Another method for determining angular
locations for corrections uses a wattmeter to
measure the average value of the product of an
instantaneous voltage and an instantaneous
current that is, it measures the average power.
The instantaneous voltage is the amplified
output of the network; the instantaneous current
issupplied either by a sine- wave generator coupled
to the end of the workpiece, or by the amplified
output of a photoelectric tube actuated by a
reference spot of contrasting color on the
workpiece.
With the wattmeter method, the turning of the
handwheel or knob brings the pointer of the
wattmeter to a zero reading. An indicating device
associated with the handwheel or knob will, when
the wattmeter reads zero, point to the angular
location at which the corrections are to be made.
ELIMINATION OF
UNWANTED VIBRATIONS
In all balancing machines, the piece to be
balanced issupported in a flexible structure that
offers minimum restraint to the vibratory motion
produced by unbalance. This structure is sensitive
to vibrations produced by other means as well as
to those produced by unbalance. Unless you
understand the characteristics of these flexible
structures and use them properly, you may very
well amplify and measure, as unbalance,
vibrations transmitted through a common floor
from such machinery as punch presses and lathes
under intermittent cut. During balancing
operations, you should exercise care to minimize
the excitation of flexible structures of balancing
machines by external sources.
DRIVES FOR THE WORKPIECE
The workpiece in any balancing machine is
rotated by a driving device at one end or by a belt
over the periphery of the piece. With smaller
pieces, the latter means is more advantageous; the
use of an end drive for rotating the piece presents
certain difficulties, especially when small parts are
being balanced to a high order of accuracy.
MEASUREMENT IN UNITS
OF CORRECTION
Balancing machines ordinarily indicate the
amount of unbalance in ounce-inches. You, as the
operator, must convert this measurement into a
correction you can use on the job such as depth
of drilling, or of the length of wire solder to be
applied, the number of washers to be attached,
or similar methods of adding weights.
Some types of balancing machines are
designed to allow you to convert machine
measurements to practical correction units by
using a calibration constant. A
calibration
constant is a number by which you multiply the
machine indication to determine the amount of
balancing machines are designed to eliminate any
trial-and-errormethods in making corrections.
The amount of corrections required may be shown
directly on an amount indicator.
CORRECTING UNBALANCE
BY ADDING WEIGHT
The common means for adding balancing
weight are (1) the addition of a measured length
of wire solder of a given diameter, (2) the
addition of a measured length of strip metal of
a given cross section, and (3) the addition of a
selected size or a given number of one size of a
known weight generally made up as washers, lead
slugs, or cast weights.
To balance squirrel cage fans, for example,
you can attach measured lengths of wire solder
to the shroud rings. To balance armatures for
direct-current motors and generators, you can
attach the solder to the banding wires.
Figure 4-32 shows a device you can use to
meter lengths of correction solder by turning the
handwheel to a number corresponding with the
126.76X
Figure 4-32. Metering device for adding correction weight.
4-22
126.77X
Figure 4-33. A method of using correction weights for
electrical armatures.
unbalance indication of the balancing machine;
you then cut off the solder into the tray by
applying a light blow on the punch knob. You
may also use strip material of a given cross
section on squirrel cage fans and on other parts
built up or formed out of sheet material. In all
cases, however, you should consult the manu-
facturer's technical manual for the specific
equipment to determine the type of correction
required.
Figure 4-33 shows how strips of brass or
aluminum may be used on small universal motor
armatures. The extended material is precut to
various lengths, which are multiples of the base
unit of correction as indicated by the balancing
machine; the lengths are inserted in the slots of
the armature's cone. This is a very accurate
method, providing the lengths are accurately
controlled. For some components, corrections are
applied in the form of washers, lead slugs, or cast
weights. These various weights may be in
multiples of the base unit of correction or, when
all are of the same size and weight, may be
attached in the proper numbers as indicated by
the balancing machine.
CORRECTING UNBALANCE
BY REMOVING WEIGHT
The common means of removing weight are
milling, grinding, shaping,and drilling. Milling
or shaping often do not produce an accurate job
because of variations in surface, especially with
forged or cast pieces. The effectiveness of snag
grinding is limited by the operator's skill, and
there is the possibility of burning the metal and 2. Center of mass The point in a rotating
destroying its quality. Drilling is usually the best body at which the sum of all movement is
means of removing metal for balance. The equal.
machine tool, suitable work-holding fixtures, and 3. Gravitational axis The axis in a rotating
any needed guide bushings are comparatively body about which the gravitational forces in the
inexpensive. A given diameter of drill sunk to a body are equal.
measured depth will remove an intended weight 4. Rotational axis The axis in a rotating
of metal with a high degree of accuracy. Be sure body about which the body is forced to rotate due
to use charts that are provided by the manu- to support bearings.
facturer and take precautionary measures in the 5. Dynamic bearing load The weight sup-
location where metal is to be removed. Otherwise, ported by each of the several bearings supporting
you may impair the strength of the rotating part a workpiece.
or piece. 6. Correctional plane A
plane perpendicular
to the rotational axis of a part on which weight
corrections for unbalance are made.
TERMS USED IN BALANCING 7. Centrifugal force A
force exerted away
from the axis of rotation by all particles of a
The following list contains some of the terms rotating body.
used in balancing: 8. Unbalance A condition under which the
mass weight of a rotating part is unevenly
1 . Center of gravity The point in a body at distributed about its rotational axis, causing the
which all of the gravitational forces in the body gravitational axis to be displaced either parallel
are equal. or at an angle to the rotational axis.
 CHAPTER 5

METALLURGY AND HEAT TREATMENT

As a Machinery Repairman, you work with
many and alloys. The
different types of metals
more knowledge you have of metals and alloys,
the better you will be able to perform your repair
and maintenance duties. The information you
have already learned about the characteristics
of metals and alloys from your Machinery
Repairman 3 & 2 book will help you better
understand the theory of metallurgy and heat
treatment.
The information given in this chapter includes
only the minimum amount of theoretical
background information you will need in order
to give directions to subordinates and to
understand the terminology used in this chapter.
If you find that you need a more extensive
knowledge of the theory and understanding of
metallurgy and heat treatment, consult a
machinist handbook or any textbook on physical
metallurgy.
Metallurgy is the art or science of separating
metals from their ores, making and compounding
alloys,and working or heat-treating metals to give
them certain desired shapes or properties.
Metallurgy has been broken down into three
branches chemical metallurgy, physical
metallurgy, and mechanical metallurgy.
CHEMICAL METALLURGY deals with the
reduction of metals from their ores and the
creation of alloys by changing the chemical
structure of the base metals. For example, steel
is made from iron, which is produced from iron
operations such as machining, casting, and
forging.
STRUCTURE OF METAL
Throughout your career as a Machinery
Repairman, you have become familiar with the
physical properties, such as hardness, brittleness,
malleability, and ductility, associated with various
metals. These properties of metal are directly
related to the internal, or atomic, structure of the
metals. This section will explain to you how
various arrangements of atoms result in these and
other properties.
Metals in liquid state have a noncrystalline
structural form. The crystals in metal are called
GRAINS (irregularly shaped crystals developed
from the converging lattices). These irregularly
shaped crystals are formed as the metal cools and
changes from a liquid state to a solid state. This
change of state is called FREEZING. As the metal
freezes, its atoms lose the energy of motion they
had in the metal's liquid state. The slow-moving
atoms become attached to one another, usually
in one of four predictable patterns, depending on
the type and composition of the metal. These
patterns are shown in figure 5-1 and will be
discussed in greater detail later in this chapter.
CRYSTALS AND GRAINS

ore.During this process, coke is used as a fuel, The first group of atoms to form a pattern
and limestone is used as a fluxing agent. creates what is called a UNIT CELL, or GRAIN
PHYSICAL METALLURGY deals with the NUCLEUS. The unit cell is the basic building
nature, structure, and physical properties of block of the metal. Many unit cells connect in the
metals and The subject of physical
alloys. same pattern that makes up the unit cell and form
metallurgy includes metallography (study of a CRYSTAL. Crystals then connect to form the
metals with a microscope), mechanical testing, metal's CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE.
and heat treatment, which we will discuss later Under ideal conditions, crystals will be
in this chapter. perfectly shaped. Under real world conditions,
MECHANICAL METALLURGY deals with however, crystal shapes 'are usually distorted.
the working and shaping of metals through These typically distorted crystals, or grains,

5-1
 ^--rx
gr
A. BODY-CENTERED B. FACE-CENTERED
CUBIC UNIT CUBIC UNIT
ARRANGEMENT. ARRANGEMENT.

\!
\ /

C. BODY-CENTERED
^r
D. HEXAGONAL CLOSE-
TETRAGONAL UNIT PACKED UNIT
ARRANGEMENT OF ARRANGEMENT.
ATOMS.

126.110
Figure 5-1. Atom arrangement in a space lattice system.
form what is known as the GRAIN STRUCTURE body-centered metals are tungsten, molybdenum
of the metal. (MO), vanadium (V), wolfran (W), columbium,
The surface of a metal does not indicate its and ferrite (or alpha iron) below its hardening
internal grain structure. However, when the metal temperature.
is fractured, structure will show on the fractured

surface. The size of the grains depends upon a

number of factors, including the nature of the Face-Centered Cubic Lattice
metal, the temperature to which it is heated, the
length of time it is held at a specific temperature, The face-centered cubic lattice (fig. 5-1, view
and the rate at which it is cooled from a liquid B) contains 14 atoms, one at each corner of the
to a solid. In general, the quicker a metal cube and one at the center of each face of the
solidifies, the smaller the grains will be. cube. In this arrangement, the atoms are more
Some grains may be seen with the naked eye. closely packed, making the face-centered cubic
Others can only be seen under magnification. The metals softer than body-centered cubic metals and
studyof the microscopic structure of metals is relatively easy to work cold. Representative metals
called metallography. Instruments used to in this group are nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), lead
magnify grains are called METALLURGICAL (Pb), aluminum (AI), gold (Au), silver (Ag), and
MICROSCOPES. These microscopes can mag- calcium (Ca).
nify grains several hundred times their actual size.
Additional magnification can be gained through If ferrite is heated to its hardening
the use of an ELECTRON MICROSCOPE, temperature, its grain structure changes from
which can magnify up to many thousand times body-centered cubic to face-centered cubic. At
actual size. this point, the metal becomes AUSTENITE,

Metallurgical microscopes equipped with or gamma iron (fig. 5-2). During the harden-
devices for photographing the microstmcture of ing process, carbon is freed from a high-
metals are known as METALLOGRAPHIC carbon metal between the grains called cementite,
MICROSCOPES. or iron-carbide, and is uniformly dispersed
into the solid hot iron. In this manner,
SPACE LATTICES austenite can be given a carbon content as
high as 2.00 percent; whereas the body-centered
The arrangement of atoms (the most basic unit cubic metal ferrite, containing fewer atoms
of matter) in a crystal can be shown by a graphic per grain, can only have up to a 0.05 percent
illustration called a SPACE LATTICE. Each of carbon content.
the four line-dot drawings in figure 5-1 is a space
lattice. The dots represent atoms, while the lines
make the shape easier to visualize.
The space lattices of most metals can be
identified as one of the following four types:

1. Body-centered cubic
2. Face-centered cubic
3. Body-centered tetragonal
4. Hexagonal close-packed

Body-Centered Cubic Lattice

The body-centered cubic lattice (fig. 5-1, view

A) contains nine atoms, one at each corner of the
cube and one at the center of the cube. In this
arrangement, each atom is held in position by the
force of the remaining eight atoms.
Metals that have the body-centered cubic
arrangement are usually stronger, but harder to 126.111X
work cold, than metals that have a face-centered Figure 5-2. Microscopic structure called austenite magnified
cubic arrangement (discussed next). Some of the 500 times.
Body-Centered Tetragonal Lattice
The body-centered tetragonal lattice (fig. 5-1
view C) contains nine atoms and looks like a body-
centered cubic lattice stretched in one dimension.
Recall that steel heated to its hardening
temperature becomes a face-centered cubic
material called austenite. If austenite is quenched
at itshardening temperature and cooled rapidly
to a temperature of less than 400 F, it will change
into MARTENSITE (fig. 5-3). During the
transformation from austenite to martensite, the
steel becomes supersaturated with carbon.
Because of its extremely high carbon content and
the distortion of its structure, martensite is the
hardest and most brittle form of steel.
Hexagonal Close-Packed Lattice
The hexagonal close-packed lattice (fig. 5-1,
view D) contains 17 atoms. This structure does
not have the high degree of symmetry evident in
the cubic structure, and as a result this type of
structure is every difficult to deform. Metals that
have this structure have little plasticity and are
very difficult to work cold. Some examples of this
type of metal are cadmium (Cd), cobalt (Co),
magnesium (Mg), titanium (Ti), zinc (Zn), and
beryllium (Be).
Of the four lattices mentioned above, the cubic
types are the most important. If you understand
the role these structures play in the heat-treating
126.112X
Figure 5-3. Microscopic structure called martensite
magnified 2500 times.
process, you will be able to understand better how
desired characteristics are given to various forms
, of steel. The relationship between atomic
structure, carbon content, and characteristics of
the metal will be discussed later in this chapter.
Some metals may exist in more than one
lattice form at a particular temperature. When a
metal exists in more than one lattice form it is said
to be ALLOTROPIC in nature. A change from
one lattice structure to another is called an
allotropic change. The temperature at which
allotrophic changes take place is called the
TRANSFORMATION TEMPERATURE. The
changes from one form of iron to another are not
often instantaneous at a specific temperature.
Rather, they generally take place within a range
of temperatures called the TRANSFORMATION
TEMPERATURE RANGE. The temperature of
the lower end is called the lower transformation
temperature and the temperature of the upper end
is called the upper transformation temperature.
Recall that when a metal crystallizes in such
a way that the crystals are not perfectly formed
the crystals are called grains. The line-shaped
areas between adjacent grains are known as
GRAIN BOUNDARIES. A high state of stress
exists at the grainboundaries, due to a mismatch
of each lattice. When a metal is deformed, the
atoms in the structure slide over one another along
certain planes called SLIP PLANES. Slip planes
are the planes of least resistance to an applied
force. Metals with large grains have long slip
planes, allowing deformation to occur easily. On
the other hand, metals with small grains have
short slip planes, making deformation difficult.
The plane along which a metal separates when
subjected to an applied force is called a
CLEAVAGE PLANE.
In alloys (substances composed of two or
more metals or of a metal and a nonmetal), the
internal structure may be in the form of crystals
of pure metals, a solid solution, intermetallic
compounds, mechanical mixtures, or some
combination of these structures.
In a solid solution, the elements are completely
dissolved in each other, with the atoms of one
element fitting into and forming parts of the space
lattice of the other element. Figure 5-4 illustrates
two ways in which solid solutions may exist. The
atoms of one element may fit into the spaces
between the atoms of another element, as
indicated in figure 5-4, view A; or the atoms of
one element may replace the atoms of another
element in the space lattice, as indicated in figure
5-4, view B.
 Similarly, INTERMETALLIC COM-
POUNDS are combinations of a metal and some
other substance such as carbon or sulfur. Under
certain conditions, intermetallic compounds form
and a new substance with new properties is created
in very much the same manner but on a more
complicated basis. Perhaps the most important
thing to remember about the intermetallic com-
pounds is the loss of identity and the change in
properties of the combining elements. The heat
B
treater quite often uses the change in properties
offered by compound formations in metals to
18.67
create compounds with certain desired properties.
Figure 5-4. Space of two forms of solid solution.
lattices
A. Atoms of one element fit between atoms of
One intermetallic compound of great impor-
another element. B. Atoms of one element replace atoms tance in ferrous alloys is known as IRON
of another element. CARBIDE or CEMENTITE. an extremely
This is

hard and brittle compound which is formed by

the combination of iron (a metal) and carbon (a
A solid solution in a metal is similar to many metalloid). The formula for iron carbide, or
solutions you are familiar with. For example: cementite, is FeaC. This formula shows that three
water dissolves salt. The result is a wet salty atoms of iron combine with one atom of carbon
liquid. The taste of the salt and the wetness of to produce one molecule of iron carbide, or
the water have not changed. As you see, there has cementite.
been no change of individual properties. The structure of an alloy is described as
However, you cannot see or distinguish which is being a MECHANICAL MIXTURE when two
water and which is salt. The loss of individual or more structuralforms are mixed together but
identity is apparent. An example of a familiar are still separately distinguishable. A mechanical
solid solution is Monel metal. You know from mixture of an alloy is comparable though on a
experience that Monel is tough, and yet soft and smaller scale to the mixture of sand and gravel
plastic; the toughness of nickel and the plasticity in concrete.
of copper have been combined in the form of a One of the most important mechanical
metallic solid solution. mixtures that occurs in many steels is known as
The individual elements lose their identity in PEARLITE, where hypoeutectoid steel changes
a solid solution. A
polished cross section of a into hypereutectoid steel. Pearlite, so called
material that consists of only one solid solution because it has a pearly luster when seen under a
shows all grains to be of the same nominal microscope, is an intimate mechanical mixture of
composition. ferrite and cementite in alternate plates or layers.
Ferrite and austentite are two solid solutions Ferrite is a solid solution, and cementite or
that are important constituents of steel. FERRITE iron carbide is an intermetallic compound; in

is the name given to a solid solution of alpha iron
and carbon. AUSTENITE is the term for a solid
solution of gamma iron and carbon. Carbon is
only slightly soluble in alpha iron but is quite
soluble in gamma iron. Alpha iron at room
temperature can hold only about 0.007 percent
carbon in solid solution. At a temperature of
2065 F, gamma iron can hold up to about
2.0 percent carbon in solid solution.
pearlite, the two are closely mixed to form a
characteristically layered structure.
Pearlite is formed when steel that contains
approximately 0.83 percent carbon (plain carbon
steel) is heated to a certain temperature and
then cooled slowly. When the entire structure
of the alloy is in the form of pearlite, the com-
position is referred to as the EUTECTOID
COMPOSITION. The pearlitic structure is

As an introduction to compounds, consider EUTECTOID

called the or the EUTECTOID
ordinary table salt. The two poisonous elements, STRUCTURE.
sodium and chlorine, are combined chemically to The internal structure of an alloy may show
create a new and different substance, sodium various combinations of pure metals, solid
chloride, or table salt. Salt, with its own identity solutions, intermetallic compounds, and
and properties, does not resemble either sodium mechanical mixtures. Many of the combinations
or chlorine. that are important in steels and other alloys are

5-5
 PEARLITE FERRITE
18.91
Figure 5-5. Typical structure of low carbon steel (carbon
less than 0.83 percent).
the result of controlled heating and cooling of the
alloy. In other words, they are the result of heat
treatment. Figure 5-5 shows, very much enlarged,
a typical combination that occurs when plain
carbon steel containing less than 0.83 percent
carbon is heated to a certain temperature and then
cooled slowly. This combination consists of the
solid solution ferrite and the mechanical mixture
pearlite, each in crystal form, distributed
throughout the alloy. The relative proportions of
ferrite and pearlite in this combination depend
largely upon the carbon content of the alloy.
Figure 5-6 shows the combination that occurs
when plain carbon steel containing more than 0.83
percent carbon is heated to a certain temperature
and then cooled slowly. This combination
contains no free crystals of ferrite; instead, it
consists of crystals of pearlite surrounded by
cementite at the grain boundaries.
GRAIN SIZE is determined by the number of
grains per square inch in a metal magnified 100
times normal size. The number of grains that form
depends upon the rate of cooling from a molten
state to a solid state. If a metal cools rapidly,
many grains will form, and the size of the grain
will be smaller. The smaller the grain, the shorter
the slip planes, and the harder and stronger the
metal will be. The opposite will occur if the metal
is cooled slowly. Grain size, therefore, directly
affects the physical and the mechanical properties
of metal and can be changed by various heat
treatment methods.
PEARLITE
CEMENTITE OR IRON-CARBIDE
mor
Figure 5-6. Typical structure of steel containing
0.83 percent carbon.
HEAT TREATMENT
Heat treatment may be defined as
operation or combination of operations
involves the heating and cooling of a solid n
or alloy to obtain certain desirable properti<
conditions. The basic purpose of all
treatment is to change the properties of the n
in some particular way. The change ma]
required in order to improve the metal fo
intended service, to support some subseq
operation such as machining, or to relieve str<
in the material. Heat treatment is comm
used to develop or change such propertle
hardness, ductility, toughness, machinabilty,
'
resistance, brittleness, magnetism, and elect
conductivity.
No single heat-treating operation coul<
used to produce all of these changes. In i
improving a metal in one way often chang
undesirably in some other way. For exarr
hardening and tempering carbon steel will inci
the tensile strength and yield strength; at the s
time, however, this treatment may reduce
metal's ductility, as measured by per
of elongation. Therefore, heat treating
not be successful unless you know ex*
what properties you can afford to sacr
and exactly how to produce the requ
properties in the particular metal with w
you are working.
 As a Class or Chief Machinery
First
Repairman, you need to have certain machine
will
parts or tools heat treated before and after
machining operations.
HEAT-TREATING EQUIPMENT
The equipment required for heat-treating
consists of furnaces or other heating devices,
quenching baths or other cooling devices,
temperature controls and indicators, and other
controls and indicators required for the proper
operation of the equipment or for the control of
the process. In addition, heat-treating equipment
includes tongs and other devices for handling and
holding the work while it is being heated or
cooled.
The type of heat-treating equipment you are
required to use depends upon where you are
stationed. On board ship, of course, heat-treating
equipment is less elaborate than at many shore
stations. Repair ships have fairly complete
equipment for heat-treating, but most other ships
do not. On ships that have no real heat-treating
equipment, the occasional heat-treating that must
be done is accomplished with improvised ovens
and improvised quenching baths. Obviously, heat
treatment is something less than an exact science
when such improvised equipment is used. Even
with improvised equipment, however, you can do
a good job if you understand the principles of heat
treatment, know exactly what you want to do to
the structure of the metal, and understand the
limitations of the equipment.
Because heat-treating equipment varies so
widely, it is not practical to describe or to give
operating instructions for different types in this
course. The equipment described here is typical
of heat-treating equipment you may be required
to use, but it does not include all possible types
of equipment. If you are required to heat-treat
metals, find out all you can about the equipment
that is available before you begin to use it. The
instructions furnished by the manufacturer are
usually your best and sometimes only source
of authoritative information on a specific item of
heat-treating equipment.
HEATING EQUIPMENT
Equipment designed for the heating of metals
includes electric furnaces, fuel-fired furnaces, bath
furnaces, and devices for the measurement and
control of temperature. Improvised heating
devices may include oxyacetylene torches, Hauck
burners, forges, and temporary ovens constructed
of firebrick and sheet asbestos.
The gases that circulate through the furnace
heating chamber and surround the metal
as it is being heated make up the FURNACE
ATMOSPHERE. By controlling the composition
of the furnace atmosphere, you can produce the
type of atmosphere best suited for the heating of
a particular type of metal. Furnace atmospheres
are generally classified as being oxidizing,
reducing, or neutral.
An OXIDIZING ATMOSPHERE exists when
excess air is circulated through the furnace. Some
electric furnaces are designed to operate with an
oxidizing atmosphere at all times. In a fuel-fired
furnace (gas or oil), an oxidizing atmosphere may
be produced by introducing more air into the
heating chamber than is required for the
combustion of the fuel. An oxidizing atmosphere
is indicated by bright, clean walls and a clear,
transparent atmosphere in the furnace. Metals
heated in an oxidizing atmosphere occasionally
develop films of metal oxides on their surfaces.
In some cases, this is undesirable; but in other
cases, it is desirable because it tends to prevent
further decarburization of the metal. Decarburiza-
tion is a term used to describe the loss of carbon
from the surface of ferrous metals with conse-
quent softening of the material.
A REDUCING ATMOSPHERE tends to
remove oxygen from the surface of the metal. A
reducing atmosphere is often desirable in heat
treatment since it tends to prevent oxide
formation and other surface deterioration. If
decarburization of steel is to be avoided, however,
a neutral atmosphere rather than a reducing or
oxidizing atmosphere is used.
A NEUTRAL ATMOSPHERE is neither
oxidizing nor reducing because it contains no
oxygen (oxidizing agent) and no carbon monoxide
(reducing agent). In reality, other factors often
tend to produce either oxidation or decarburiza-
tion; therefore, an atmosphere that is described
as neutral may not always be totally neutral.
The furnace atmosphere may be the natural
result of the combustion of the fuel (gas or
oil) that heats the furnace, or it may be the
result of the deliberate introduction of a gas
or a mixture of gases into the heating chamber.
When gases are deliberately introduced into
the heating chamber for the purpose of con-
trolling the atmosphere, the furnace is said
to have a CONTROLLED or PROTECTIVE
ATMOSPHERE.
 Electric Furnaces

Electric furnaces with a controlled atmosphere

are frequently used for heat-treating on repair
ships and tenders. Quite often two such units are
used on the same ship. One is a relatively low-
temperature furnace used for preheating or
annealing, and the other is a higher temperature
furnace used for hardening. Both types are
equipped with control devices for regulating
temperature. The high-temperature furnace
may also be equipped with rheostats used
to increase the rate of heating. A typical
electric furnace for shipboard use is shown
in figure 5-7. An exploded view of a slightly
different type of electric furnace is shown
in figure 5-8.

The outer casing of the furnace is usually made

of sheet steel. Just inside the casing is a layer of
insulating material, such as mica, spun glass, or
asbestos. Inside this insulating material is a
lining of refractory material, such as firebrick and
insulating brick. The refractory lining insulates
the furnace, helps maintain the required high
temperatures, and supports the heating elements
and the hearth plate.

The heating elements of an electric furnace are

metal or silicon carbide resistors in the form of
bars or tubes. Metallic resistors made of nickel-
18.95X iron-chromium are used for temperatures up to
Figure 5-7. Controlled atmosphere electric furnace for about 2000 F. Molybdenum or tungsten resistors
heat-treating. are used for temperatures up to 3100F if a

FURNACE FACE
 In operating and maintaining an electric
heat-treating furnace, observe the following
precautions:

1 Do not allow a conductor (a piece of metal,

.

for example) to short-circuit the heating elements.

2. Do not try to heat the furnace to a

temperature higher than the temperature specified

by the manufacturer. Do not overload the
furnace.
3. Keep the interior of the furnace clean.
4.Inspect the entire unit at frequent intervals.
18.97 Replace defective parts immediately.
Figure 5-9. Grid for heat-treating furnace. 5. Open andclose the furnace door carefully
to avoid damaging the insulation or other parts
of the furnace.
hydrogen atmosphere is provided in the furnace. 6. Observe all safety precautions appropriate
As a rule, silicon carbide resistors are used for to electricalequipment in general and all special
temperatures over 2000 F. instructions given by the manufacturer. Electric
furnaces carry heavy amperage and high voltage.
Hearth plates are placed on the bottom of the
They can be dangerous if operating instructions
heating chamber to support the pieces being and maintenance procedures are not followed
heated. Hearth plates must withstand high
correctly.
temperatures without sagging or scaling. They are
often made of a special nickel-chromium heat-
resistant alloy. If the furnace is designed for the
Fuel-Fired Furnaces
heat treatment of high-speed steels, the hearth
plate maybe made of a carbon and silicon. Furnaces that are heated by the combustion
made of iron-chromium-nickel of fuel gas or fuel oil are referred to as
Grids, usually
FUEL-FIRED FURNACES. Although fuel-fired
alloy, keepheavy or long sections of material off
the hearth plate.The use of grids ensures more furnaces may be found on board ship, they are
uniform heating of the material and tends to primarily located in heat-treating shops at shore
prevent warping. A
grid for an electric furnace
stations.
In design and construction, fuel-fired furnaces
is shown in figure 5-9.
are generally quite similar to electric furnaces. The
A special type of electric furnace known as an actual heating equipment, of course, is different.
AIR-CIRCULATING FURNACE is sometimes Burners are used in fuel-fired furnaces instead of
used for stress-relieving and for heat-treating the heating elements. Another difference is that
nonferrous metals. This type of furnace contains special containers called MUFFLES, are used in
no heating elements in the chamber where the fuel-fired furnaces to protect the work from direct
material is heated. Instead, air is heated in an exposure to flames or excessively hot combustion
adjacent chamber and is then passed through gases.
ducts into the chamber in which the material is Always follow the manufacturer's instructions
placed. The circulation of air to this type of and maintaining a fuel-fired furnace.
in operating
furnace is usually sufficient to provide between Also, observe the following general precautions
350 and 600 complete changes of air per minute. when you use fuel-fired furnaces:
The heated air usually passes vertically through
the furnace load. Air-circulating furnaces are 1 Open all doors before you light the burners.
.

low-temperature units, usually designed

relatively
to operate at temperatures ranging from 275 to
1250 F. Temperature control is both accurate and
rapid. The maximum temperature variation is
seldom more than plus or minus 5 F, and very
2. Purge the furnace with air from the blower
before you light the burners. Be sure the fuel oil
or gas valves are closed while you purge the
furnace.
3 When you shut off any type of oil or gas
.

rapid changes to a higher or lower temperature burner, shut off the fuel supply before you shut
are possible. off the air supply.
 4. Inspect burners frequently and remove any the wedge is stuck to the cake, loosen it by
scale or other material that may be clogging the tapping it on each side.
burners. 2. Heat solid salts slowly. They melt slowly,
5. Inspect the entire unit at frequent intervals. and if you try to make them melt rapidly, you will
Replace defective parts immediately. merely overheat the crucible and the salt nearest
6. Inspect all pipes and joints at regular the crucible.
intervals. Keep them in good repair. 3 . add new salts before the melting
If possible,
7. Do
not overload the furnace. Consult the starts. Ifyou must add new salts after some of
manufacturer's instructions concerning proper the bath material has already melted, preheat and
loading. dry the new salts before adding them.
8. Observe all
appropriate safety precautions 4. Before placing metal parts or tools
in connection with the use, handling, transfer, and into a molten bath, preheat the metal to
stowage of the fuel. at least 250 F. Undetected moisture on any
metal part will cause violent popping and
sputtering of the molten salts when the metal
Bath Furnaces is immersed. As a result of this popping and

sputtering, you may be severely burned by the

Various types of liquid baths may be used for molten salts.
heating materials. A BATH FURNACE is, merely 5. Use only the correct kind of salts of the
a melting pot or crucible filled with salt, lead, or required purity in bath furnaces. DO NOT MIX
oil. The bath material is melted and maintained DIFFERENT KINDS OF SALTS! Violent
at a constant temperature by electric resistors. explosions have resulted from the accidental
Figure 5-10 shows the general arrangement of a mixing of different kinds of salts. Tools and parts
bath furnace. Various salts are used in furnaces must be completely cleaned of all traces of salts
of this type. The particular salt selected for any before they are allowed to come in contact with
application depends upon the melting point of the any other kind of salts.
salt and the practical range through which the 6. If thermocouples extend into the molten

liquid salt can be heated. material of the bath, be sure to remove them
Observe the following instructions and pre- before the material solidifies.
cautions in connection with the use of bath 7. Be sure there is adequate ventilation when
furnaces: you use a bath furnace. A
suitable exhaust system
MUST be provided to remove fumes from the
1. Before melting solid salts, remove the steel space.
wedge from the center of the frozen salt cake. If 8. Do not allow lead or salts to accumulate
around bath furnaces.
9. Be sure the quenching tanks are placed at
a safe distance from the bath furnaces.
AUTOMATIC TEMPERATURE CONTROL 10. After using a salt bath, place a steel
freeze in the center of the molten salts
wedge
before allowing the salts to cool. Before
the salts are used again, remove the wedge.
The opening formed in the frozen salt cake
provides a space for expansion of the salts
as they heat. This allows more rapid melting
of the salt cake than would be possible without
the opening.
11. Use appropriate safety equipment
gloves, goggles, and masks, as necessary.
12. Observe all safety precautions that apply
to the materials used in the bath furnaces. SOME
OF THE SALTS USED IN BATH FURNACES
ARE DEADLY POISONS. Do not swallow these
18.98X substances. Do not breathe the fumes. Do not
Figure 5-10. General arrangement of bath furnace used for allow the salts to come in contact with cuts or
heat-treating. scratches on your skin.
 The indicating unit of the pyrometer shows
THERMOCOUPLE
(DISSIMILAR METALS) the difference between the temperature at the
hot end of the wires or strips and the temper-
ature at the cool end. This means that the
temperature at the cool end must be known and
must be either held constant or compensated
'CALIBRATED LEADS for if the temperature indication is to have
FURNACE WALL any meaning. Some pyrometers are equipped
INSULATION with a thermostatically operated control spring
that makes the required temperature correction
automatically. Other pyrometers have a zero
18.99 adjuster that must be operated by hand.
Figure 5-11. Thermoelectric pyrometer used in heat-treating
furnace. Some pyrometers merely indicate the temper-
ature; others indicate it and record it. Most
electric furnaces and many fuel-fired furnaces are
Temperature Measurement and Control equipped with pyrometers that are controllers as
well as measuring devices. This type of instrument
The measurement and control of temperature can be set to develop and maintain any desired
are extremely important in
all heat-treating temperature within the limits of the furnace
processes. Modern
heat-treating furnaces are design.
equipped with various devices for indicating (and
in some cases recording) temperatures. Some If you are using improvised heat-treating
furnaces are also equipped with temperature equipment, you will probably not have any
controllers. accurate way of measuring temperature and will
have to improvise methods for determining
The most commonly used device for mea- temperature.
suring the temperature in a heat-treating furnace
is the THERMOELECTRIC PYROMETER. It is possible to estimate the temperature

This instrument (fig. 5-11) consists of
thermocouple, an extension lead, and an
indicating unit. The thermocouple consists of two
wires or strips of dissimilar metals twisted or
welded together at the tip. An extension lead from
each wire or strip leads to the indicating
unit. When the thermocouple is heated, an
electromotive force of voltage is generated. The
indicating unit is an extremely sensitive
galvanometer capable of registering voltage in
thousandths of a volt. Since the voltage generated
by the heating of the two dissimilar metals is
proportional to the temperature, the indication
of voltage is actually also an indication of
temperature. The indicating unit is calibrated in
degrees Fahrenheit.
The thermocouple is inserted into the
working chamber of the furnace or into the solid
material in a bath furnace. Iron, copper, nickel,
and chromium are among the metals used in
thermocouples for temperatures up to 2000 F.
For higher temperatures a platinum and rare
metal combination is often used. The extension
leads are made of the same materials as the
thermoconnle it
a of ferrous metals by noting the color changes
that occur when the material is heated. This
method is not practical for nonferrous metals
since most nonferrous metals melt before
they show a color change. At best, the
color method of judging temperatures is
guesswork. Nonetheless, you should develop
some skill in using this technique. It may
be the method you have to estimate
only
temperature when you do not have adequate
heat-treating equipment.
The best way to learn to judge the temper-
ature of ferrous metal by color is by heating
small samples of clean, polished steel under
controlled conditions. This way you can check
the colorof the sample against the actual
temperature. Also, study the color charts that
relate color and temperature. Your perception
of the colors will be affected by the color
and intensity of the light in the furnace or
in the room where you are working. Use standard
lighting conditions, if possible, when you
must estimate the temperature of a metal by
observing the color. Charts are available in
various handbooks and textbooks on metals.
 COOLING EQUIPMENT

Table 5-1 is a rough guide to the color- The rate of cooling is controlled by sele
temperature relationships of steel. an appropriate cooling medium and co
At temperatures below those given in procedure. The equipment required for co
table 5-1, another type of color determination includes the substances used for cooling, a
can be made. If steel is thoroughly cleaned or other container to hold the cooling mec
and polished, the surface will appear to change and various kinds of tongs, baskets, and
color as the material is heated. An oxide devices for handling and holding the worl
film forms on the polished surface as the The rate at which a metal cools depends
steel is heated, and the oxide color corresponds a number of factors. The size, shape, temper*
to a certain temperature. Some oxide colors and composition of the material and
for steel are given in table 5-2. temperature and composition of the co
Special temperature-indicating crayons or medium are the major factors involved. Thi
other materials may be available for use in at which a cooling medium can absorb heat i
connection with heat treatment. These materials greatly influenced by circulation. Wher
give a much more accurate indication of cooling medium is agitated, the rate of co
temperature than can be obtained by merely is much faster than when the cooling medi

observing the color of the metal. Temperature- not in motion. The volume of the cooling me
indicating crayons are made of materials that melt is also important. As the metal cools
rapidly and clearly at specified temperatures. A cooling medium absorbs heat. If the volu:
seriesof crayons is supplied to cover a wide range insufficient, the cooling medium will becom
of temperatures. hot to cool the work at the required rat
The crayons are easy to use. You select the regular heat-treating shops where the co
crayon that is labeled with the temperature you mediums must be used continuously, mech*
want. As the metal is being heated, stroke the cooling systems are used to maintain the co
work with the crayon. When the metal is below medium at the correct temperature.
the temperature rating of the crayon, the crayon Liquids, gases, and solids are all us<
will leave a dry or chalky mark on the surface.
cooling mediums for heat-treating operal
When the proper temperature is reached or Table 5-3 shows the relative cooling rates of
exceeded, the crayon will melt quickly, leaving a commonly used liquids and gases. Solid mat
liquid smear on the metal. Do not forget that the such as lime, sand, ashes, and cast-iron chii
crayons indicate only the skin or surface sometimes used when the rate of cooling mi
temperature of the metal. The interior of the piece slower than that produced by liquids or g
may be at quite a different temperature unless the Liquid quenching is accomplished eith
piece has been soaking for some time. STILL-BATH QUENCHING or by FL

5-12
Table 5-3. Average Cooling Rates of Some Liquids and
Gases Used for Cooling, as Compared with Cooling
Rate of Water at 65 F

Cooling Rate, as
Cooling Medium Compared to
Water at 65 F

10-percent brine solution

at 65 F 1.96
10-percent caustic soda
solution 1.38
Water at 65 F 1.00
Prepared oil 0.44
Fuel oil 0.36
Cottonseed oil 0.36
Neatsfoot oil 0.33
Sperm oil 0.33
18.100
Fish oil 0.31
Castor oil 0.29 Figure 5-12. Portable quenching tank for use in heat-
Machine oil 0.22 treating.
Lard oil 0.19
Circulated air 0.032
Still air 0.015
tank. A
portable electric pump may be attached
to the rim of the tank to circulate the liquid.
Stationary quenching tanks are usually
18.122 designed to contain only one liquid. In a
stationary quenching tank, the mesh basket that
holds the work is usually raised and lowered by
QUENCHING. In still-bath quenching the metal air pressure and is controlled by a three-way air
is cooled in a tank of still liquid. The only valve. The basket can usually be positioned at any
movement of the liquid is that caused by the level and can be raised above the level of the
movement of the hot metal. Flush quenching is liquid so that the parts can be drained after they
used for parts that have recesses or cavities that have been cooled. Stationary quenching tanks
would not be properly quenched by the still-bath usually have built-in electric pumps to circulate
method. In flush quenching, the liquid is sprayed the liquid. WATER is often used as a quenching
under pressure onto the surface of the piece and medium for plain carbon steels and for aluminum
into every cavity or recess. This procedure is often and other nonferrous metals. The water must be
used to minimize distortion by providing a kept clean by frequent changing. The temperature
relatively uniform quench to all parts of the piece. most often used for water quenching is about
65 F. Normally, the volume of water in the tank
Portable quenching tanks of the type shown should prevent a temperature rise of more than
in figure 5-12 are sometimes used in small shops 20 F. When very heavy pieces are being quenched,
that do not have permanent, built-in equipment. the temperature rise may exceed 20 F, but it
They may also be used in larger shops where tanks should always be kept as low as possible.
that may be moved from one place to another are BRINE is used for many quenching opera-
needed. Portable quenching tanks may have one tions. At any given temperature, brine cannot

compartment or several. When more than one
quenching medium is to be used, the seal between
the compartments must be absolutely tight in
order to prevent mixing of the mediums. Each
compartment is equipped with a drain plug, a
screen in the bottom to catch scale and other
foreign matter, and a mesh basket to hold the
parts being quenched. The mesh basket and the
wire screen are suspended in the tank and held
in position by clips that fit over the rim of the
hold as much dissolved air as fresh water can hold.
With brine, therefore, there are fewer air bubbles
or gas pockets on the surface of the work. Brine
wets the surface more thoroughly and cools the
work more rapidly and more uniformly than plain
water.
Brine solutions usually contain from 7 to 10
percent salt by weight or 3/4 of a pound of salt
for each gallon of water. The correct temperature
for a brine quench ranges from 65 to 100F.

5-13
Plain carbon steels and low-alloy steels are often
quenched in brine. High-carbon steels and all alloy
steels that are uneven in cross section must be
quenched very carefully if brine is the cooling
medium. Brine cools the material so rapidly that
great internal stresses may develop and crack the
work. Brine is not used as a quenching medium
for nonferrous metals because of its high corrosive
effect on these metals.
OIL used to quench high-speed steels and
is
oil-hardened steels. It is also the preferred
quenching medium for almost all other steels
except where the necessary hardness cannot be
obtained by such a relatively slow quench.
Although nonferrous metals are not normally
quenched in oil, they may be in special cases. A
wide variety of quenching oils may be used,
including animal oils, fish oils, vegetable
oils, and mineral oils. Oils have a slower
cooling rate than brine or water but a faster
cooling rate than air or solid materials. Quenching
oils are usually used in the temperature range of
80 to 150F.
The chief danger involved in quenching with
oil isthat a hot metal piece may raise the
temperature of the oil to the flash point and cause
it to burst into flames. Acover should always be
kept near a quenching tank that is used for oil.
If the oil flashes into flames, put the cover over
the tank immediately to smother the fire.
Some water usually collects in the bottom of
the tank. The water does no harm if only a
oil
small amount is present. If enough water is
present that the work extends into the water, the
rapid quenching action of the water may
the piece to crack.
CAUSTIC SODA in water is used for some
steels that require rapid quenching. A 10-percent
causticsoda solution quenches faster than water,
but slower than brine. Nonferrous metals are not
quenched in caustic soda solutions.
AIR is used for cooling some high-alloy steels
and some nonferrous metals. Both still air and
circulating air are used. For either method the
work pieces are placed on racks or other suitable
containers so that
all parts are uniformly exposed.
Air often circulated by electric fans arranged
is
to provide uniform cooling. Compressed air is
sometimes used to concentrate the cooling on
particular areas. Compressed air used for this
purpose must be entirely free of moisture. Any
moisture in the air produces rapid quenching
wherever it touches the metal and may cause
cracking or hard spots.
MOLTEN LEAD at temperatures ranging
from 650 to 1 100 F is often used as a first-stage
quench for high-speed steels. A common practice
is to quench high-speed steel in molten lead as
soon as the work is removed from the furnace and
to follow this quench by cooling the part in still
air to about 200 F before tempering. Molten
lead is not used as a quenching medium for
nonferrous metals.
MOLTEN SALT at
temperatures ranging
from 300 to 1000 F sometimes used as a
is
quenching medium for steels that tend to crack
or distort from more sudden quenches. The final
cooling for the temperature of the molten salt bath
is accomplished in still air. All traces of the salt
must be washed from the steel to prevent
corrosion. Molten salt is never used as a quench
for nonferrous materials.
SPECIAL PROTECTIVE ATMOSPHERES
are used for the first-stage cooling of some steels.
The protective atmosphere almost entirely
eliminates air from around the metal and thus
prevents scaling. When the steel has cooled
enough so there is no further danger of scaling,
the remainder of the cooling is done in still air.
PRINCIPLES OF HEAT-TREATING
As we have seen, the properties of a metal or
an alloy are directly related to the metallurgical
structure of the material. Since we know that the
cause basic purpose of heat treatment is to CHANGE
the properties of the materials, let's see how this
is done. The following sections deal with basic
considerations in heat treatment equilibrium
diagrams, transformation temperatures, and the
effects of heating, holding at temperature, and
cooling.
EQUILIBRIUM DIAGRAMS
The relationships among the various
metallurgical structures that compose alloys and
the temperatures at which these structures exist
are shown on existing equilibrium diagrams for
all major alloy systems. Figure 5-13 shows a
simplified equilibrium diagram (also called a
phase diagram) for iron-carbon alloys. This type
 3200-

(AUSTENITE + CEMENTITE)

PEARLITE,
~ + H B
FERRITE o
|

PEARLITE + CEMENTITE

0.008%C

PERCENT CARBON

126.80
Figure 5-13. Iron-carbon phase diagram.

of diagram gives a good overall view of the

effects of temperature on the structures of various
alloys. However, you should note that an
equilibrium diagram indicates equilibrium
conditions you might say, ideal conditions of
very slow and very uniform heating and cooling.
The rate and uniformity of heating and cooling
affect the internal structure of alloys and alter the
relationship between temperature and internal
structure. Therefore, equilibriumdiagrams repre-
sent theoretical rather than actual conditions.

TRANSFORMATION TEMPERATURES
If you allow a molten sample of pure
iron to cool slowly and measure the temperature
of the iron at regular intervals, an idealized
126.81
(equilibrium) time-temperature plot of the Idealized cooling curve for pure iron.
Figure 5-14.
data will appear as shown in figure 5-14. The

5-15
horizontal discontinuities (temperature arrests) in
this curve are caused by physical changes in the
iron.
The first arrest at 2800 F marks the
temperature at which the iron freezes. The
other arrests (known as transformation tem-
peratures or critical points) mark temperatures
at which certain internal changes take place
in the solid iron. Some of these temperatures
are very important in the heat treatment of
steel.
As was mentioned before, the
all solid metals are a definite
arranged in
geometric pattern. The atoms in iron imme-
diately after freezing are arranged in the
body-centered cubic structure. In this crystal
structure the unit cell consists of a cube
with an iron atom at each of the eight
corners and another in the center. Each of
the many individual grains (crystals) of which
the solid metal is composed is built up of a
very large number of these unit cells, all oriented
alike in the same grain. This high-temperature iron
is known as delta (<5) iron.
At 2550 F (the A4 5-14), iron
point, fig.
undergoes an allotropic transformation; that is,
the arrangement of the atoms in the crystal
changes. The new crystal structure is face-centered
cubic, and the unit cell again consists of a cube
with an iron atom at each of the eight corners,
but with an iron atom in the center of each of the
six faces instead on one in the center of the cube.
This form is known as gamma (y) iron. At 1670F
(the A
3 point), iron undergoes another allotropic
transformation and reverts to the body-centered
cubic system. This structure, which is basically the
same as the structure of delta iron, is stable at all
temperatures below the AS point and is known
as alpha (a) iron. The arrest at 1420 F
(the A
2 point), is not caused by an allotropic
change.It marks the temperature at which iron
becomes ferromagnetic and is therefore termed
the magnetic transition. Above this temperature
iron is nonmagnetic.
These various temperature arrests on cooling
are caused by evolutions of heat. On heating, the
arrests occur in reverse order and are caused by
absorptions of heat. The critical points may be
detected also by sudden changes in other physical
properties, for instance, expansivity or electrical
conductivity.
IRON-CARBON PHASE DIAGRAM
The complete iron-carbon phase diagram
represents the relationship between temperatures,
compositions, and structures of all phases that
may be formed by iron and carbon under an
equilibrium condition (very slow cooling). Figure
5-13 illustrates a portion of this diagram for alloys
ranging up to 6.7 percent of carbon. The left-hand
boundary of the diagram represents pure iron
(ferrite), and the right-hand boundary represents
the compound iron carbide, Fe 3 C, commonly
called cementite.
atoms in
The beginning of freezing (change in state of
metal from liquid to solid) of the various iron-
carbon alloys is shown by line ABCD (fig. 5-13),
termed the LIQUIDUS LINE. The ending of
freezing is given by line AHJECF, termed the
SOLIDUS LINE. The freezing point of iron is
lowered by the addition of carbon (up to
4.3 percent) and the resultant alloys freeze over
a range in temperature instead of at a constant
temperature as does the pure metal iron. The alloy
containing 4.3 percent carbon, called the eutectic
alloy of iron and cementite, freezes at a constant
temperature as indicated by point C (fig. 5-13).
Eutectic is defined as an alloy or solution having
its components in such proportions that the
melting point is the lowest possible for this
combination of components. The formation of
a eutectic occurs when a molten alloy or solution
of the proper composition freezes. This
temperature (in iron) is 2065 F, considerably
below the freezing point of pure iron.
Carbon has an important effect upon the
transformation temperatures of iron; it raises the
A4 temperature and lowers the A3 temperature.
This effect on the AS temperature is very
important in the heat treatment of carbon and
alloy structural steels, while the effect on the A4
temperature is important in the heat treatment of
certain high-alloy steels, particularly stainless
types.
Solid iron can absorb various amounts of
carbon, depending on the crystal structure of the
iron and the temperature to which the iron is
heated. The body-centered iron (alpha or delta)
can absorb very little carbon, whereas the face-
centered (gamma) iron can absorb a considerable
amount as pure austenite, the maximum being
about 2.0 percent at 2065 F (fig. 5-13, point E).
The solid solution of carbon in delta iron is
called delta ferrite, and the solid solution of cooling through the temperature 2065 F (ECF in
carbon in alpha iron is called alpha ferrite, or, fig. 5-13) will decompose partly or completely into
more simply, ferrite. austenite and graphite.
The part of the iron-carbon phase diagram
The physical process by which iron-carbon that concerned with the heat treatment of steel
is

alloys,especially those containing less than is reproduced on an ^expanded scale in figure 5-15.

about 0.6 percent of carbon, solidify is rather Regardless of the carbon content, steel exists as
complicated. All you really need to know, austenite above line GOSE. Steel of 0.80 percent
however, is that all iron-carbon alloys containing carbon is designated as eutectoid steel, and those
less than 2.0 percent of carbon (steel) will, with lower or higher carbon as hypoeutectoid and
immediately or soon after solidification is hyper eutectoid, respectively.
complete, consist of single-phase austenite. Cast
irons containing greater than 2.0 percent carbon A eutectoid steel, when cooled at very slow
will consist of two phases immediately after ratesfrom temperatures within the austenitic field,
solidification austenite and cementite. Under undergoes no change until the temperature reaches
some conditions this cementite formed on 1330 F (line PSK) (fig. 5-15). At this temperature

2200-
C
2065
2000- AUSTENITE

AUSTENITE + FERRITE AUSTENITE + CEMENTITE

A LINE 1420
2
A 1, 2, 3 LINE

FERRITE + CEMENTITE

PEARLITE WITH
EXCESS CEMENTITE

.2 .4 .83 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0

HYPOEUTECTOID STEEL HYPEREUTECTOID STEEL

PERCENT CARBON
126.82

Figure 5-15. Phase diagram for carbon steels.

(known as the AI temperature), the austenite
transforms completely to a mixture of ferrite and
cementite having a typical lamellar structure
(fig. 5-16). The mixture is known as pearlite, and
the AI temperature is, therefore, frequently
referred to as the pearlite point. Since the AI
transformation involves the transformation of
austenite to pearlite (which contains cementite
FesC), pure iron does not possess an AI
transformation (fig. 5-15). Theoretically, iron
must be alloyed with a minimum of 0.03 percent
of carbon before the first minute traces of pearlite
can be formed on cooling (fig. 5-15, point P). If
the steelis held at a temperature just below AI
(either during cooling or heating), the carbide
in the pearlite tends to coalesce into globules
or spheroids; this phenomenon, known as
SPHEROIDIZATION, will be discussed later.
A hypoeutectoid steel (less than 0.83 percent
carbon), cooled slowly from a temperature above
the A 3 temperature, begins to precipitate ferrite
A
when the 3 line is reached. This ferrite is often
called pro-eutectoid, since it forms before the
eutectoid temperature is reached. As the
temperature drops from the A
3 to the AI, the
precipitation of ferrite increases progressively, and
as the amount of the remaining austenite decreases
progressively, its carbon content increases. At the
AI temperature the remaining austenite reaches
eutectoid composition (0.83 percent carbon) and,
upon further cooling, transforms completely
into pearlite (fig. 5-16, point D). The micro-
structures of slowly cooled hypoeutectoid steels
thus consist of mixtures of ferrite and pearlite (fig.
5-16, points B and C). The lower the carbon
content, the higher is the temperature at which
ferrite begins to precipitate and the greater is the
amount of hypoeutectoid steel in the final
structure.
The temperature range between the AI and
As points called the transformation range.
is
Theoretically, the critical points in any steel should
occur at about the same temperatures, whether
the steel being heated or cooled very slowly.
is
Practically, however, they do not since the 3 and A The holding time (or soaking time) at
AI points, affected slightly by the rate of heating,
are affected tremendously by the rate of cooling.
Rapid rates of heating raise these points only
slightly, but rapid rates of cooling lower the
temperatures of transformation considerably. To
differentiatebetween the critical points on heating
and cooling, the small letters c (for chauffage,
meaning heating) and r (for refroidissement,
meaning cooling) are added. The terminology of
the critical points thus becomes Acs, Ai 3
Aci, Ari, and so on. The letter e is used to
designate the occurrence of the points under
conditions of extremely slow cooling on the
assumption that this represents equilibrium
conditions (Ae 3 and Ae cm ).
EFFECTS OF HEATING,
HOLDING, AND COOLING
We have seen what happens to the structure
of an iron-carbon alloy containing 0.8 percent
carbon when it is cooled very slowly so that all
of the transformations occur at the points
indicated on the equilibrium diagram. In the same
manner, we could use the equilibrium diagram to
find the transformation points or ranges for other
iron-carbon alloys containing different per-
centages of carbon.
If we want to create a metal that has a specific
property or set of properties, we have to create
a specific grain structure in the metal. We do this
primarily by (1) heating the metal at a certain rate
to a certain temperature, (2) holding or soaking
it at that temperature for a specified time, and
(3) cooling it at a specified rate. Thus the three
major factors involved in all heat-treating
processes are (1) rate of heating, (2) holding time
(or soaking time) at the specified temperature, and
(3) rate of cooling. A fourth factor the chemical
composition of the material surrounding the alloy
during heat treatment is important in nearly all
treating processes.
The rate of heating determines where the
changes will occur in the material as it is heated.
Increasing the rate of heating raises the
temperatures at which the transformations occur.
Within certain limits, the faster the material is
heated the higher its transformation temperatures
will be. The temperature to which the material is
raised and the time it is held at that temperature
affect the size of the grains in the final structure.
The rate of heating also partially determines
whether or not stresses will be set up in the
material by the process of heating.
temperature is important for a number of reasons.
The holding time must be sufficient to allow all
parts of the piece to come to a uniform
temperature, except in those cases involving
localized hardening of certain areas. If the rate
of heating is very slow, uniformity of temperature
may be reached with a short holding time. But
if the rate of heating is rapid, a longer holding
time will probably be required. In any case,
, holding time must be sufficient to allow the
 126.83
Figure 5-I6.-Mkrostnictural constituents of
slowly cooled carbon steels (all etched with either picral or nital).
 uauaiuimauuuo LU uai\.c . y-vs
have seen, the transformations do not occur
instantaneously but require a definite time for
completion.
The rate of cooling is tremendously important
inmost heat-treating processes. Increasing the rate
of cooling lowers the temperatures at which the
transformations occur; and the lower the
transformation temperature, the stronger and
harder the final product will be. Very rapid
cooling does not allow time for the trans-
formations to be completed in the normal
manner, resulting in quite different structures than
those obtained by very slow cooling of the same
material. Remember this fact about cooling if
you do not cool a metal properly, you will not
get the desired results, no matter how carefully
you heat and soak the metal. In addition, very
rapid cooling can cause internal stresses in your
material, which may lead to cracking.
In plain carbon steel, the properties of the
material are largely determined by the form and
distribution of the ferrite and the cementite. Most
heat treatment of plain carbon steels consists of
heating the material slightly above its trans-
formation temperature, holding it at this
temperature until it is completely austenitic, and
then cooling it at the rate required to produce a
particular kind of structure. Thus austenite, a
solid solution of carbon and gamma iron, might
be considered the basis from which all plain
carbon steel structures are derived.
As noted before, the very slow cooling of
austenite toroom temperature produces structures
that are combinations of ferrite and cementite.
The particular combination depends upon the per-
centage of carbon in the alloy. With less than
about 0.83 percent carbon, the structure is a
combination of ferrite and pearlite. With just
about 0.83 percent carbon, the structure is entirely
pearlitic. With more than 0.83 percent carbon, the
structure is a combination of pearlite surrounded
by cementite at the grain boundaries.
If the steel is cooled rapidly but not quite
rapidly enough to retain the austenitic structure,
quite a different structure will result. The austenite
will be retained until the material reaches a
temperature between 1100F and room
temperature. At this point there is a sudden
transformation from austenite to a structure called
MARTENSITE. Martensite is a very hard and
highly stressed structure that is partially like a
solid solution and partially like a mechanical
mixture. It is formed at the moment gamma iron
changes to alpha iron. Since gamma iron can hold
we a git/ai vatcu muit v^ai u^n 111 ov^iiw. OVIULIVII 1.110.11
alpha iron can, the change from gamma iron to
alpha iron causes a sudden dispersion of very fine
particles of carbon. Because the transformation
from austenite is so rapid, these fine particles of
carbon are trapped throughout the structure.
The rate of cooling is controlled by selecting
an appropriate quenching medium and cooling
procedure. Fresh water, brine, oil, and caustic
soda in water are commonly used for rapid
quenching. Slower cooling is obtained by air
cooling, by packing, and by furnace cooling.
Packing consists of burying the heated metal in
sand, ashes, or some other substance that is a poor
conductor of heat. Furnace cooling consists of
shutting off the heat and leaving the piece in the
furnace, so that the metal and the furnace cool
together. Ferrous metals are sometimes cooled in
baths of molten lead or molten salts. Occasionally,
solid materials are used as quenching mediums.
In each instance, the quenching medium and the
quenching procedure must be selected on the basis
of the nature of the material being treated, the
size and design of the piece, and the properties
that are required in the final product.
Isothermal Transformation
The course of transformation of austenite
when the steel is quenched to and held at various
constant elevated temperature levels (isothermal
transformation) is shown by a diagram known as
the transformation diagram (I-T diagram). This
diagram is also called the Bain S-curve or the TTT
diagram, for time, temperature, and trans-
formation. Such a diagram for eutectoid carbon
steel is shown in figure 5-17. The I-T diagram of
a steel is a map that charts the transformation of
austenite as a function of temperature and time
and shows approximately how a particular steel
will respond to any rate of slow or rapid cooling
from the austenite state.
PEARLITE. Austenite containing 0.80
percent of carbon, cooled quickly to and held at
1300F, does not begin to decompose (transform)
until after about 15 minutes, and does not
completely decompose until after about 2 hours
(fig. 5-17). Thus, at temperatures just below the
critical temperature (AcO, austenite is stable for
a considerable length of time. The product of the
decomposition of austenite at this temperature is
coarse pearlite of relatively low hardness. If the
austenite is quickly cooled to and held at a
somewhat lower temperature, say 1200F,
decomposition begins in about 3 seconds and is
5-20
 15

1200
FERRITE(F)
4-
40
CARBIDE (C)
1000
u.
42
tu
DC 800 42

47
a:
52
AUSTENITE
UJ
57

400 58

62

200 - 64
Mf HR DA Y
66

3 5
0.5 1 10 10 2 10 10' 10

TIME, SECONDS
126.84X
Figure 5-17. Isothermal transformation diagram (S-curve) for eutectoid carbon steel.

completed after about 30 seconds, the resultant about 430 F for the eutectoid carbon steel under
pearlite being finer and harder than that formed consideration), partial transformation takes place
at 1300F. At a temperature of about 1050 F, the instantaneously; the product of transformation
austenite decomposes extremely rapidly, with less is martensite. Austenite transforms into marten-

than 1 second elapsing before the transformation
starts and 5 seconds before it is completed. The
resultant pearlite is extremely fine and its
hardness is relatively high. This region of the
S-curve where decomposition of austenite to fine
pearlite proceeds so rapidly is called the "nose"
of the curve.
BAINITE. If the cooled
austenite is
unchanged to temperatures below the nose of the
S-curve (1050 F), the time required for its
decomposition begins to increase. The final
product of decomposition now is not pearlite, but
a new structure, called bainite, possessing unusual
toughness with hardness even greater than that
of very fine pearlite. Depending on the
temperature, a certain interval of time is necessary
before austenite starts to transform into either
pearlite or bainite. Additional time is necessary
before the transformations are completed.
MARTENSITE.If the austenite is
unchanged to relatively low temperatures (below
site over a temperature range with the amount that
transforms being a function of the temperature.
Only minute amounts will transform at about
430 F; practically all of the austenite will be
transformed at about 175 F. The beginning of this
transformation range is termed the 5 (marten- M
site start) temperature and the end of the range
is termed the M/ (martensite finish) temperature.
As long as the temperature is held constant with
the M5-M/ range, the portion of the austenite that
does not transform instantaneously to martensite
remains untransformed for a considerable length
of time, eventually transforming to bainite.
In ordinary heat treatment of the plain
carbon steels, austenite does not transform into
bainite. Transformation of the austenite takes
place either above or at the nose of the S-curve,
forming pearlite, or in passing through the
M s -Mf range, forming martensite or both. For
austenite to be transformed entirely into marten-
site, it must be cooled rapidly enough so that the
cooled temperature of the center of the steel, which cools
more slowly, is lowered past the nose of the
transformation to start at mis temperature. 11 mis
is not done, part of the steel transforms into

pearlite at the high temperature and the remainder

transforms into martensite at the low temperature
(M5-M/ temperature range). The resulting material
will then transform to a non-uniform structure
that is usually not desirable.

Continuous Cooling

Figure 5-18 represents a theoretical S-curve on

which are superimposed five theoretical cooling
curves. Curves A to E represent successively
slower rates of cooling that would be obtained,
for instance, by cooling in (A) iced brine, (B)
water, (C) oil, (D) air, and (E) the furnace.
Steel cooled according to curve E begins to
transform at temperature ti and completes
transformation at i2\ the final product is coarse
pearlite with relatively low hardness. When the
steel is cooled according to curve D, trans-
formation begins at ts and is completed at t 4 the
;

final product is fine pearlite and its hardness is

greater than that of the steel cooled according to
curve E. When the steel is cooled according to
curve C, transformation begins at ts and is only
partially complete when temperature te is
reached; the product of this partial trans-
formation is very fine pearlite. The remainder of
the austenite does not decompose until the s M
temperature is reached; then it begins to transform
to martensite, and completes this transformation
at the M.f temperature. The final structure is then
a mixture of fine pearlite and martensite (typical
of an improperly quenched steel) with a higher
hardness than was obtained with the steel cooled
according to curve D. The rate of cooling
represented by curve B is just sufficient to intersect
the nose of the S-curve. Consequently, only a
minute amount of the austenite decomposes into
fine pearlite at temperature t?; the remainder of
the austeniteis unchanged until the martensite

transformation range is reached. If the steel is

cooled at a slightly faster rate, so that no
transformation takes place at the nose of the
S-curve, the steel is completely hardened; this
particular rate is termed the critical cooling rate
and is defined as the slowest rate at which the steel
can be cooled and yet be completely hardened.
Since this rate cannot be directly determined, the
rate indicated by curve B, producing only a trace 126.85
of fine pearlite, is frequently used as the critical Figure 5-18. Schematic diagram illustrating the relation
cooling rate. The hardness of the resultant between the S-curve, continuous cooling curves, and
martensite is equivalent to the maximum that can resulting microstructures of eutectoid carbon steels.

5-22
be obtained. Samples cooled at a faster rate, such
as that indicated by curve A, are also completely
martensitic but are no harder than the sample
cooled according to the critical cooling rate.
The rate at which a steel cools through the
temperature in the vicinity of the nose of the
S-curve is of critical importance. Somewhat slower
rates of cooling above and below this temperature
range can be tolerated and a completely
hardened steel (one that is completely martensite)
can be obtained if the cooling through the
transformation at the nose increases as the
carbon increases up to the eutectoid composition,
and then decreases with further increase in
carbon. That is, the nose is shifted to the right
on the time axis (fig. 5-17) as the carbon is
increased to 0.8 percent and back to the left with
further increases in carbon content.
The temperature of formation of bainite is not
appreciably affected by carbon content, but the
time for its formation increases with the carbon.
Both the M
5 and the My temperatures are

temperature interval at the nose of the S-curve is lowered significantly by increasing carbon
sufficiently fast. In practice, however, steels are content as shown for M
s in figure 5-19. The
usually cooled from the quenching
rapidly Mf temperatures of the plain carbon steels have
temperature to relatively low temperatures (20 not been adequately determined; available
to 250 F) and then tempered immediately to information indicates that the M/ of high carbon
prevent cracking. below room temperature. Slight
steels is actually

Although the above discussions of the amounts of austenite are frequently retained in
decomposition of austenite have been limited to quenched steels, especially in the higher carbon
a steel of eutectoid composition, other steels grades, even when they are cooled to room
behave in a similar manner, at different temperature.
temperatures and times of reaction. In hypo-
eutectoid steels, free ferrite plus pearlite are
formed iftransformation begins above the HEAT-TREATING
temperature range at the nose of the S-curve. The FERROUS METALS
amount of free ferrite decreases as the temperature
of transformation approaches the nose of the The heat-treating processes most commonly
curve. In hypereutectoid steels, free ferrite plus used for ferrous metals are hardening, tempering,
pearlite are formed if transformation occurs above annealing, normalizing, spheroidizing, and case
the nose. The time for the start of the hardening. Annealing is the only one of these

1000

900

800

700
u.

. 600
in
CC

^ 500-
<
cc
uj 400
a.
at

300

200

100

020 0.40 060 0.80 1,00 1.20 1.40

0.10 0.30 0.50 0.70 0.90 JJO 1.30

CARBON, %

126.86
processes that is also used for nonferrous metals.
Some nonferrous metals (including some
aluminum alloys and some magnesium alloys) can
be hardened by a process generally referred to as
precipitation heat treatment. Precipitation
hardening is discussed in the section of this
chapter on nonferrous metals. Figure 5-20 shows
the heat treatment temperature ranges. You
should refer to this figure as you study the follow-
ing information on hardening, normalizing,
spheroidizing temperatures.
HARDENING
Many tools and pieces of equipment must be
hardened before they are used. Cutting tools,
chisels, twist drills, and other tools must be
hardened so that they can retain their cutting
edges, surfaces of roller bearings, parallel blocks,
and armor plate must be hardened to prevent wear
and penetration. Hardening is used to increase
tensile strength as well as to increase hardness.
Since hardening increases the brittleness of the
material, most alloys are tempered after being
hardened.
Steels are hardened by being heated to a
temperature just above the upper transformation
temperature, soaked long enough to ensure a
completely austenitic structure, and then cooled
rapidly. This result is either fine-grained pear lite,
bainite, or martensite. If maximum hardness is
to be developed, the austenite must be trans-
formed to martensite. Martensite is extremely
hard and strong, has great resistance, and has
practically no machinability.
Carbon steels are usually quenched in brine
and
or water to ensure rapid cooling. The production
of martensite throughout a plain carbon steel is
extremely difficult, requiring that the steel be
cooled to below 1000F in less than 1 second, and
that the remainder of the cooling be quite rapid.
If more than 1 second is taken for the first part
of the cooling (to below 1000F), some of the
austenite will transform into fine pearlite. Pearlite
varies in hardness, but it is much softer than
martensite. If the purpose of the hardening is to
develop something less than maximum hardness,
the first part of the cooling (to below 1000 F)
must still be accomplished within 1 second; then
the remainder of the cooling must be done at a
somewhat slower rate.
The rate of quenching alloy steels depends
upon the composition of the material. In general,

2065'

1670

1330

<r
UJ
a.
5
LaJ
1-

.85 1.7

PERCENT CARBON

NORMALIZING ANNEALING SPHERIODlZlNG

RANGE 8 HARDENING RANGE
RANGE
a slower quench is used for hardening alloy steels
than is used for hardening plain carbon steels.
Various quenching mediums are used to
produce the desired end results. The more
common quenching mediums are oil, water, and
brine. When water or brine is used, the
temperature of the bath must not rise above 80 F.
Generally, 70 F is the best temperature for these
quenching mediums. Above 80 F, water loses
thermal conductivity.
The plain carbon steels are generally quenched
in water or brine; brine is preferred because it has
less tendency to cause steam pockets to form.
Steam pockets may cause soft spots or uneven
stresses. These steel require a very active
agitation or shaking action when quenched. The
agitation removes the steam bubbles from the
surface of the metal. When the quenched material
reaches about 200 to 250 F, or a temperature
low enough to dry the material thoroughly
without too much sizzle, it can be removed from
the water and tempered immediately.
The alloy steels, with the exception of the
high-alloy air-hardening steels, are generally oil
quenched. The oil bath should be maintained at
a temperature of 100 to 130F. (This is just below
the Mf line of most low-alloy steels.) At this
temperature the heat-treating oils have a higher
viscosity and therefore a better and more uniform
cooling effect. The arm oil also results in a
moderate cooing rate, which lessens the chance
of residual stresses and cracking.
Although steels must be heated and soaked so
the structurebecomes completely austenitic, you
should take care to see that they are not
overheated and that they are not held too long
at temperature. Using too high a temperature or
too long a soaking period allows a coarse grain
structure to develop.
TEMPERING
After hardening, most alloys are tempered to
reduce brittleness and to relieve some of the high
internal stresses developed during hardening.
Tempering always follows, rather than precedes,
the hardening process. Tempering is occasionally
done after materials have been normalized, but
its major use is after hardening.
In high-speed steels, tempering increases
hardness. In most other materials, however,
tempering causes an unavoidable loss of some
hardness. The amount of hardness removed by
tempering depends upon the tempering
temperature; the higher the temperature, the
softer the material will be.
Tempering is always done at temperatures
below the lower transformation point. In this
respect, tempering differs from hardening,
annealing, and normalizing, which all involve
heating the material to temperatures above the
upper transformation point.
The temperatures used for tempering are
selected on the basis of the properties required in
the final For example, permanent
product.
magnets are tempered at 121 F because they must
retain considerable strength and hardness. Case-
hardened objects are also tempered at relatively
low temperatures (212 to 400 F) because the
surface of such objects must remain hard. Many
cutting tools are tempered at 430 F or below so
they will retain hardness. Battering tools must
have great impact resistance and must be able to
cut or penetrate metal; therefore, battering tools
are tempered between 450 and 600 F even
though the higher temperatures mean some
sacrifice of hardness in order to produce impact
resistance. Springs are tempered between 600 and
900 F because the property of elasticity is more
important in a spring than the property of
hardness. Tools made of high-speed steels are
tempered at 1050 to 1100F. Note, however, that
with high-speed tools the high tempering
more temperature increases, rather than decreases,
hardness. This increase in hardness occurs
because high-speed steels retain austenite during
quenching; when the hardened steel is tempered,
the austenite changes to martensite.
Since tempering uses temperatures below the
lower transformation point, the rate of cooling
generally has no effect upon the structure
of the material. However, some nickel-chromium
steels and a few other special steels become
brittle if they are heated to
the tempering
temperature and then allowed to cool slowly.
These steels, which are often called temper
brittle must be quenched
or blue brittle steels,
rapidly from the tempering temperature to
prevent brittleness. In general, however, steels
are cooled slowly from the tempering tem-
perature by cooling in still air.
Tempering is usually done before the material
has completely cooled from the hardening
process. The holding time at temperature varies
according to the thickness of the material, but the
minimum time is about 1 hour. If the part is more
than an inch thick, the holding time should be
increased by about 1 hour for each additional inch
of thickness.
 ANNEALING is a term used to describe any
heat-treatment process that is used for the primary
purpose of softening the metal. Two types of
annealing processes are commonly used. FULL
ANNEALING is done in order to soften the metal
and make it more ductile, and to relieve internal
stresses caused by previous treatment such as
casting, cold working, or hot working. The
operation ANNEALING or
known as PROCESS
STRESS RELIEF ANNEALING is done to
soften the metal somewhat, although not as much
as by full annealing, and to relieve internal
stresses.
In general, full annealing requires higher
temperatures, longer soaking time, and slower
cooling than process annealing. In the full
annealing of steels, the steel is heated to a
temperature that is 50 to 100 F above the
upper transformation point. In the process
annealing of steels, lower temperatures (1020 to
1200F) are generally used. The rate of cooling
used for annealing varies greatly, depending upon
the metal being annealed and the degree of
softening required. When a steel is to be
softened as much as possible, the rate of cooling
is slowed either by packing or by furnace
cooling. When less softening is required, a faster
rate of cooling is used; air cooling is commonly
used in annealing both ferrous and nonferrous
metals.
SPHEROIDIZING is a term used to describe
any heating and cooling process that produces a
rounded or globular form of iron carbide in the
steel. This globular or spheroidal form of iron
carbide is developed when fine pear lite is heated
to a temperature just below the lower trans-
formation point of the steel, held at this
temperature for a long time, and then cooled very
slowly. Temperatures, holding time, cooliiig rates,
and other details of the process vary, depending
upon the carbon content of the steel and the
extent of spheroidizing that is required. In
general, the object of spheroidizing is to
improve machinability. Spheroidizing is
sometimes regarded as being a special annealing
or normalizing process. The typical globular form
of spheroidized steel is illustrated in cross section
in figure 5-21.
AUSTEMPERING
AUSTEMPERING is a hardening treatment
of metals that involves quenching the metal in a
bath of molten salt maintained above the start of
the martensite temperature and holding it until
transformation is complete. The product formed
is called bainite.
There are two distinct advantages of
austempering the high degree of freedom it
(1)
provides from distortion and quenching cracks,

NORMALIZING
The form of heat treatment known as
NORMALIZING is used only for ferrous metals.
Normalizing is in many respects similar to
annealing, and is often regarded as a special form
of annealing. Normalizing is sometimes used as
a preliminary step before full annealing. The chief >a
purposes of normalizing are (1) to relieve
internal 'stresses caused by forging, bending,
machining, or other working, or by uneven
cooling; and (2) to give a uniform predictable
grain structure. Steel that has been normalized is
soft and
ductile enough for many purposes, but
it harder than steel that has been fully
is >& Q"
annealed. Normalizing is sometimes followed by
tempering, particularly in the case of certain steels
that tend to become brittle when normalized.
In normalizing, the steel is heated to a 126.113X
temperature above the upper transformation point Figure 5-21. Microscopic structure called spherodite
and is cooled in still air. magnified 1000 times.

5-26
and (2) normal tempering is not required after the
process.
MARTEMPERING
MARTEMPERING is the quenching from the
normal austenitizing temperature in a molten
bath maintained at approximately the start of the
martensite temperature. The part is held at this
temperature long enough to allow equalization of
temperature throughout the piece, but not long
enough to allow any transformation to take place.
The material being heat-treated is then removed
from the hot bath and allowed to air cool through
the martensite temperature range, followed by
tempering to obtain the desired mechanical
properties. This two-step cooling process has the
same advantage as austempering freedom from
distortion and quenching cracks.
CASE HARDENING
CASE HARDENING is a process by which
a steel can be given a hard, wear-resistant surface
while retaining a softer but tougher interior than
would be possible if the whole piece were
hardened. Steels may be case hardened by
carburizing, cyaniding, nitriding, and various
other processes.
CARBURIZING is a term applied to several
case-hardening processes in which carbon is
introduced into the surface layer of the steel. The
steel is heated in contact with a substance that has
a high carbon content; it is held at a temperature
above the upper transformation temperature for
a suitable length of time, and is then quenched
rapidly to produce a hardened outer layer or
"case" over a softer, tougher core. As a rule,
carburizing increases the hardness to a depth of
from 0.02 inch to about 0.06 inch.
Sometimes the steel to be carburized is
packed in a substance such as charcoal and is then
heated in a furnace. The length of time the piece
is left in the furnace determines the depth to which
the carbon will be absorbed. For many pieces the
procedure is to carburize the material, allow it to
cool slowly, reheat it, and then harden it by
quenching. Small pieces are sometimes dumped
into the quenching medium as soon as they are
removed from the carburizing furnace.
Other methods of carburizing use gases or
liquids that have a high carbon content. Although
these methods also use the principle of increasing
the carbon content in order to harden the outer
shell or case of the steel, they use different
equipment and different procedures.
CYANIDING is a case-hardening process that
gives a very thin case or skin of hardened steel.
As a rule, the hardened case does not exceed 0.010
salt inch. The steel to be cyanided is put into a bath
of sodium cyanide, at a temperature between 150
and 1600F, and is left there for the time required
to develop the desired depth of hardening. The
steel absorbs some of the carbon and nitrogen that
are liberated as the sodium cyanide is heated in
contact with air. After being removed from the
sodium cyanide bath, the steel is quenched
immediately in water or oil.
NITRIDING is still another method by which
a case or skin of hardened steel can be produced.
The piece to be case hardened is put into a
furnace and heated to between 900 and 1200 F
and, at the same time, is exposed to ammonia gas.
The heat of the furnace causes the ammonia to
break down into nitrogen and hydrogen. Some
of the nitrogen combines with the elements in the
steel to form chemical compounds called nitrides
in the outer layer of the steel. These nitrides give
the surface its hard, wear-resistant qualities.
CARBON TOOL STEELS
Carbon tool steels used by the navy are listed
under QQT-580. The Navy classes Cl, C2, C3,
C4, C5, and C6 are no longer classified as such.
Use the following list as a guide:
Federal Class SAE#
Cl Wl-10 SAE 1095
C3 Wl-09 SAE 1090
C4 Wl-08 SAE 1080
C5 01 None
C6 Wl-NDR or Wl-12 None
The carbon content of plain carbon steels
ranges from about 0.70 to 1.13 percent. To heat
treat these steels, heat them uniformly to 1450
to 1550F, using the lower end of the temperature
range for the higher carbon content. Use brine
or water as the quenching medium, and agitate
the part vigorously to prevent the accumulation
of bubbles on the surface of the metal. Do not
remove these steels from the quench until they
have reached a temperature of less than
200 to 250 F. To prevent cracking, do not allow
the steel to cool below 125F and follow the
cooling immediately with tempering. Tools made
from these steels do not have to withstand severe
usage or high cutting speeds. Some examples are
wrenches, hammers, pliers, knives, simple dies,
and low-speed cutting tools.
Table 5-4 will assist you in choosing the
proper quenching medium and temperatures for
the standard SAE steels.
ALLOY TOOL STEELS
The number of alloy tool steels is too great
them all in this text, so we will deal with
to include
the type most important to you. You, as a
Machinery Repairman, are concerned primarily
with the manufacture of taps, dies, reamers, hobs,
and form tools. An all-around tool steel for this
purpose is type 01. This steel is listed under
QQT-570 and is available in the standard stock
system in various shapes and sizes. Type 01 is
suitable for all applications except where a high-
speed steel is required. It heat treats well and is
readily machinable in the spheroidized condition.
Type 01 stock replaces the 46S40 class C-5.
Type 01 should be preheated slowly to 1200 F,
then transferred to an oven at 450 F and soaked
at heat for about 20 minutes per inch of cross
section, and then quenched in warm oil (120 to
140F). Do not remove the material from the oil
bath until you can hold the work comfortably in
your hand. This procedure should result in a
minimum hardness of 65 Re. Temper to the
desired hardness. Use the following tempering
temperatures as a guide for type 01 steel:
Tempering Temperature (F) Hardness (Re)
300 64-65
350 63-64
375 62.5-63
400 62-62.5
450 60-62
500 59-60
600 57-58
700 54-55
HEAT-TREATING
NONFERROUS METALS
The information in this section deals primarily
with the heat-treating of nonferrous alloys. For
specific information on a particular composition,
consult the Metals Handbook, published by the
American Society for Metals, or any handbook
that deals with heat-treating nonferrous metals.
You can anneal most nonferrous metals by
heating them uniformly within a certain
temperature range, soaking them within this
temperature range, and then cooling them back
to room temperature. In most cases, the annealing
temperature for most nonferrous metals is the
temperature at which recrystallization takes place.
For example, aluminum recrystallizes at a
temperature of 300 F and copper recrystallizes at
390 F.
The rate at which the metal may be cooled
from the annealing temperature depends upon the
type of metal. If the metal is pure, or
nearly so, or if it remains a solid solution without
precipitation when cooled, any method of
cooling is usually satisfactory. If, on the other
hand, the constituents precipitate during or after
cooling, furnace cooling may be necessary for
complete annealing to occur.
There are two types of heat treatment of
nonferrous alloys the solution treatment and the
precipitation treatment. Some alloys require both
treatments. Others require only the solution
treatment.
The solution treatment consists of heating the
alloy to the temperature at which the principal
constituents go into solid solution, soaking the
alloy at this temperature to produce a uniform
structure, then cooling it at a rate fast enough to
retain the solid solution at room temperature. You
should remain aware that different alloys have
different solution temperatures.
After a nonferrous alloy has been solution
treated, it is in a form of supersaturated solid
solution. For the alloy to attain maximum
hardness and strength, excess hardening con-
stituents that are soluble at room temperature
must precipitate from the solid solution. After the
precipitation is complete and the alloy has reached
its full hardness and strength, it is said to be AGE
HARDENED. Alloys that do not precipitate at
room temperature are given the precipitation
treatment called artificial aging. Precipitation
from aging or artificial aging usually causes an
increase in hardness strength and a decrease in
ductility.
The following definitions will aid you in
understanding some of the terminology used in
heat-treating nonferrous alloys:
Homogenizing a mill process that uses
high temperature for prolonged periods to
 Table 5-4. Heat Treating Temperatures and Quenching Medium for Standard SAE Steels

*Stress relieve at 200 F for one hour immediately after quenching. Temper to desired
hardness.

#Use water for maximum hardness. Use oil for toughness and for intricate shapes.

Note: Temperature of water quench is 70 F.

Temperature of oil quench is 120-150 F.
eliminate or decrease segregation in castings that
are to be hot- or cold- worked. This process is
usually used for copper alloys.
Stress equalizing a low temperature heat
treatment used to balance stress in cold-worked
material with decreasing mechanical strength
properties induced by the cold-working. Nickel
and nickel alloys may be subjected to this
heat treatment, depending on their chemical
composition, and the fabrication requirements
and intended usage of the parts made from the
metals.
HEAT-TREATING PROBLEMS
No matter how carefully you follow instruc-
tions for heat-treating, you may occasionally find
yourself with a job that just will not turn out right.
To some you can avoid this problem by
extent
knowing in advance something about the many
problems encountered in heat-treating metals and
alloys. The most common heat-treating problems
include (1) design problems, (2) cracking,
(3) warping, (4) soft spots, (5) size changes, and
(6) spalling.
DESIGN PROBLEMS
Although you are not usually in a position to
do much, if anything, about the design of a piece
to be heat treated, you should have some
knowledge of the effects of design upon heat treat-
ment. Unsatisfactory performance of tools and
structural parts is often the result of poor design
rather than poor materials, poor fabrication, or
incorrect heat treatment. Errors in design cannot
be corrected by heat treatment, but you can
minimize the problems of heat-treating a poorly
designed piece if you know how to compensate
for design errors when heat-treating the piece.
When a piece of metal is removed from the
heat-treating furnace, its temperature is uniform
throughout. Whether or not this piece will cool
uniformly depends largely upon the design.
Uniform cooling is, of course, a slightly inaccurate
term; no piece of metal can cool with perfect
uniformity, since some parts of it must always
cool before others. In a well-designed piece,
however, the cooling is as uniform as possible for
a piece of that particular composition and size.
For example, consider the cooling of a cube
of The surfaces of the cube will cool evenly
steel.
except at the edges and at the corners. At each
edge there are two surfaces that dissipate heat at
the same time, and at each corner there are three
surfaces. Consequently, the corners cool more
rapidly than the edges, and the edges cool more
rapidly than the surface areas that are not at the
edges or corners. If the rate of cooling is extremely
rapid, the difference in cooling rate between
corners, edges, and other surface areas could be
sufficient to cause cracking.
Unequal masses in a single piece are likely to
cause trouble when the piece is heat treated. View
A of figure 5-22 shows a cam that might very well
become distorted or cracked during heat treatment
because the mass of area X
is smaller than the
mass of area Y. View B of figure 5-22 shows how
the masses of the two areas may be equalized,
while still keeping the required shape of the cam.
The design shown in part B would not be as
likely to distort or crack during heat treatment.
The piece shown in view A
of figure 5-23 has
two design features that would make heat treat-
ment difficult. First, it has unequal masses; and
second, it has sharp junctions where the smaller
mass joins the larger end portions. A
better design
for heat treatment is shown in view B of figure
5-23. Although the piece must necessarily have
unbalanced masses, the use of a fillet (indicated
by an arrow in figure 5-23, part B) at each
junction of the smaller and the larger masses
A UNEQUAL MASSES B MASSES EQUALIZED
18.101
Figure 5-22. Design of a cam. A. Unequal masses not
satisfactory for heat treatment. B. Equalized masses
satisfactory for heat treatment.
FILLET
18.102
Figure 5-23. A. Part with unequal masses and sharp
corners. B. Use of fillet design to reduce danger of
cracking during heat treatment.

A INCORRECT B CORRECT
18.I03X
figure 5-24. Two designs for undercutting a form tool.
A. Poor design. B. Correct design.
tend to reduce the danger of the piece
tracking from heat treatment.
Figure 5-24 shows two designs for an
mdercutting form tool. The design shown in part
\ does not lend itself to heat treatment because
)f the combination of heavy and light sections and
Because of the sharp corners. The design shown
n part B corrects both of these errors. The
:orners have been rounded where possible,
md holes have been drilled through the two
icaviest sections to make the masses more
learly balanced.
In general, parts that are designed with sharp
corners or unequal masses are extremely difficult
o heat-treat. When the design cannot be
mproved, you will have to determine the best way
o heat-treat the part to reduce the chances of
tracking or distortion.
Even with a poorly designed part, there are
wo ways in which you can usually reduce the
>roblems of heat-treating. First, you can select
he method of cooling that will be safest while still
>r educing the required properties in the metal.
7
or example, flush quenching of some areas might
iclp to solve the problem. And second, you can
ihield the danger spots by packing them with
isbestos and sheet steel or other materials to
educe the rate of heating and the rate of cooling
n the areas that would otherwise tend to distort
>r crack. Shielding materials for steel are usually
'astened in place with soft iron wire; the wire must
lave a very low carbon content, so that it will not
>ecome hard and brittle and fall off during the
icat treatment. Holes near an outside edge or
>etween an edge and an interior opening are
isually packed with asbestos rope. Asbestos tents
ire sometimes used to retard the rate of heating
)f thin sections. These tents are removed before
he piece is quenched, so they are usually
5-31
CRACKING
Cracking during heat treatment may be
caused by heating the material unevenly, by
heating it to too high a temperature, by soaking
it for too long a time, or by quenching it so that
it cools unevenly. Some steels are given extra
preheats to minimize the danger of cracking from
uneven heating. Steel that has been overheated or
soaked should be allowed to cool in air to room
temperature, and then it should be heated to the
correct temperature. However, metals and alloys
that have been severely overheated cannot be
salvaged; they are actually burned, and no amount
of subsequent heat treatment can restore them to
their original condition.
Uneven cooling is a major cause of cracking,
some steels. Factors that contribute
particularly in
to uneven cooling are poor design, the presence
of scale or other material on the surface of the
metal, and the presence of gas pockets in various
recesses of the part. Scale should usually be
removed before the material is quenched. Gas
pockets in recesses of the part can be avoided by
circulation or agitation of the quenching medium.
Tool steels that have been deformed or worked
while cold tend to crack during hardening unless
they are fully annealed before the hardening treat-
ment is started. These steels must also be tempered
immediately after they are hardened.
WARPING
Any change of shape in the form of a twist
or a bend is known as warping. Poor design,
uneven heating through the lower temperature
range, and uneven cooling are common causes of
warping. Preheating tends to minimize the danger
of warping from uneven heating. Annealing parts
before hardening them will sometimes prevent
warping; this is particularly true of parts that are
rough machined on one side and smooth ground
on the other. Air-hardening steels tends to warp
them if they are not protected from drafts while
being cooled.
SOFT SPOTS
Soft spots in a hardened piece can usually be
traced to the use of the wrong quenching medium,
the use of incorrect quenching procedures, the
presence of scale on some parts of the surface,
or the use of the wrong kind of tongs for
handling the material. Soft spots in case-hardened
steels are usually caused by packing the pieces so
that they touch each other or by not having the
packing compound touching the piece completely.
Soft spots will result when plain water is used
as a quenching medium, if the vapor stage of the
quench is not broken up. In this stage, air
bubbles or air pockets form on the surface of the
metal and retard the cooling rate wherever
they touch the metal. Listed below are some
precautions you should take to avoid creating soft
spots.
Use tongs that coincide with the shape of
the piece. Covering too large a surface area will
often retard the cooling rate.
Do not handle the piece while it is hot with
tongs that have not been preheated. If you do,
you will tend to draw the heat from the piece and
will bring the temperature below the required
range.
SIZE CHANGES
Some permanent change in dimensions may
occur during heat treatment. In some cases this
change of size is unavoidable; in others it is merely
the result of incorrect heat treatment.
Oil-hardened and air-hardened steels tend to
shrink during hardening. This size change is
normal, and cannot be prevented. However, it
must be allowed for in the design of any part that
must be precisely dimensioned. These steels tend
to shrink excessively, more than the normal
amount, if they are not heated sufficiently for
hardening. They tend to increase in size if they
are overheated. Very close control of temperature
is necessary for successful heat treatment of these
steels.
When metal scales, some of the surface metal
is lost.Thus, scaling causes a decrease in size.
Scaling can usually be prevented by controlling
the furnace atmosphere. If furnaces with
controlled atmospheres are not available, use a
reducing atmosphere for stainless steels and high-
speed steels, and an oxidizing atmosphere for
carbon steels and oil-hardened steels.
Nitrided steels increase in dimension during
the nitriding process. This increase in size cannot
be prevented, but parts to be nitrided should be
machined slightly under size to allow for the
increase.
Steel that has been cold-drawn may undergo
a permanent increase in size when it is heated,
chiefly because cold-drawing leaves the metal
highly stressed. The size increase in cold-drawn
steel can be avoided by annealing the steel before
machining the parts to size.
Excessive shrinkage occurs whenever there is
a great difference in the cooling rates of the outer
and the inner portions of the metal being heat-
treated. The flush quenching method should be
used to prevent shrinkage of the metal being
heat-treated.
SPALLING
Spalling the surface cracking or flaking of
is
steel. The cracks are usually very shallow, but in
severe cases fairly large sections of the surface may
peel away.
In carburized steel, spalling is caused
by an undesired carbide network which forms
of the grain boundaries. To prevent spalling in
carburized steel, quench the parts immediately
upon removing them from the carburized medium
if the grains have not increased in size. If there
has been an increase in grain size, reheat the metal
to its critical temperature of the core and the case.
Improper use of a grinding wheel and insufficient
use of coolant to keep the surface of the metal
cool at all times will also cause spalling.
BLISTERING
Special care must be taken in heat-treating
wrought aluminum alloy to prevent blistering. It
is caused by overheating and, in some cases,
oversoaking. Parts that have been blistered by
heat-treating can be placed in service by scraping.
 CHAPTER 6
MACHINE TOOL MAINTENANCE
Maintenance is one of the most important jobs
you will encounter in the Navy. The degree of
accuracy to which you can machine a part is often
directly related to the condition of the machine
tool you are using. As a Machinery Repairman
you may be assigned to a tender, to a repair ship,
or to various shore installations that have a variety
of equipment. You will be responsible for the
preservation, maintenance, and repair of equip-
ment in your shop. One of your jobs, as an MR1
or MRC, will be to enforce the proper use and
care of machinery. Therefore, you should be
familiar with the operating procedures for every
piece of equipment in the shop. Proper care
and maintenance of materials, tools, and
equipment are closely related to efficient, safe,
and economic operation of the machine shop. As
a supervisor, you must ensure your people are
fully qualified to operate a piece of equipment
before allowing them to work with limited
supervision.
MAINTENANCE PROGRAM
Establishing a MAINTENANCE PROGRAM
in your shop and making sure it is carried out will
ensure your equipment will receive the proper care
it deserves. The maintenance program must be
designed locally to meet local needs since no
two machine shops are arranged in exactly
the same way or are equipped with identical tools.
The Navy implemented the Ships' Maintenance
and Material Management (3-M) Manual,
OPNAVINST 4790.4 (series), as an answer to the
problem of maintaining a high degree of
operational readiness. The 3-M Systems, together
with the maintenance manual of each machine,
cover most of the maintenance required on
machine tools used by Machinery Repairmen and
must be applied to the equipment maintenance
program. The following is a brief summary of the
Ships' Maintenance and Material Management
THE 3-M SYSTEMS
The Ships' 3-M Systems are management tools
designed to provide an efficient and uniform
method for conducting and recording PREVEN-
TIVE and CORRECTIVE maintenance in a way
that allows fast and easy access to the collected
data. Preventive maintenance includes actions
taken to prevent equipment from failing, such as
changing the oil, cleaning or replacing filters,
making required calibrations, or simply cleaning
each machine before and after its use.
If preventive maintenance is not done
properly, or not done at all, your equipment
may be put out of commission until repairs are
made.
The other type of maintenance, corrective
maintenance, includes all the actions required to
restore equipment to an operational condition.
The Ships' 3-M Systems apply to all ships'
service craft, small boats, and nonaviation fleet
support equipment. Equipment used ashore,
which is identical to shipboard equipment, must
be maintained under the Preventive Maintenance
System. OPNAVINST 4790.4 (series), contains
allof the detailed procedures and instructions for
the effective operation of the 3-M Systems. Other
instructions on the 3-M Systems are found in the
type commander's maintenance manuals.
This section of the chapter will discuss the
most common records of the 3-M Systems that
must be kept current in the Engineering
Department.
PLANNED MAINTENANCE
SYSTEM (PMS)
The Planned Maintenance System is a
standardized method for planning and scheduling
preventive maintenance. You must give careful
attention to the PMS schedules to ensure they are
accurately filled out and posted in a timely
manner. PMS schedules are categorized as cycle,
 The cycle schedule identifies all the planned
maintenance assigned to the work center and
the quarter in which the maintenance is
to be done. A quarter is a 3-month time frame,
such as January, February, and March. The
schedule runs from one overhaul to the next
overhaul.
The based on the cycle
quarterly schedule is
schedule. The planned maintenance checks listed
for the quarter on the cycle schedule are
transferred to the quarterly schedule. The
quarterly schedule assigns checks on the basis of
weeks. A
check is placed in the proper column
to show which week of a quarter a check has
in
to be made. If the maintenance is a monthly
check, you must list it three times, once in each
month.
The weekly scheduled is based on the quarterly
schedule. At the end of a week, all of the checks
listed for the next week are transferred to the
weekly schedule and placed in the column for the
day desired. Daily and weekly checks appear
only on the weekly schedule.
The major components of the PMS are the
maintenance requirement card (MRC), the
maintenance index page (MIP), and the list of
effective pages (LOEP). These components are
discussed in your 3-M manual.
MAINTENANCE
SHIP'S
ACTION FORM
The Maintenance Action Form,
Ship's
OPNAV 4790/2K, is used by maintenance
personnel to report both deferred and completed
maintenance actions (including those previously
deferred). This form also allows the entry of
screening and planning information for manage-
ment and control of intermediate maintenance
workloads.
activity
The OPNAV 4790/2K is originated in the
work center, screened by the division officer and
engineer officer for accuracy and legibility, and
initialedby the division officer and the engineer
officer before being forwarded to the 3-M
coordinator. When the OPNAV 4790/2K is used
to defer maintenance, the 3-M coordinator will
send two copies of the form back to the
originating work center to hold on file. When the
deferred maintenance is completed, one of the
copies is used to document the completion of the
maintenance.
CURRENT SHIP'S MAINTENANCE
PROJECT (CSMP)
The standard CSMP is a computer-produced
report listing deferred maintenance and alter-
ations that have been identified through
Maintenance Data System (MDS) reporting.
Copies of the CSMP should be received
aboard ship monthly. The engineer officer
is provided a copy for each of the engineering
department work centers, and each work center
is provided a copy listing only its own deferred
maintenance.
The purpose of the CSMP is to provide ship-
board maintenance managers with a consolidated
listing of deferred corrective maintenance so they
may manage and control its accomplishment. The
work center supervisor is responsible for
ensuring the CSMP accurately describes the
material condition of his work center.
Each month when a new CSMP is received,
verified, and updated, the old CSMP may be
destroyed.
OPNAVINST 4790.4 (series) contains com-
plete instructions and procedures for completing
and routing all 3-M Systems forms.
MAINTENANCE DATA
SYSTEM (MDS)
The MDS is used to identify problems with
a piece of equipment or a system and to
recommend a course of corrective action through
the chain of command. To accomplish this, you
need to know how to fill out the Ship's
Maintenance Action Form (OPNAV 4790/2K)
properly. You may submit the OPNAV 4790/2K
for any of several reasons, such as
1. to state why planned maintenance is not
being completed on a certain piece of
equipment
2. to report an equipment or a system failure
3. to request outside assistance
4. to report completion of an important
corrective action
Some of the information the OPNAV
4790/2K form contains includes
1. the ship's identification
2. the work center identification
3. the equipment/system identification
4. the date when the problem was discovered
5. the suspected cause of the problem
 6. the operational status of the equip- work center supervisor, the division officer, the
ment/system department head, and the commanding officer
7. the reason for the deferral will all benefit from it. All concerned will be able
8. a description of the problem and the to keep abreast of the status of the equipment
recommended corrective action if the under the responsibility of your work center.
form is used as a deferral, or what action From the information in the preceding
was taken if the form is used to report a paragraphs, you can now see the importance of
completed action the MDS.
the originator's assigned priority
9.
10. the names of two contact personnel FEEDBACK REPORT (FBR) FORM
11. whether the form is being used as a
deferral or to report a completed action
The PMS Feedback Report, OPNAV
4790/7B, provides maintenance personnel the
means to report discrepancies and problems and
Shipboard copies of completed 4790/2Ks can
to request PMS software. All PMS
FBRs are sent
jrovide you information about the status of
to either NAVSEACENs or TYCOMs, depending
equired jobs, the operational readiness status of
on the category of the FBR.
four equipment, and the history of your
Feedback reports are originated in the work
xmipment.
center and must be signed by the originator. They
The Navy Maintenance Support Office are then screened and signed by the division
NAMSO) maintains records of all OPNAV
officer and the engineer officer before being
t790/2Ks submitted. By making sure all the
forwarded to the 3-M coordinator. The 3-M
nformation is entered correctly, you help make
coordinator dates and signs the FBR, serializes
ivailable a valid history of your equipment. If
it, and returns the green copy to the originating
)ther commands have the same equipment, and
work center. The originating work center must file
f their forms are properly completed, you can
the green copy until an answer to the FBR is
Compare the histories to resolve a problem. You
received.
nay find the problem pertains only to your piece
)f equipment. Or you
Now that you have gained the basic knowledge
may find there is a problem of maintenance under the 3-M Systems, you
vith the overall design of the equipment. For
are ready to install new machines as well
naterial history to work properly, you must be
as maintain them for longer life. For more
ure to record all the important work that was
detailed information on the 3-M Systems, consult
lone.
As a work
OPNAVINST 4790.4 (series) (3-M Manual).
center supervisor, you must ensure
hat a ship's force work list (SFWL) is
naintained for your work center. You should
THE NEW MACHINE
ientify in the SFWL
work that cannot be taken
are of immediately. If the work is not completed You may at some time have the task of
30 days, you must submit an
rithin OPNAV receiving and installing anew machine aboard
790/2K to defer the job. You should make an ship. The new machine should be completely
ppropriate entry in the SFWL to indicate that checked over for any visible damage that may
tie job has been deferred. When the job is have occurred during shipment. This should be
ompleted, submit a 4790/2K to document the done before the machine is cleaned of the slushing
ompleted action and make an entry in the SFWL. compound used to protect it during shipment. If
If you have to requisition repair parts for a you find any damage, you may have to ship the
ob, enter the job in the SFWL, even if it will be machine back to the manufacturer. If you did not
ompleted within the 30 days. Enter the job find any damage, have the machine cleaned
equence number (JSN) on the requisition form completely of the slushing compound. Use any
NAVSUP 1250 or DD
Form 1348). The supply approved cleaning solvent and follow the
epartment assigns the requisition number which manufacturer's instructions. NEVER use air
ou will write in the SFWL under the correspond- pressure in the cleaning process. Doing so may
ig JSN. This provides you a record of what is force grit and dirt that were picked up in transit
n order for a particular job. between bearing surfaces.
If your portion of the MDS
contains the There are many factors you must consider
orrect information, and if you use it properly, when you install a new machine. Take care not
ou will find it to be of great assistance. Your to limit the machine's capacity any more than
machines side by side and mill a boat shaft in one
machine, could the other machine be used at the
same time? It might be possible to angle each of
them a little and overcome this problem. Consider
all such factors prior to installing a machine. Once
you select a location, you must consider the deck
and the frames of the ship. Place the machine over
a frame, not between two of them. If this cannot
be done, use a large plate across the frames to
reinforce the deck. Remember, in selecting a
foundation you must consider the weight of the
machine itself and all tools or accessories that may
be used with it. Regardless of the type of
foundation used, the machine should always be
bolted down solidly. Do not, under any
circumstances, weld the machine to the deck.
Most machines are equipped with leveling screws.
Anchor the machine so the leveling screws will
have ample adjustment. A machine not equipped
with leveling screws will require flat metal shims
to level it. Do not use wooden shims or shingles
because they will compress and cause the machine
to go out of line.
Most machine tools are preset at the factory.
But during the initial installation, you must
consider lubrication. Be sure the oil reservoirs are
filled with the proper type of oil. Consult the
manufacturer's technical manual. Since Navy
lubricating oils and greases are a primary concern,
they are discussed in detail in this chapter. Make
sure all parts of the machine are free and
moveable by hand before you start the machine
for the first time.
LUBRICATION
Too much emphasis cannot be placed on the
importance of proper lubrication of machinery.
Moving surfaces, such as ball and roller bearings,
high-speed gear trains, and other devices having
relatively small surface areas in contact, must be
steadily supplied with the proper kind of
lubrication. These lubricants must be maintained
at specified standards of purity, designated
pressures, and specified temperatures. Lubricants
form a film between contacting surfaces, thereby
separating the surfaces and reducing friction;
consequently, wear and seizing of parts are also
reduced. Figure 6-1 shows a typical lubrication
chart of a horizontal boring, drilling, and
milling machine.
Friction-generated heat must be rapidly
dissipated to prevent damage to equipment.
6-4
as neat. It also reduces trie amount 01 energy
required to perform mechanical actions. Further-
more, proper lubrication prevents corrosion,
which will be discussed later in this chapter.
Since friction is of great concern in the design
and operation of machinery, it is discussed in
detail in the following paragraphs.
FRICTION
The friction that exists between a body at rest
and the surface upon which it rests is called
STATIC FRICTION. The friction that exists
between moving bodies (or between one moving
body and a stationary surface) is called KINETIC
FRICTION. Static friction, which must be over-
come to put any body into motion, is greater than
kinetic friction, which must be overcome to keep
the body in motion.
There are three types of kinetic friction: sliding
friction, rolling friction, and fluid friction.
SLIDING FRICTION exists when the surface of
one solid body is moved across the surface of
another body. ROLLING FRICTION
solid
exists when a curved body, such as a cylinder or
a sphere, rolls on a flat or curved surface. FLUID
FRICTION is the resistance to motion exhibited
by a fluid.
Fluid friction exists because of the COHE-
SION between particles of the fluid and the
ADHESION of fluid particles to the object or
medium is tending to move the fluid.
that
Cohesion the molecular attraction between
is
particles that tends to hold a substance or a body
together; adhesion is the molecular attraction
between particles that tends to cause unlike
surfaces to stick together. If a paddle is used to
stir a fluid, for example, the cohesive forces
between the molecules of the fluid tend to hold
the molecules together and prevent motion of the
fluid. At the same time, the adhesive forces of
the molecules of the fluid cause the fluid to adhere
to the paddle and create friction between the
paddle and the fluid.
For lubrication, adhesion is the property of
a lubricant that causes to stick (or adhere) to
it
the parts being lubricated; cohesion is the property
that holds the lubricant together and enables it
to resist breakdown under pressure.
Cohesion and adhesion are possessed by
different materials in widely varying degrees. In
general, solid bodies are highly cohesive but
 OIL FILLER COVER
FOR HEADSTOCK

CUP OILER FOR OIL RESERVOIR

IN BEARING BLOCK. FOR LUBRICATION OF
LUBRICATES END SUPPORT BED MECHANISM AND
WAYS AND BEARING BLOCK HEADSTOCK, USE GOOD
BUSHING AND END GRADE MINERAL OIL
SUPPORT NUT (APP, SAE 200)
VISCOSITY 200 TO 300
SIGHT FEED OIL GLASS SAYBOLT UNIVERSAL
SHOWS ACTUAL FLOW OF OIL AT 100F.
TO MAIN SPINDLE BEARINGS

HEADSTOCK OIL LEVEL

SIGHT GLASS

/- FOUR OILERS FOR FOR TABLE AND

LUBRICATION OF END
HEADSTOCK SADDLE UNIT
SUPPORT BEARING WAYS
OIL DRAIN LUBRICATION
USE MOTOR OIL
~ OIL FILLER COVER SAE 50.
FOR BED

FOR FURTHER
LUBRICATION
INSTRUCTIONS
SEE INSTRUCTION
BOOK FURNISHED
WITH MACHINE.

BED OIL DRAIN

VEL
SIGHT GLASS

CUP OILERS FOR

BEVEL GEAR DRIVE
TO ELEVATING OIL RESERVOIR FOR LUBRICATION OF
SCREW ENTIRE TABLE AND SADDLE UNIT
INCLUDING SADDLE FEED UNIT

126.100X
Figure 6-1. Typical lubrication chart.

only slightly adhesive. Most fluids are highly Factors Affecting Lubrication
adhesive but only slightly cohesive.
A number of factors affect the ability of an
Fluid Lubrication oil film to lubricate. These factors include
pressure, temperature, viscosity, speed, alignment,
Fluid lubrication is based on the actual condition of the bearing surfaces, running
separation of surfaces by the fluid so that clearances between the bearing surfaces, starting
no metal-to-metal contact occurs. As long as torque, and the nature and purity of the
the lubricant film remains unbroken, sliding fric- lubricant. Many of these factors are interrelated
tion and rolling friction are replaced by fluid and interdependent. For example, the viscosity of
friction. any given oil is affected by temperature, and the
In any process involving friction, some power temperature is affected by running speed; hence
isconsumed and some heat is produced. Over- the viscosity is partially dependent upon the
coming sliding friction consumes the greatest running speed.
amount of power and produces the greatest A lubricant must be able to stick to the
amount of heat. Overcoming rolling friction bearing surfaces and support the load at operating
consumes less power and produces less heat. Over- speeds. More adhesiveness is required to make a
coming fluid friction consumes the least power lubricant adhere to bearing surfaces at high speeds
and produces the least amount of heat. than at low speeds. At low speeds, greater

6-5
 is required to keep the lubricant from
cohesiveness Lubricating oil characteristics enable the Navy to
being squeezed out from between the bearing classify its widely used oils. Classification of oils
surfaces. is by military symbols (table 6-1). Additional
Machines with large clearances between their information is contained in NAVSEA 59086-H7-
bearing surfaces require the use of highly viscous STM-000/CH 262. Standard test methods
and cohesive lubricants to maintain the lubricating are used for making all tests. These char-
oil film. As the clearance increases, the lubricant acteristics are briefly explained in the following
must have greater resistance to being pounded paragraphs.
from between the bearing surfaces in order to The VISCOSITY of an a measure of the
oil is

preserve the lubricating oil film. oil's resistance to determined by

flow. It is

High unit loading on a bearing requires the
use of a highly viscous lubricant because a
lubricant subjected to high loading must be
sufficiently cohesive to hold together and
maintain the oil film.
LUBRICANTS
Although there is growing use of synthetic
lubricants, the principal source of the oils and
greases used in the Navy is still petroleum. By
various refining processes, lubricating stocks are
extracted from crude petroleum and blended
into a multiplicity of products to meet all
lubrication requirements. Various compounds or
additives are used in some lubricants (both oils
and greases) to provide properties required for
specific applications.
Lubricating Oil Characteristics
Lubricating oils used by the Navy are
tested for a number of characteristics, including
viscosity,pour point, flash point, fire point,
autogenous ignition temperature, neutralization
measuring the time required for a fixed volume
(at a given temperature) to flow through a
calibrated orifice or capillary tube. Viscosity
decreases as the temperature rises and increases
as the pressure increases. Because numerous types
of apparatus are used, viscosity is expressed
test
in a variety of units. In the past, Saybolt
universal second (SUS) units were commonly
used. Some ships may still have the Saybolt
viscosimeter. Recently, emphasis has been placed
on the CENTISTOKE (CST) unit of viscosity.
Today, most oil specifications will require
kinematic viscosity in centistokes of two standard
temperatures: 37.8C (100 F) and 98.9C
(210 F). As a result of metrication, oil viscosities
will be specified at 40 C (104 F) and 100 C
(212F). If you need to convert to different
viscosity units, use conversion charts. You can
obtain these charts from various manufacturers
of lubricants or you may consult NAVSEA
59086-H7-STM-00/CH 262.
To help ensure proper lubrication and to
extend the service life of your machinery, always
use lubricating oil whose viscosity is best suited
for the environment in which your machinery is

number, demulsibility, and precipitation number. operating.

Table 6-1. Lubrication Oils by Series

Lubricating Oil Series Type or Use

1 Aircraft engine
2 Forced feed lubricant or hydraulic system
3* General purpose
4 Compounded, emulsifying
5 Cylinder, mineral
6** Compounded (acidless tallow or equivalent)
7** Compounded (acidless tallow or prime lard oil)
Compounded (prime lard oil)
Diesel Engine

*
Specifications for this series have been cancelled. No longer available in the supply system
**This series has a different compounding material

fi.fi
a container. At a temperature below the pour cleanly from any water present an important
point, oil congeals or solidifies. A
low pour point factor in forced-feed systems. It is especially
is an essential characteristic of lube oils used in important to keep water (fresh or salt) out of oils.
cold weather operations since the oil must Any change in demulsibility is important in
continue to flow at low temperatures to be an turbine installations because sludge and emulsions
effective lubricant. (NOTE: The pour point too stable to be broken by the means available
is closely related to the viscosity of the may be formed. An increase in acidity is an
oil. In general, an oil of high viscosity will indication that the lubricating oil is deteriorating.
have a higher pour point than an oil of low The PRECIPITATION NUMBER of an oil
viscosity.) is a measure of the amount of solids classified as
The FLASH POINT of an oil is the asphalts or carbon residue contained in the oil.

temperature at which enough vapor is given off The number is determined by diluting a known
to flash when a flame or spark is present. The amount of oil with naphtha and separating the
minimum flash points allowed for Navy lube oils precipitate by centrifuging the volume of
vary from 148.9C (300 F) for the lightest to separated solids indicates the precipitation
265.6 C (510F) for the heaviest (forced-feed) number. The test is a quick means of determining
oils. the presence of foreign materials in used oils. An
The FIRE POINT of an oil is the temperature oil with a high precipitation number may cause
at which the oil will continue to burn when trouble in an engine by leaving deposits or by
ignited. plugging up valves and pumps.
The AUTOGENOUS IGNITION TEMPER- Shipboard machinery uses two lubricant
ATURE (AIT), or SPONTANEOUS IGNITION specifications.
TEMPERATURE (SIT), is the temperature at
which the vapors from a sample in the test 1 Military specifications
. used primarily by
the Department of Defense (DOD)
apparatus, under specified conditions, will ignite
spontaneously (without the application of a spark MIL-L-9000G
Example:
or flame).
Aterm with which you should be familiar is MIL indicates a military product
BASE NUMBER. This number applies to oils that L indicates a lubricant (lube oil)
have special additives, such as the additives that 9000 number given in sequence as lubri-
neutralize acids formed during combustion. For cant category
example, the base number for new 9250 oil is Gindicates the revision of the lubri-
9000. As the oil continues to be used, the additives cant specification
are consumed and the base number gradually 2. Federal specifications used by military
decreases toward zero. Although you have no way and civilian agencies of the government
to measure the base number directly, you do have
oil service life recommendations made by the oil's Example: VV-L-825
manufacturer. These recommendations are VV indicates the of the
identity
derived from base numbers. If you follow the lubricant
manufacturer's recommendations, you can assure L indicates a lubricant (lube oil)
yourself that you are maintaining lubricants at 825 number given in sequence as the
their proper additive levels. lubricant category
The NEUTRALIZATION NUMBER of an
oil is the measure of the acid content and is
oil's The absence of a letter after the category
defined as the number of milligrams of potassium number indicates the specifications have not
hydroxide (KOH) required to neutralize the acids needed to be revised.
in one gram of the All petroleum products
oil.
deteriorate (oxidize) in the presence of air and LUBRICATING GREASES
heat. The products of this oxidation include
organic acids, which, if present in sufficient Lubricating greases are gels formed by adding
concentration, have harmful effects on alloy a thickening agent soap or a clay such as
bearings at elevated temperatures and change BENTONITE. The soap is a chemical compound
demulsibility of the oil. formed by combining fatty acids with various

6-7
alkali metals such as calcium, sodium, aluminum,
zinc, barium, lithium, lead, or potassium.
Classification of Greases
Greases are generally classified according to
their use and hardness (consistency of flow). The
determination of the hardness of lubricating
grease is based on penetration values established
by the American Society of Testing and Materials
(ASTM). Greases are classified into grades by the
use of standards set by the National Lubrication
Grease Institute (NLGI) based on penetration test
values. Some of the frequently used shipboard
greases are as follows:
1. High performance ball and
bearing used in equipment operating
temperatures up to 148.9 C (300 F)
2. High temperature used in
equipment
operating above 148. 9 C (300 F)
3. Water resistant two types, used
where water contamination is possible
a. General purpose used to lubricate
bearings operating in areas exposed to water
contamination, such as stern tube bearings and
periscope bearings
b. Wire rope used to protect wire rope
surfaces from seawater contamination and to
protect exposed gears
4. Extreme pressure (EP) used on heavily
loaded bearing surfaces for which ordinary grease
cannot maintain a film to prevent contact of the
rubbing surfaces
Table 6-2 shows the classification
lubricating grease by grade.
Table 6-2. Grease Classification by Grade
Common Terms Associated
with Lubricating Greases
Hardness (consistency of flow) the depth to
which a standard cone penetrates a sample of
grease, measured in tenths of a millimeter. The
temperature at which the grease is sampled is
maintained at 25 C (77 F).
Dropping point the lowest temperature at
which the lubricating grease passes from a
semisolid to a liquid state.
Load (carrying capacity) the maximum load
or pressure the grease can sustain without
allowing the bearings to fail or wear excessively.
Table 6-3 shows some of the common
lubricating greases stocked aboard a naval ship
and at shore bases. *
roller Always read the manufacturer s lubricating
at instructions when you maintain your machinery.
If you desire an in-depth study of lubricating
greases, refer to NAVSEA S9086-H7-STM-
000/CH 262 and MIL-HDBK-267, Guide for
Selection of Lubricants and Hydraulic Fluids for
in areas
Use in Shipboard Equipment.
PREVENTION OF CORROSION
Preventing corrosion, particularly corrosion
resultingfrom continuous exposure to a marine
environment, is one major problem machinists
must address, both on board naval vessels
and at shore naval bases. Therefore, to pre-
vent or reduce corrosion, you must clearly
understand what causes corrosion. Equipment
being used as well as equipment in temporary
of storage or in standby condition requires protection
from corrosion to prevent premature equipment
failure.
Greases with corrosion inhibitors are often
used as preservatives for equipment on standby
because they are lubricants that do not need to
be removed when the equipment is reactivated.
Before applying oil, grease, and dry films to metal
surfaces, be sure the surfaces are clean. This will
enable the coatings to protect the surfaces from
air and moisture, thus retarding corrosion.
The four main methods of corrosion pro-
tection are (1) use of corrosion-resistant metals
and alloys, (2) application of corrosion-resistant
coverings, (3) change of the surface composition
of the metals, making them resistant to corrosive
attack, and (4) use of cathodic protection
devices.
 Table 6-3. Lubricants Commonly Used in Shipboard Hull, Mechanical, and Electrical Equipment

CORROSION-RESISTANT coatings are used either to protect against

METALS AND ALLOYS structural damage or to preserve appearance.
Metallic coatings are applied by electroplating,
One of the most basic ways of improving dipping, and spraying with atomized molten
corrosion resistance is to use a more corrosion- metal.
resistant metal. Although use of such metal may
not appear to be cost effective, savings resulting CATHODIC PROTECTION
from decreased maintenance and replacement
charges may well exceed the initial cost of the This protection is provided by attaching to a
special metal. primary metal another metal that is more readily
attacked by corrosion than the primary metal. For
CORROSION-RESISTANT COATINGS example, pieces of zinc are attached to an
outboard motor to protect the motor's aluminum
There are two types of corrosion-resistant from corrosion since zinc corrodes more easily
coatings, organic and inorganic. than aluminum. To protect the underwater
Organic coatings are films, such as paints, components of ships, such as the hull, rudder,
resins,and varnish, made from previously living propeller struts, and shafting, from corrosion,
materials.Other organic materials are tar, grease, shipbuilders attach anodes made of either zinc or
asphalt compounds, and adhesive plastic tapes. magnesium to the outside of the hull. Some
Although some of these, such as paints, often anodes are allowed to corrode slowly through
contain inorganic substances, the effective natural chemical reaction. Newer systems aboard
ingredients are organic materials. Since these ship pass very small electrical currents through the
coatings are organic, they are subject to cathodic protection system, causing the sacrificial
deterioration at high temperatures and are anodes to corrode more rapidly and provide more
recommended only for use at or below the protection to the ship's underwater components.
boiling temperature of water.
Inorganic coatings may consist of either
ceramic or metallic materials. Ceramic materials GENERAL CARE
coat surfaces of objects such as enameled
cooking utensils, bathtubs, and washbasins. These Good housekeeping is as necessary in a
coatings resist elevated temperatures and are machine shop as it is in a home. Periodic
usually hard, wear resistant, and brittle. Metallic cleaning of machines is essential to trouble-free
operation and long machine life. Bearing surfaces maintenance jobs needed. The machine operator
and bright machined parts that rust rapidly should should report repairs, adjustments, or
be wiped frequently with a clean fag and soaked replacements of any magnitude to the shop
with a clean rag containing mineral oil. Caustic, supervisor.
gritty cleaners should never be used on such parts. Care of the machine should be extended to
Periodic cleaning will also give the operator include care of the tools and the accessories that
a chance to discover any minor machine troubles, accompany the machine. When tools and
such as loose nuts, bolts, and screws. The operator attachments are kept clean and stored in an
can then correct such trouble before serious orderly fashion, the operator reduces setup time
damage occurs. Many times, periodic cleaning and increases the overall operating efficiency of
discloses other small necessary repair or the machine.
 CHAPTER 7
MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT
Every manager of a machine shop, to be
successful, must apply a wide variety of technical
and administrative knowledge and skills in
supervising shop operations.
When you become a shop supervisor, you will
have to use your expertise as a machinist to
determine and to manage material assets. You will
also have to use sound administrative and human
relations techniques to train, to understand, and,
especially, togain the respect of and to promote
rapport among your subordinates.
In running a machine shop, you will also
need the ability to cope with a multitude of
details that influence the smooth operation
.of the shop. These include, but are not limited
to, the specifics of requisitioning, handling,
stowing, and accounting for supplies and repair
parts; maintaining accurate records of all phases
of operations; and submitting reports required by
higher authority.
As a Machinery Repairman, you will probably
be assigned to a repair ship or a tender at some
point in yourNavy career. Before we discuss the
methods of organizing and supervising a ship-
board or ashore machine shop, you must consider
the organization of the repair department. The
repair department organization is discussed in
your MR 3 &2. When your assignment sends you
to duty ashore, you will work within the
framework of a similar organization having a
similar mission. Having a thorough understanding
of team spirit that prevails in the repair procedures
you a clearer picture of how the machine
will give
shop fits into the scheme of the total repair
mission.
Your duties as an MR1 or an MRC will
require you to have a complete knowledge of the
operation and maintenance of machine tools. You
will make working sketches of machine parts. You
will make repairs to pumps and valves. You will
be responsible for all required shop inspections
and tests on repaired machinery and equipment;
and you will estimate time and material needed
for specific machine shop jobs. Above all, you
personnel to machines in your shop and
will assign
will properly superviseworking procedures.
The following are examples of specific duties
you may expect as an MR1 or an MRCaboard
a repair ship or a tender and possibly on shore
bases.
SHIP SUPERINTENDENT
You may be assigned as ship superintendent
or as a repair department progressman. These jobs
require considerable knowledge of repair pro-
cedures, especially those relating to administrative
practices for processing work requests and for
maintaining logs and reports to provide the repair
officer with information on the status of work
being done on ships alongside. The responsibilities
of ship superintendent and progressman often
overlap, and you may perform both functions at
the same time.
Collectively, the duties of a ship super-
intendent and progressman are as follows:
1. Act as coordinator of shop work on the
ships assigned to you.
2. Act as liaison between the ships and
the tender in regard to repair department
jobs.
3. Report daily to the commanding officers
(or their representatives) of the ships assigned to
you, to ensure that the work is progressing
satisfactorily as far as the ship is concerned.
4. Report on Friday of each week, or sooner
if required, to the repair officer the status of each
job, bringing to his attention any high priority
jobs that are behind schedule. Include in this
report recommendations for shifting work or
material procurement, and whether or not the job
can be completed on time.
5. Use the ship's superintendent report to
maintain a daily progress report concerning
completion of jobs, material on order, delays in
production, and availability of prints, sketches,
or samples needed to complete the jobs.
This report is usually published daily or
biweekly.
6. Maintain a followup check on material
ordered to ensure the timely receipt of the
material. The shop will also have a record of
material on order.
Obtain signatures from officers concerned
7.
in any cancellation of a job order, or completed
job.
8. Notify the ships to pick up completed
material on the tender or to provide additional
information.
9. Secure signatures from officers con-
cerned on completion of job orders.
10. Notify ship's personnel to witness tests on
machinery, compartments, and tanks, required by
work performed. The ship will receive a copy of
the quality assurance (QA) form.
QUALITY ASSURANCE INSPECTOR
As a work center supervisor you will be
responsible for the quality control program in
your work spaces. You must do the following:
1 .
Develop a thorough understanding of the
QA program.
2. Inspect all work for conformance to
specifications.
Train personnel in quality control.
3.
Maintain records to support the
4.
program, following the QA
manual.
Ensure only calibrated equipment is
5.
used in acceptance testing and/or inspection of
work.
6. Initiate a Departure from Specifications
Report (QA Form 12) when required.
7. Ensure all inspections beyond the
capabilities of the shop's QA inspector are
performed and accepted by the intermediate
maintenance activity (IMA) before final accept-
ance/installation of the product by the ship.
8. Witness and document all tests.
9. Ensure adequate protection (overload,
overpressure, and so forth) is provided for
tests.
10. Ensure all material or test results
that fail to meet specifications are recorded and
reported.
11. Report all deficiencies/discrepancies to
the engineer through the ship's QA
coordinator,
keeping the coordinator's division
informed.
12. Develop controlled work packages for all
ship repair work requiring QA controls.
QUALITY ASSURANCE PROGRAM
The quality assurance program was established
by the Commander, Naval Surface Force, U. S.
Atlantic Fleet (COMNAVSURFLANT) to pro-
vide personnel with information and guidance
necessary to administer a uniform policy of
maintenance and repair of ships.
The Quality Assurance (QA) Manual 9090.1
sets forth minimum quality assurance require-
ments. If more stringent requirements are imposed
by higher authority, such requirements must have
precedence. If conflict exists between the QA
manual and previously issued COMNAVSURF-
LANT letters and transmittals, the QA
manual
takes precedence. Such conflicts should be
reported to COMNAVSURFLANT.
The instructions contained in the QA manual
apply to every ship and activity of the force.
Although the requirements are primarily appli-
cable to the repair and maintenance accomplished
by the force IMAs, they also apply to maintenance
performed aboard ship by the ship's force. In all
cases, specifications must be met. If specifications
cannot be met, a Departure from Specifications
Request must be completed and reported. Depar-
tures from specifications must also be reported
to appropriate levels so that departure approvals
QA or restrictions may be issued.
Because of the wide range of ship types and
equipment and the varied resources available for
maintenance and repair, the instructions set forth
in thismanual are necessarily general in nature.
Each activity must implement a quality assurance
program to meet the intent of the QA manual.
The goal should be to have all repairs conform
to QA specifications.
PLANNING AND ESTIMATING
DIVISION
all You may at times also be assigned to the
planning and estimating division. You will be
responsible for planning work which you have
screened to be done by the IMA, and, perhaps,
revising as necessary the planning information
received from another IMA. You may also have
to supervise the operation of a technical library,
officer coordinate the efforts of the repair organization
in the advanced planning of work to be done,
periodically review the job estimation guide, and
update the master job catalog.
There are several planner's handbooks that
you should be familiar with. Two of these are the
IMA Surface Ship Planner's Handbook (S9AAO-
AC-HBK-010) and the Submarine Planner's
Handbook (S9002-AG-HBK-010).
SUPERVISING A MACHINE SHOP
As an MR1 or MRC, one of your major
responsibilities will be to supervise the manu-
facturing and repairing of parts and the
overhauling of machinery. To do this successfully,
you must rely on your past experience in shop
work and repair procedures. You must also
maintain certain records and reports, conduct and
supervise an effective training program, and give
accurate estimates of the time required to
complete repair work.
It is impossible to cover all the tasks and
problems included in the work of a shop
supervisor. However, the following section
designed to make you aware of some of the things
that occur, particularly regarding setting up shop
procedures, and the methods by which everyday
problems are solved in a machine shop.
RECORDS AND REPORTS
As you advance to MR1 or MRC, you will be
required to assume more responsibility for the
paper work necessary in a well organized shop.
In fact, to avoid bogging down completely in the
mass of details, you will probably delegate some
of these duties to an assistant in the shop.
Keeping all your records up to date will enable
you to keep a close check on each job, each
worker, and each piece of equipment under your
supervision. The ship will have standard forms
for keeping some of the required records; for
example, work request forms, supplementary job
order forms, and the necessary requisitions for
obtaining repair parts and supplies. You may want
to supplement these forms with shop logs and
notebooks of your own design to meet your
specific needs. Keep as many logs as you feel you
will need, in addition to those that are required.
A WORK PROGRESS LOG is a record of
and completed work assigned to your
the current
shop and to each person in your shop. This log
may be of your own design, but it should
contain the following pertinent data: job order
and work request number, date received, name
of the activity requesting the work, brief
description of the job, and the number of man-
hours expended. The daily shop run will contain
all of the above information.
A
MATERIAL EXPENDED RECORD is a
running inventory of your stockpile, including
such information as the date the material was
received, the jobs on which the material was
expended, and the balance on hand. To help in
the preparation of stub requisitions, you may also
wish to record such data as quantities listed on
the shipboard allowance list, location of the spaces
where the materials are stored, and stock
numbers. The record is particularly valuable on
repeat jobs, such as the repair of Grove reducers
and Leslie regulators. In some cases, you will be
required to possess level one material and
controlled material. This material is kept separate
from your other material and under lock and key.
In most cases, there will be a material control petty
officerwho will keep these specific records, which
will be audited, so this job should be assigned to
a very reliable petty officer and an equally reliable
is alternate.
An EQUIPMENT LOG is a list of the various
tools charged to you. The log also specifies their
location whether in the shop or in the storeroom
or assigned to an individual. The location of repair
parts boxes can also be logged in this notebook.
An equipment log kept up to date with adequate
tool descriptionsmake, model, and serial
number will be of great assistance to you in
making periodic inventories. This log is usually
kept and maintained by your toolroom petty
officer to assure proper calibration of the
equipment.
DIRECTIVES
Directives are instructions or notices used at
any echelon of command to prescribe policies,
organizations, procedures, or methods which
serve as guides for controlling the decisions and
actions of subordinates. The Navy Directives
System, SECNAV Instruction P5215.1 (revised),
establishes the directive system for the Navy and
sets forth a simple and uniform plan for issuing,
filing, and maintaining directives under the
system. Directives are assignedidentifying
all numbers according to their subjects as listed in
the Navy-Marine Corps Standard Subject
Classification System, SECNAV Instruction
P5210.ll (revised).
The following definitions of policies,
procedures, orders, instructions, and regulations
should help you understand the purpose of
directives:
1 . A
military POLICY prescribes the course
of action to be followed in a given situation.
Policies areput into practice through
best
written means, since they are used to indicate the
action required in recurring situations. Policies
established at the top echelon are broad and
general, whereas those established at lower
echelons must be specific and conform to the
command.
policies established by higher
2. military PROCEDURE is a series of
A of the system, and standards for reproducing
coordinated steps to be followed in the per-
formance of a function.
3. A military ORDER is a formal oral
or written command, issued by a superior
officer to a subordinate, which establishes a rule
or regulation or delegates authority for the
performance of a function.
4. The term INSTRUCTION denotes the
imparting of information concerning the methods
for the accomplishment of a mission and
specifying the manner and conditions of per-
formance in the execution of projects and
programs.
5. A
military REGULATION
is a rule that
sets forth standards governing or restraining the
conduct of individuals.
Navy INSTRUCTIONS are directives that
have a long-term reference value and continue
in effect canceled by the originator.
until
Instructions contain information of a
may
continuing nature or information that requires
continuing action. Instructions are also used to
direct action that cannot be completed in the near
future or action that must be taken at a future
date.
Navy NOTICES are directives
applicable for a brief period of time (usually 6
months or less) and provide for automatic
cancellation on a prescribed date or under a
certain condition. Notices may require action that
can be completed upon receipt or may contain
announcements and items of current
A directive may be issued either as a letter or
as a publication. A
publication differs from a
letter in that the publication normally has
covers and contains a title page, a letter of
promulgation, a record of changes page, a table
of contents, and an alphabetical index of contents.
The Ship's Organization and Regulations Manual
(OPNAVINST 3120.32) is a publication. Certain
shipboard directives, however, are excluded from
the directives system. The directives excluded are
the captain's night order book, the ship's plan of
the day, the engineer officer's night order book,
the OOD's standing order book, and the OOD's
memoranda.
The commanding officer puts the ship's
directives system into effect by issuing two
instructions. One instruction prescribes the
directives to be issued in the system, the
responsibilities of the originators of
the directives,
the directives control points and their functions,
instructions for departmental and divisional use
the ship's directives. The other instruction
establishes the distribution lists for the ship's
directives.
The ship's directives system .disseminates the
policies of the commanding officer, the executive
officer, and the heads of departments, and
provides subordinate officers with a medium for
issuing amplifying and supplementary instructions
to place the polices into effect. By permitting the
integration of the ship's directives with those
from higher authority, the system ensures
that the policies and procedures used in the
administration and operation of the ship follow
the plans and policies of the Navy Department
and of fleet and type commanders.
All directives are maintained as required by
the commanding officer. In most cases this
includes keeping them properly indexed and
arranged in binders.
COORDINATED SHIPBOARD
ALLOWANCE LIST (COSAL)
The COSAL is a technical and supply
management document published by the Ship's
Parts Control Center (SPCC).
that are A COSAL is prepared for an individual ship,
and it lists the tools and equipment necessary to
provide the ship maximum self-supporting
capabilities for an extended period of time.
Included in the COSAL are equipment and
components, repair parts, special tools, and
interest. miscellaneous portable equipment required for the
care and upkeep of the ship.
The COSAL is technical in that it lists
nomenclature, operating characteristics and
guidelines, technical manuals, specifications,
replacement parts, and other technical data
pertaining to all installed equipment and
machinery.
The COSAL, as a supply management
document, informs the supply officer about the
items needed to be stocked and the quantity of
each item needed aboard ship.
During peacetime operations, the ship's
operating schedule is generally well known within
the ship's command structure. The supply officer
can replenish the storerooms for an operation
because the ship's destination, the length of
deployment, and the supply support available are
known. During wartime or other emergencies, the
length of deployment or the destination of a ship
may not be available to the command structure.
The supply officer must then load the ship with
an indefinite period of time. For
supplies to last
most operating supplies, the past records are
available. From these records, the supply officer
can calculate a balanced load that will provide
proper support. But what about repair parts? No
one can predict when a bearing on the freshwater
pump will wear out or a vital tube in the radar
will fail. This is where COSAL takes over.
Computers have analyzed the frequency of
failures of parts used aboard ships. Based on the
equipment aboard your ship, computers have
developed an allowance of repair parts that you
should stock.
The key word in COSAL is COORDI-
NATED. Computers assemble all of the allowed
parts from the hundreds of allowance parts
lists/allowance equipage lists (APL/AELs) into
lists of repair parts to be stocked by the ship.
These are prepared by various activities and
lists
cover of the equipment they support.
all
Thus, the COSAL, aided by experience and
advice from technical ratings, helps the supply
officer stock the necessary repair parts and items.
Of course, the COSAL
will not provide parts
for every equipment breakdown. To do this, you
would have to carry a complete set of spare
equipment and machinery in the storeroom.
However, carrying a complete set of spare
equipment and machinery is not practical.
You will find that the COSAL is very
when you order spare parts for a piece
beneficial
of equipment, since the parts are identified by
both nomenclature and stock number.
For more detailed information on the
COSAL, refer to SPCCINST 4441.170, Use
and Maintenance Manual, Naval Ship's Parts
Control Center.
FLEET COSAL FEEDBACK
REPORT (FCFBR)
This document is used to report inaccuracies,
insufficient descriptions, or other specific COSAL
problems. There are two exceptions to using the
FCFBR: (1) to request a change in allowance for
repair parts or equipment, use Allowance Change
Request (ACR), NAVSUP Form 1220-1; and (2)
to report equipment configuration changes, use
a Configuration Change Form (CCF), OPNAV
Form 4790/CK. When completing the FCFBR,
be sure to include the technical manual name and
number, the page number on which the item is
listed, the circuit symbol, the national stock
number, the part number, and the federal stock
number, to minimize the time for processing the
paper work. The FCFBRs are important, not only
to the fleet as a method to call attention to
COSAL problems, but also to the supply
community as a source of information for
further improvement to the program.
SHIP EQUIPMENT CONFIGURATION
ACCOUNTING SYSTEM (SECAS)
Many shore-based activities play a part in
supporting the equipment and components aboard
your ship. One of these activities is the Ship
Equipment Configuration Accounting System
(SECAS). SECAS is designed and operated
to provide the configuration and logistics
information that will ensure the fleet receives first-
rate material support. The job of SECAS is to
provide activities supporting your ship with
configuration data that accurately reflects the
equipment and components aboard your ship.
Supporting activities must know what equipment
and components are installed on your ship in
order to support them. Although we have given
only a brief explanation of SECAS, in this
section you, as a supervisor, should be familiar
with the entire concept of SECAS (NAVSEA
T0752-AA-MAN-010 to 080/SECAS).
PLANNING THE WORK
The remainder of this chapter is written to
speak to you as if you are now, or soon will be,
a shop supervisor. If you are aboard a large ship
in a nonsupervisory position, use the text to
prepare yourself to become a shop supervisor.
You, with the assistance of your leading
petty officers, must plan each phase of each
job assigned to your shop. In planning the day's
work, you must consider the lead jobs, assist
(supplementary) jobs from other repair shops,
routine upkeep and maintenance, and non-
productive work, such as working parties. Lack
of good planning will usually result in confusion,
delay, and sometimes failure to meet the
commitments of the shop. You must plan for the
coordination of the various steps in the work. This
involves considering available manpower, equip-
ment, materials, and the workload of the other
repair shops.
Planning does not stop in the machine
shop. The repair officer must know how many
productive hours will be available for repair work
during a specific availability, to enable him or her
to know how much work can be accepted during
this period of time. Thus, your planning could
ultimately affect your ship's operational schedule.
This is where estimating comes into the picture.
As a shop supervisor, you must have the ability
to give an accurate estimate of the time each of
the jobs assigned to your shop will consume. To
do you will rely heavily on your past
this,
experience and the experience of your leading
petty officers. You must also estimate the
nonproductive hours that will be required to meet
your shop's obligations to provide working
parties, mess cooks, special liberty, and so
forth.
In planning the work, you must consider the
capabilities of your personnel. Assigning an
inexperienced person to a difficult job requires
that an experienced person be on hand to give
direct supervision at all times. If the workload of
the shop is light, this is a good training
opportunity. However, if the shop has a heavy
workload, the inexperienced person will be of
more value assigned to a job requiring skills more
in line with his or her experience.
Another estimate to be made is the number
of personnel required to accomplish a job.
Having too many people working on the same
piece of equipment is sometimes worse than
having too few. You must analyze each job step
by step, and then assign the required number of
personnel.
Be sure to consider the use of equipment when
you plan a job. Some jobs may be done by using
one of several machines. For instance, a split
bearing be bored in an engine lathe, in a
may
vertical boring mill, or ina horizontal boring mill.
The best machine to use for this job will be
determined by the characteristics of the bearing.
If the bearing requires only boring and has a small
diameter, a lathe will do the job satisfactorily. If
the bearing has a large diameter, requires facing
of the ends, cheeking, and the cutting of oil
grooves, then boring in the lathe would require
too many time-consuming setups. In this instance
the lathe would not have the capacity to do the
job within a reasonable amount of time and with
a minimum of setups.
Still another factor you must consider is the
material necessary to accomplish the needed
repairs. What kind of material, how much is
needed, where you can get it, and how much time
will be required to get it are all questions that you
must consider. Perhaps the material called for in
the blueprint is no longer available. The research
required to find a suitable substitute takes time.
These are just a few of the factors you must
consider as the supervisor of the machine shop.
There are some materials that can be kept in
the machine shop in sufficient quantities to avoid
delay caused by frequent trips to the issue room.
These are the frequently used items, such as studs,
bolts, gasket materials, and parts to repair
regulators and reducing valves. For some items,
a 30-day supply is adequate; for others, a 90-day
supplymay be necessary.
You will probably know from experience and
from memory where each item is in the shop.
However, you should attach a list of contents to
each drawer or cabinet so that the rest of the
personnel in the shop will also know where things
are stowed. Remember the importance of good
housekeeping in getting the work out. Have a
place for everything and keep everything in its
place. Your storage facilities must also have
adequate provision for securing for sea.
As we mentioned earlier, estimating the
amount of material required to complete a job
is your responsibility. Unless you are able to
estimate with accuracy the amount and kind of
materials required by your shop, you will either
be caught short without the items you need or you
will find your shop cluttered with items you do
not need. A
high inventory level of slow-moving
materials ties up division funds that might be
used to better advantage. Remember that
running a shop is like running a business; you
must operate within a budget. Much of the
guesswork in estimating can be eliminated if you
make proper use of records of material expended
during the previous quarter. Include the amount
of material required for any special work you
know is to be done during the period for which
you are estimating. Plan and place shop orders
for materials in advance with the supply officer
through the division officer or the department
head. Do not bypass any of the normal supply
channels of authority.
Inventory levels for most consumable items
and repair parts are maintained by the supply
department. Aboard some repair ships or tenders,
you will assist the supply officer in maintaining
the inventory on metal bar stock. Usually a high
limit will be kept on hand. Before the low limit
isreached, request that material be obtained to
replenish the stock and to maintain the high-limit
supply. In ordering, consider the rate of use, the
balance on hand, and the expected delay in
shipment and delivery.
In planning a job, you must first perform the
job step by step mentally. This will help prevent
the unintentional omission of some important
step of the job. When you are sure you
have identified all the steps, consider each step
to make sure you have taken all requirements
into account. In some cases you may have to use
a written procedure.
If part of the job must be done by other shops,
you must consider not only the time actually
required by these shops but also the time that may
be one of them holds up your work and
lost if
the time spent to transport the material between
shops. Each shop should make a separate
estimate, and the estimates should be combined
to obtain the final estimate.Do NOT attempt to
estimate time that will be required by
the
other shops. Attempting to estimate what other
shops can do is risky because you cannot possibly
have enough information to make an accurate
estimate.
When you have finished planning the work,
follow the plans carefully. You should, however,
be flexible, in order to meet any unforeseen
circumstances or to make emergency repairs. If
a change in plans is indicated, you must reevaluate
the whole plan and make whatever changes you
believe are necessary. Careful planning and
followup of these plans will enable you to run
your shop with the utmost of efficiency and
productivity.
Laying-Out and Assigning Work
A Navy machine shop is primarily concerned
with repair work.The assignment of work changes
constantly according to the amount and type of
work being done in the shop. When the workload
is light, the less experienced personnel may be
assigned to complicated jobs under the super-
vision of experienced machinists. When the
workload is heavy, .your most experienced
machinists will have to be assigned to the
complicated jobs and to jobs that are of an urgent
nature. At times reassignment of work must be
made to preventdelays, to accomplish added new
work, or to expedite emergency jobs.
Information on Incoming Jobs
Job orders generally will be received in the
shop several days in advance of the work. You
should start planning as soon as possible to gain
an advantage of time. Much of your planning may
be done before the work is delivered to the shop.
Jobs that have been done before may be planned
so that the necessary parts are on hand or that
the blueprints are obtained from the technical
library. Usually the activity requesting the repairs
will provide the plans or blueprints along with the
job order.
Another source of information is the manu-
facturers' technical manuals. Many of these may
be found in your own technical library or may
be obtained from the activity requesting the repair
work. You can use these sources of information
to do a great deal of advanced planning prior to
the delivery of the equipment to be repaired.
Priority of Jobs
In planning and scheduling work in the
shop, you will have to give careful consideration
to the priority of each job order. Priorities are
generally classified as urgent, routine, or
deferred.
Deferred jobs do not present much of a
problem, as they are usually done when the
workload of the shop is light and when there are
few jobs of a higher priority to be done. Also,
when these jobs are approved it is with the
understanding that they will be done when the
time, the personnel, and the equipment are
available.
The majority of job orders will have the
routine priority assigned to them. Routine jobs
make up the normal workload of the shop, and
they must be carefully planned and scheduled so
that the daily organization and production can be
maintained at a high standard.
The urgent priority jobs require immediate
planning and scheduling. Other jobs, of lower
priority, may have to be set aside so that these
urgent jobs can be done. At times it may be
necessary to assign personnel to a night shift so
that these jobs can be completed on time.
Determination of Required Repairs
When a job is delivered to the shop, one of
the things you must do is determine what kind
first
of repairs are required. This is where the years
of practical experience and up-to-date knowledge
on different types of repair procedures are in-
valuable. During the planning stage, check with
some of the leading petty officers in the shop for
ideas on how best to accomplish the necessary
repairs. Perhaps one of them may have done the
same job before. It may be possible to assign some
of the planning work to them; for example, a job
of laying out a gear may be given to a person in
the shop who has demonstrated the ability to do
this type of work.
After you have determined what repairs are
necessary, make sure the repair parts or materials
are available. If they are not available on board,
they must be requisitioned through the supply
department. The activity requesting the repairs
may even have the necessary repair parts on hand.
If so,your activity may be able to get the parts
from the requesting activity and then replace them
when replacements are available. Usually though,
your shop have to either manufacture repair
will
parts or make temporary repairs to the old
parts. Matters of this nature must be cleared up
before the job is laid out and assigned to less
experienced personnel in the shop.
ESTIMATING TIME FOR A JOB
Estimating time for the completion of a job
requires considerable thought and foresight. Your
estimate may directly affect the success or failure
of your ship to meet its operational commitments.
Failure to complete a job in the allotted time can
result in considerable unnecessary expense and
loss of valuable time. Each estimate you make
must be realistic, accurate, and dependable. An
estimate, in a very real sense, is a guess, but it
should be an intelligent guess based on the
proper use of records and experience.
For most of the routine jobs that come into
the shop, you may give a quick estimate of the
probable time of completion. Generally, there is
no necessity for completing routine jobs within
any set time as long as the repairs are completed
before the end of the availability and in sufficient
time for the ship's force to install the repaired
equipment.
The estimation of time required to complete
priority jobs must be given considerable thought.
If a last minute job comes up near the end of the
repair period, or if a ship in port only for a day
or two requires an urgent repair job, the time
required to make the repairs is an important
consideration. In jobs such as these, the time
estimate must be extremely accurate to avoid the
waste that would result from starting a repair job
that could not be completed. Frequently, you, as
the shop supervisor, will make the final decision;
because of your experience in repair work, your
knowledge of the current workload, and your
knowledge of the personnel and machines in the
shop, you should be able to give an accurate
estimate of the time required to complete almost
any repair job.
Before you can make an estimate, you must
have detailed information on the job. Where
necessary, you should study blueprints and
manufacturers' technical manuals. You must
make a thorough study of the time requiring
repairs because the job might require repairs or
replacements in addition to those originally
specified. You must also determine the amount
of repair work to be done. To make such a
determination, you must clearly understand
detailed procedures on how best to accomplish the
repairs.
When you have determined the necessary
repairs, you may begin considering a time
estimate. Be sure to consider the various phases
of the repair operation when you calculate the
time it should take to perform a given operation
on any part and on any specific machine.
Teardown Time
In any repair job, the machinery to be repaired
is disassembled only as required to enable the
repairs to be accomplished without damage to
other parts of the equipment. Teardown time is
the time required to disassemble a piece of
equipment after it has been delivered to the shop.
As you prepare your time estimate, double the
teardown time to allow sufficient time for
reassembly. If any dismantling is required before
the part or piece of equipment is delivered to your
shop, get an estimate of this time from the ship's
force of the customer ship or from other repair
department personnel.
Machine Setup Time
There are many elements you must consider
in estimating the setup time. A certain amount
of time may be required to make the machine
ready for the machining operation. This may
include changing the type of cutting fluid
in the sump, changing the cutter, installing
and aligning work-holding devices or jigs,
adjusting the machine table, or removing
accessory equipment from the machine.
 The operator must go to the toolroom to
obtain the required tools and measuring devices.
These items can all probably be obtained in one
trip if the machine operator has thought out the
job ahead of time. Still another consideration in
setup time is the time the operator needs to study
drawings or blueprints.
Some consideration must be given to the
location of the machine being used for the job.
A The time factors that have thus far been
heavy piece of equipment being machined
requires that lifting equipment be rigged if there
is no crane or trolley available in the vicinity of
the machine being used. Setup time, then, includes
all the time required to prepare the machine for
the machining operation.
Machine Operation Time
The next phase to be considered is that of the
actual machining operation. This includes all the
time needed to perform all of the elements of the
machining operations. Some jobs require the use
of more than one machine to complete all of the
repair work. All of this time is included as
operation time in the one estimate. If, for
example, you are estimating time for machining
a new gear, you should include time for the lathe,
the milling machine, and possibly the vertical
shaper.
In estimating operation time, you will have to
take into account the physical movements
required of the operator during the machining
operations. This includes the movements of the
lathe carriage after each cut, feeding in the cross
slide to start a new cut, or applying lubricant to
the dead center.
Still other things you must take into account
are the machining elements. These elements start
when the cutting tool touches the work end and
when the tool leaves the work. Having a thorough
knowledge of the speeds and feeds that may be
used to machine different materials will enable
you to calculate the machining time with little
trouble.
Machine Teardown Time
The machine teardown time will be very
small but, nevertheless, must be taken into
is necessary to include in
consideration. All that
of your estimate is the time required to
this part
remove the work from the machine.
Miscellaneous Time Allowances
The final factor to consider in estimating time
is often overlooked. This is the time that falls
into the category of miscellaneous. Some causes
of miscellaneous time are fatigue from mind and
muscle exercise, head calls, rest breaks, meals, and
other factors or actions not directly associated
with the repair operation.
considered are those that have to do with the
machining of a piece of equipment or the
making of repair parts. There are certain other
factors you must consider in order to make a
realistic and accurate time estimate. Some of these
are the shop workload, the procurement of parts
or materials, the workload of other repair shops,
and any time-consuming errors or machining
accidents that might occur during the job.
SHOP WORKLOAD
You should carefully consider the workload
of the shop before you approve a new job for
completion by a certain time.
After a decision has been made as to what
repairs or replacements are necessary, you will be
able to determine what machine tools and
personnel should be used for the job. The next
step is to find out what work is being performed
on, or is planned for, the machine required for
the new job. If an urgent priority has been given
to the new job, the work being done on the
required machine tool(s) must be set aside until
the new job has been completed. If the new job
does not have an urgent priority, it must be
dovetailed, based on its priority, into the schedule
of work being done by the required machine(s),
with an estimate to be made of when the
machine(s) will be made available to start on the
new job.
Another decision you must make concerns the
personnel to be assigned to the new job. The new
job may require experienced personnel who may
have to be taken off other jobs; or again, it may
be a routine job for which you may use the same
machine tool operators without any shifting of
personnel. If the new job is a complicated one,
you may have to assign a leading petty officer to
process the job through the shop, including
disassembly, inspection, assembly, and testing.
You must consider the number of required
personnel as well as their technical ability.
(Sometimes, a job can be completed in less time
by assigning more personnel to do the work.
However, there are limitations to the number of
personnel you can put on a given job. Do not
assign unneeded personnel.)
Another determination you must make is the
number of hours per day you will allow for
personnel to work on the new job. If the new job
is a routine job, consider normal working hours.
If it is a rush job with an urgent priority, you may
have to assign three shifts to the job, having shop
personnel work 24 hours a day on it.
In brief, the selection and assignment of
personnel and machine tools depend upon the
magnitude and the complexity of the new job as
well as its assigned priority. These, in turn,
depend upon the workload of the shop, except
when the new job is given an urgent priority.
REQUIRED PARTS AND MATERIAL
When you know the extent and the nature of
the repairs that are required, check to see if the
required material and parts are on board ship. The
material must be available before you attempt to
estimate the time needed for a repair job. For a
job requiring a pump shaft be made, you should
have someone check the storeroom to make
certain that the right size and type of metal stock
is on hand. Do not overlook such items as gaskets,
studs, bearings, and shaft keys that may be
required.
Naval ships carry an allowance of repair parts
for machinery and equipment on board ship.
check of the manufacturer's technical manual or
the ship's COSAL will show if a certain part
carried on board. There have been instances where
this check has been overlooked by the ship or
activity requesting repairs. There is certainly no
need to manufacture an item such as a gear if the
ship carries gears for the machine or equipment
that requires repair, so your repair time
estimate should reflect the availability of spare
parts.
OTHER REPAIR SHOPS
For most repair jobs, you must find out what
part of the work will have to be done by other
shops. If a new casting must be made, the
services of the Patternmaker and the foundry will
be required. Perhaps the electric shop may have
to do some part of the repair job. You will have
to consider not only the actual time required by
these other shops, but also the time that may be
lost if one of them holds up the work of the
machine shop.
You, as the machine shop supervisor, will
usually estimate the time required for the work
to be done by your shop. However, you should
not attempt to estimate any work that must be
done by another shop; instead, you should
obtain such estimates from the appropriate shop
personnel. You must clearly understand all aspects
of the repair job before you can make an accurate
estimate of the time required for a job.
CONSIDERATION OF OTHER
AREAS OF DIFFICULTY
Experience is an excellent teacher of things
that may go wrong when you are doing a repair
job. An experienced supervisor can avoid many
of the difficulties that may arise in performing
repair work. Whenever you plan and estimate a
repair job, carefully consider the possible
difficulties thatmay arise, and allow extra time
for them. Adequate blueprints or other drawings
should be on hand. If you have sufficient
information before starting the job, and a clear
view of the total amount of repair work that will
be required, you can more easily avoid mistakes
and delays.
The repair job itself may cause a certain
amount of breakage or damage. For example,
when steam machinery or fittings are being
repaired, some of the studs may break instead of
coming out; and the supervisor who has estimated
A 30 minutes for removal of the studs may find that
the whole job actually takes 4 hours.
is Failure to make the machine tool operator
understand the details of the work may result in
rework. You may have all the details concerning
a job, but if you fail to pass on the appropriate
information to the person who does the job, or
if the person misunderstands what should be
done, the job may be ruined. You must make sure
the people doing the actual work thoroughly
understand the detailed instructions. Some
relatively inexperienced personnel fear appearing
ignorant and try to make a good showing by
saying they understand the instructions, without
fully appreciatingwhat you mean. When the job,
or part of it, has to be done over, the original
estimated time of completion will no longer hold
true.
When the unit to be repaired consists of a
number of assembled parts, such as a pump or
an auxiliary turbine rotor, there may be
difficulties in removing the various parts. Parts
may be so rusted or frozen that they are extremely
difficult to remove. On the original inspection of
the item in need of repairs, you should watch for
any indication that the unit may be difficult to
disassemble. If necessary, you should make an
extra allowance of time in your estimate to cover
thisphase of the repair job.
If an item to pass any required tests after
fails
repair, additional work will be necessary. Include
time for the required tests, and the possibility of
additional work associated with tests in your time
estimate.
When repairs are made to high-speed rotating
machinery, the repair work itself may unbalance
the rotating assemblies. If there is any doubt of
the original balance or of how repair work will
affect the balance, make plans to balance the unit
upon the completion of repair work. Include the
time required for balancing in your time estimate.
The time required to deliver the piece of
machinery or equipment to the shop should not
be included in the estimated time to do a repair
job in the shop. When boat and crane service are
involved in a proposed job, bring this fact up for
consideration by the person or activity requesting
an estimate of the time required by the machine
shop. If you are requested to estimate this time
of transportation, make an estimate, distinct and
separate from that for the book of your own shop.
Boat and crane service may be unpredictable at
times, so you should check with the officer of the
deck and the crane operator before making an
estimate of this kind.
When planning on the required personnel for
the job, check for possible inspections, drills, and
working parties that may delay the repair job. If
the assigned personnel cannot be excused from
these activities, add extra time for the completion
of the repair job.
The problems we have mentioned are not all
the things that may go wrong on a repair job, but
they indicate the types of things you must
consider when you estimate the time required to
do a repair job.
CALCULATING THE ESTIMATE
There are no set rules for estimating the time
a repair job will take. Although many types of
repairs are repeatedly done in the shop, each job
requires its own investigation and estimate. The
experienced supervisor will approach the
estimating problem in his or her own way. The
relatively inexperienced supervisor probably will
find it best to (1) divide the total repair job into
the various phases or steps of procedures that have
to be done on the job, (2) make separate estimates
of the time required for each step, and (3) add
these estimates to obtain the total time required
to complete the job.
As an aid in estimating the time required to
complete a job, you may want to draw a diagram
or a chart showing how many workers can be
assigned to each step of the job and how long each
step is likely to take. Figure 7-1 shows a chart
11 12
(graph) made up to estimate the time required for
a pump repair job.
A
The graph shows that step requires 3 hours;
step B, 3 hours; step C, 4 hours; and step D, 2
hours. Adding these figures gives you the length
of time required for the job 12 hours. The
diagram also shows the number of hours required
for each step. If you add these 12 man-hours
for step A, 6 for step B, 4 for step C, and 6 for
step D you get a total of 28 man-hours required
for the the entire job What does this mean? Does
. amount of required pipe or bar stock. Likewise,
the number of man-hours tell you how long the
job is going to take? Can you safely assume that
a job requiring 28 man-hours can be done in 4
hours if you assign seven workers to it? Obviously
not, since there is a limit to the number of
people who work on a job at any given time. For
example, manufacturing a shaft is a one-person
job requiring 7 hours.
The unit man-hours, then, is a measure of the
amount of work, but not of the amount of time.
You should be very cautious in using man-hours
when estimating how long a job will take, because
this measure does not allow for the sequence in
which the work must be performed, the number
of steps required, or the number of personnel who
can work on the job at any given stage.
Discuss shop problems with your personnel.
Help them feel free to offer suggestions. If you
develop those suggestions you will often come up
with a working procedure that will provide greater
efficiency in the shop without sacrificing
quality. When a person offers a suggestion that
cannot be used, be diplomatic and explain the
error in reasoning. It is a rare job that can be
accomplished in only one way. If a suggestion
made by one of your personnel is as good as your
own, make use of it. By so doing, you will gain
your subordinates' confidence, foster initiative,
increase efficiency, improve quality, save time,
and in the long run make your own time estimates
more accurate.
MATERIAL ESTIMATES
The material used on a given job should be
identified in specifications or plans. If the material
is not specified, you will have to decide what is
needed and then select the material. This decision
should be based on the purpose of the structure
or the object, and its operating requirements and
conditions. Some of the "in-service requirements"
are resistance to corrosion, resistance to acids, and
resistance to wear. Representative in-service
conditions are the weight to be supported, the
pressures to be withstood, and the working
stresses that may be encountered. Safety, too, is
an important factor to consider in determining the
material to use on a particular job. There is no
set rule to follow. Each problem must be
considered on its individual merits.
In most jobs, a careful study of the detailed
plans will reveal the exact amount of material
needed for a particular repair job. However, it
is sometimes impossible to obtain the exact
it is seldom possible to get the exact sizes of plate
or sheet metal. Some waste is unavoidable, and
an allowance for such waste is necessary in
material estimates.
Weight considerations are important in
shipboard repairs and alterations. Consequently,
you may not only have to determine the amount
of material required for a job, but also to calculate
the weight of the material going into the job. You
can determine the weight of pipes, tubes, plates,
sheets, and bars in either of two ways: (1) by
referring to tables in a handbook and locating the
weight per linear or square foot of the particular
material in question; or (2) by arithmetical
computation. For example, suppose you are
working with a steel angle bar, 1 1/4 inches
x 1 1/4 inches x 3/16 inch. Referring to an
appropriate table in a handbook, you will find
that this material weighs 1 .48 pounds per linear
foot. This value, multiplied by the number of
linear feet of angle bar in the completed job will
give the weight contributed by this material. By
treating each element in the same manner, you
can arrive at a fairly accurate estimate of the total
weight increase.
If such tabulated information is not available,
you will have to determine the volume of metal
involved and multiply the result by the weight of
the metal per cubic inch. Obviously, to calculate
the weight of a particular structure, you must b'e
able to break the whole down into its component
geometrical parts such as circles, squares,
rectangles, and pyramidsand to determine their
respective volumes. Further, you need to know
the weight of the metal per cubic inch.
You can find this information in a variety of
handbooks readily available in the engineering or
repair department office. Table 7-1 gives the
information for a few of the more common
metals.
The individual job does not present a difficult
estimating problem, but when it comes to
estimating material requirements for future use
you will have to anticipate your needs. This is
 Table 7-1. Weight (Density) of
not just so much guesswork. By the proper use
of records and foresight, you can eliminate a great
deal of guesswork.
SCHEDULING OF WORK
The main object in the scheduling of work is
one job follow another smoothly and
to have the
without delay, since lost time between jobs lowers
the overall efficiency of the shop. Because of the
variety of jobs you and your personnel will be
required to perform, specific work schedules
must be prepared to ensure that all work is
completed. Although these schedules list specific
job assignments, they must be flexible enough to
allow for changes in priorities, transfer of
personnel, temporary breakdowns of equipment,
unscheduled ship drills, or any emergency that
may arise.
Usually the jobs that require the longest period
of time are started at once and kept in progress
to be completed on time. Smaller jobs are
performed on unassigned machines and also are
dovetailed into the schedule so they can be done
as soon as machines and personnel become
available.
The priority of job orders, as well as the length
of time required to complete the jobs, will
determine the scheduling of work. Jobs of urgent
priority will be completed before routine jobs are
started. The deferred jobs or the jobs of least
Common Alloys
importance are left until last; then they can be
done or canceled, depending upon the workload
of the shop.
You may have to change the schedule of work
in the shopwhen new high-priority jobs come in.
Sometimes you may have to set other work aside
temporarily until these urgent jobs are completed.
Remember this point. Experience, judgment,
and foresight are required to maintain an
organized schedule of work in a large machine
shop to get the numerous jobs finished on time.
SUPERVISING REPAIR WORK
One of the most important duties of an MR1
or an MRCis that of supervising the repair work
in the machine shop. As a supervisor, you must
instruct shop personnel concerning the different
repair jobs that have to be done; you must check
on the progress of the work, and give additional
advice or instructions when necessary; and you
should check the completed job to see that it has
been done properly and according to your
instructions.
After you have obtained complete information
on a new job and have decided what repairs or
replacements are necessary, you must decide who
is to do the job. To make this decision, you must
know what experience the workers have had with
different types of repair work, and what skills they
have in operating the various machine tools.
 You should see that all items coming into the
machine shop are properly tagged. Instruct the
personnel in the shop to replace any tags that have
been removed to do machine operations. The mix-
up of some items, such as valves, can cause, at
the very least, a lot of unnecessary confusion and
lost time.
Starting the Job
The person who is going to do the repair
job must be given detailed information on
how the job is to be done. Be sure to see
that the operator fully understands what is
to be done to prevent mistakes due to a
misunderstanding of instructions. The amount
of instruction depends upon the knowledge and
experience of the operator concerned. If the
operator is experienced, you may only have to
provide a blueprint and specify what parts have
to be made or what repairs are to be done. There
will be times when blueprints will not be available.
You will then have to make a sketch of the part
or parts to be manufactured. This sketch will
make the job easier and more understandable for
the person doing the work. If you do not
thoroughly understand sketching, review
Blueprint Reading and Sketching, NAVPERS
10077.
Inexperienced personnel will need additional
up the work in the machine
instructions for setting
and information on the proper procedure for
doing the job. Workers in the shop should be
made to understand that they are free to ask
questions if they are in doubt about any details
of their assigned work. Your people will ask
questions when they see that it is to their
advantage to do so.
In addition to giving instructions on how a job
is you should give your workers some
to be done,
information concerning the importance of the job,
the origin of the job, the part that each person
willplay in accomplishing the complete repair job,
and the reasons for certain specifications. In
general, workers are interested in why a job is
done and how it is done, and will usually turn out
better work if they have a clear picture of the
whole job.
Checking the Progress of Work
The assignment of a job is only the first
in processing a job through the shop. You must
know your personnel. You should have a fairly
good idea of each person's skills, ability, and
knowledge regarding the operation of machines
and the accomplishment of repair work.
The best way in which you can obtain this
knowledge is to inspect the shop frequently and
check the progress of the various jobs in the shop.
In that way, you will have a good idea of which
jobs or which workers will require the most
checking or inspecting.
A good practice is to make sure, before a job
is set up, the right type and proper size of material
is selected. Selecting the wrong type or the wrong
size of material are two common operator errors
you should be aware of and should check on.
When checking on the progress of work, you
should be sure that the workers are observing
proper safety precautions, both concerning
themselves and the machines they are operating.
In addition, you should see that each person is
using the proper tools and machine setups, and
should note the quality of work being produced.
In case of any doubt, you should check that the
workers understand your instructions properly
and that they are doing the work correctly, as
indicated by the blueprint or drawing. If
necessary, provide additional instructions to give
a better understanding of the job or to improve
workmanship. By frequently talking to the
workers and answering their questions, you can
prevent jobs from being reworked, as might
happen if you are not available to give the
correct details on the jobs. If you show interest
and confidence in your personnel and their work,
you will find that they have confidence in you as
a good shop supervisor.
Complications may develop on some repair
jobs, which may require additional planning and
revised repair procedures. By observing the
progress of the various jobs and whether any are
ahead or behind the planned schedule, you will
be able to change the schedule of some jobs in
order to prevent "bottlenecks" and to keep the
most important jobs moving.
Checking on Completed Jobs
When a job has been completed in the shop,
you should inspect and approve the job.
Inspection is necessary to ensure that the repair
job or the manufactured replacement parts will
be satisfactory both to the repair activity and to
the requesting activity. Your inspection may be
step visual, or it may require measuring instruments.
You may also want or need to perform a shop
test to check the condition of repaired equipment
or machinery.
certain conditions. Your cneck should involve
answering the following questions, as a minimum:
1. Have all the machining and finishing
operations been completed?
2. Have the repaired or manufactured parts
been correctly formed and accurately dimensioned
according to detailed instructions or blueprints?
3. Is the repaired item or replacement part
free from defects in the material and the
workmanship?
4. Have all parts or accessories to
the repaired
equipment or machinery been replaced or returned
with the repaired unit?
5. Have all items, such as screws, bolts, studs,
keys, lock washers, gaskets, and packing, been
replaced or renewed according to original
instructions?
6. Where applicable, has the part or item been
properly checked for any unbalanced condition?
7. Has the proper material been used in
making repairs or replacement parts?
These are just some of the things you must
consider before you certify the job as complete
and ready to be removed from the shop. No one
should let work leave the shop until you and the
person receiving it are satisfied with it. The
workers, as well as you, should take pride in their
workmanship.
The completed job order should show the
man-hours, the material used, and a full
description of the work accomplished. In
addition, the necessary shop records and paper
work should be correct and up to date. When the
job has been completed, interested parties should
be notified as soon as practicable; completed jobs
should not be left to accumulate in the shop, as
some of the items may become mixed up,
damaged, or lost.
Before releasing a completed item, check to
be certain (1) the correct job order is signed by
a representative of the requesting activity, (2) the
identification on the item and on the job order
coincide, and (3) all manufacturers' technical
manuals and blueprints furnished with the job
order are returned.
TRAINING SHOP PERSONNEL
The impression formed by a new person
first
in the shop be a lasting one. If you have a
will
well-planned program for introducing new
7-15
One of the best stimulants for the development
of high morale among new personnel is to have
them realize that their boss appreciates their
feeling of strangeness in new surroundings and
is aware of their desire to succeed. There
is often a gap between the point at which a
person is assigned and the time that person
develops into a satisfied worker. Proper introduc-
tion to the work, a well-planned training program
and counseling when necessary will turn the
ill-at-ease person into a confident and interested
worker.
You will benefit greatly from reviewing with
each new worker such matters as the mission of
the ship and how the shop fits into the overall
picture, the person's rate, duties, drills, the ship's
liberty and leave policy, and what is expected of
the person as an individual. You should be
sincerely interested in not only getting acquainted
with the person but in being sympathetic with the
problems that may arise while the person is
getting settled. The initial contact should be
primarily to win the person's confidence. You
may later turn the person over to a qualified
petty officer who is capable of completing
the introduction process and the early training
that is necessary. Usually, you should select
an experienced petty officer to help ease
a new worker through the introduction period.
In carrying out your responsibility for
introducing a new worker to the job, you must
do a certain amount of planning if the
instructions necessary for the proper indoctri-
nation of the new worker are to be carried out
effectively.
Throughout this chapter, we have suggested
but have not stated a fundamental difference
between your work as a supervisor and the work
of your people. Your people work with machines
and materials, while you work through your
people to produce the desired results with the
machine and the materials. The machines may be
operating perfectly and the materials may be of
the best quality, but unless the people who
handle them are properly instructed, adjusted
to their work, and aware of their place in the
organization and of the policies of the depart-
ment, they will not be satisfied workers.
You are responsible for providing for these
needs and for developing high morale in your
shop.
The first step in this process is to indoctrinate
each new person properly at the time of that
tnree general areas or indoctrination.
1. Those dealing with facts, such as the ship-
board rules and regulations
2. Those dealing with the worker's attitude
or feelings, confidence in the organization, pride
in the job,and respect for fellow workers
3. Those dealing with skills, safe working
habits, and quality of work
A follow-on to indoctrination is professional
development. Each person in your shop must be
receptive to suggestions and training that
promotes personal development, and must be
willing to help develop the skills of other shop
personnel. However, you have the direct
responsibility for seeing that all your subordinate
petty officers understand their work and its
relation to the function of the machine shop so
well that they automatically teach those who assist
them.
REFERENCE BOOKS
AND MATERIAL
Good handbooks and reference material are
as important to a Machinery Repairman as are
precision measuring instruments, hand tools, and
machine tools. A Machinery Repairman cannot
possibly remember all details or data required for
daily planning and work. Awell-run machine
shop should have a technical library consisting of
machinists' handbooks, the Naval Ships'
Technical Manual, manufacturers' technical
manuals for all the machines in the shop, books
on machine shop operations and practices, and
various other books of reference or instruction.
The Navy furnishes a certain number of books,
and others can be purchased ashore.
You should check your shop's library
to see that reference books are available.
If your shop needs additional publications, make
recommendations to your division officer.
SHOP HOUSEKEEPING
Generally, you can give a workshop a
good look and determine whether it is efficient
and well run. Just make a quick survey
for cleanliness, neat tool and stock stowage,
and the condition of equipment. If your
survey reveals a high quality of housekeeping,
you may also assume that the shop is well
organized and turns out quality work.
7-16
DC stored in a convenient, secure, ana oraeny
place. Use cabinets, shelves, bins, and racks
arranged in the shop to give the greatest possible
amount of free working space.
The stowage facilities must have adequate
'
provisions for 'securing for sea." Metal stowage
racks for sheets and bars must be lashed down
to prevent the gear from shifting when the ship
is at sea. You can use packages, turnbuckles,
wedges, bars, and C-clamps to satisfy this
requirement.
shop space permits and sufficient tools are
If
available, each rated person should have a
stowage drawer and tool box in which to keep the
tools that are ordinarily used. Besides speeding
up production of work, this method of stowage
will provide better care and cleanliness of hand
tools. Remember the old adage, "An untidy shop
is an unsafe shop."
REPAIR PARTY
In NAVPERS 18068 (Manual of Navy
Enlisted Manpower and Personnel and Occupa-
tional Standards), one of the requirements for an
MRC is to organize and supervise a damage
control repair party. As a supervisor, you must
be familiar with all the equipment and the
functions of the repair party. Following is a list
of GENERAL functions which are common to
all repair parties.
1. Each party must be capable of making
repairs to electrical and sound-powered telephone
circuits.
2.Each party must be capable of giving first
aid and transporting injured personnel to battle
dressing stations without seriously reducing the
damage control capabilities of the repair party.
3. Each party must be capable of detecting
and identifying radiation, measuring dose and
dose-rate intensities from radiological involve-
ment, and surveying and decontaminating
personnel and areas affected by radiation.
4. Each party must be capable of detecting
and identifying chemical agents and decon-
taminating areas and personnel affected by a
biological or chemical attack.
5. Each party must be capable of controlling
and extinguishing all types of fire.
area. I his will include maintaining the following:
Deck plans showing locations of
a.
CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL and RADIOLOG-
ICAL (CBR) contamination, locations of battle
dressings and personnel cleansing stations,
safe routes to them
b. A graphic display board showing
damage, and action taken to correct disrupted or
damaged systems. Standard damage control
symbology to be used is shown in Surface Ship
Figure 7-3 is a completed damage control
message form. The message reports an 8-inch
hole, 4 feet from the deck, at frame 38, on the
starboard side of compartment 2-35-0-L.
and Completed damage control message forms
should be forwarded to damage control
central (DCC) for plotting and for further,
action.
7. Each
repair party must be familiar
with assigned area and with the area's
its

Damage Control manual, NWP 62-1 (Rev B), damage control system and equipment. Provision
current edition. must be made for all repair parties to gain
Figure 7-2 is a recommended preprinted access for drill and for familiarization with the
damage control message format. Use of this spaces.

TIME_ TIME.
FROM TO FROM TO
R2 R2
R3 R3
H R5
R5
DCC DCC
MEC MEC
BRIDGE BRIDGE

COMPT COMPT 2-3S-P-L

FRAME FRAME 3Q
REMARKS: REMARKS:

A OVHD/FWD
OVHD/FWD

A
V
DECK/AFT (SlC^AFT

Figure 7-3. Example of completed preprinted message

Figure 7-2. Preprinted blank message format. format.

7-17
 Some of the SPECIFIC functions for which 4. provide emergency power to electrical

repair parties are responsible are listed below. equipment using casualty power cables;
Maintenance of stability and buoyancy is the 5. assist the crash and salvage team as

responsibility of repairs 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. These required;

repair parties must be 6. stream and recover minesweeping equip-
ment during general quarters;
1.stationed so they can reach all parts of the 7. rescue survivors from the water and render

ship without opening watertight closures, if assistance to other ships; and

possible; 8. repair above- water damage that could
2. able to repair damage to structures, cause flooding in the event of further damage.
closures, or fittings designed to maintain
watertight integrity, by shoring, plugging, Maintenance of ship's propulsion is the
welding, caulking the bulkheads and decks, responsibility of repair 5, which must be able to
resetting valves, and blanking or plugging
lines through watertight subdivisions of the 1. maintain, make repairs to, or isolate
ship; and damage to main propulsion machinery and
3. be prepared to sound, drain, pump, boilers;
counter flood, or shift liquids in tanks, voids, or 2. operate, repair, and isolate vital systems,
other compartments, and be thoroughly familiar and modify their segregation;
with the location and use of all equipment and 3. assist in the operation and repair of the
methods of action. steering controls systems;
4. assist in the maintenanceand repair of
For accurate evaluation of underwater internalcommunications systems;
damage, two status boards should be maintained. 5. and 4 and the crash
assist repairs 1, 2, 3,
The stability status board (flooding effects and salvage team when required;
diagram) is used for visual display of all flooding, 6. relieve ship's propulsion personnel in the
flooding boundaries, corrective measures taken, event of casualties;
and effects on list and trim. A
liquid load status 7. assist in CBR recovery operations; and
board is used to show the current status of all fuel 8. maintain an engineering casualty control
and water tanks and the soundings of each tank status board, showing the condition of readiness
in feet and inches. of main propulsion and principal auxiliary
Maintenance of ship's structural integrity and machinery, and providing a graphic display of
maneuverability is the responsibility of repairs 1 , engineering casualties and other pertinent infor-
2, 3, and 4. These repair parties must be able to mation, if required by type commanders.

1. make repairs to primary and auxiliary On larger ships, repair 5 may be split into two
methods of steering; repair parties. Each half of repair 5 is assigned
2. clear the upper decks of wreckage that one half of the engineering plant. This arrange-
interferes with operation of the battery, ship, or ment provides maximum use of manpower and
fire control stations or that fouls the rudder, equipment and greater dispersal of personnel.
propellers, or sides of the ship, and be ready to However, on smaller ships repair 5 will usually
extinguish all types of fires; be assigned to the repair party designated by the
3. maintain and make emergency repairs to type commander.
ammunition supply,
battle service systems, such as Although this chapter did not discuss repairs
ventilation supply, high- and low-pressure air 6, 7, and 8, you should become familiar with their
lines, internal communications systems, electrical responsibilities listed in Surface Ship Damage
systems, and cooling water systems; Control, NWP 62-1 (Rev B), current edition.
 CHAPTER 8

SHIP MAINTENANCE

Ships can operate only a certain length of time Systems Command (COMNAVSEASYSCOM or
without repairs. To keep a ship in prime NAVSEA), or from the Chief of Naval Opera-
condition, constant attention must be given to tions (CNO).
material upkeep and appropriate intervals of time NAVSEA is responsible for overseeing ship
must be allotted for general overhaul and repair. alterations (SHIPALTs) under its technical
Even when regular preventive maintenance control. Through its day-to-day relations with the
procedures are carefully followed, accidents and forces afloat,. naval shipyards, private industry,
malfunctions may necessitate emergency repair and research centers, NAVSEA
remains up to
work. Defects and deficiencies that can be date on technical developments. In striving to
corrected by the ship's force should be dealt with maintain the ships of the fleet in as efficient and
as soon as possible. When repairs are beyond the modern a state as possible, NAVSEA may
capability of the ship's force, aid must be obtained determine that a particular ship or class of ships
from a repair activity afloat or ashore. Repair should be altered. Alterations may require
activities afloat include repair ships and tenders. modifications to the hull, such as changes to
Repair ashore include shore intermediate
activities bulkheads that will strengthen them or changes
maintenance (SIM As), naval shipyards,
activities to deck arrangements that will provide space for
and naval ship repair facilities (SRFs) located the installation of a paint mixing and issue room.
outside the continental limits of the United States. When the commanding officer of a ship
Before proceeding with the sections covering considers an alteration necessary for improving
repair ships and tender maintenance and repairs, the performance of the ship, he sends a request
we need to define repairs and alterations. for the alteration to NAVSEA via the admin-
chain of command. NAVSEA then sends
istrative

copies of the request to all the other ships of the

REPAIRS AND ALTERATIONS
Corrective maintenance to ships may be
divided into the general categories of (1) repairs,
(2) alterations, and (3) alterations equivalent to
repairs.
A REPAIR is defined as the work necessary
component of a ship's system
to restore a ship or a
same class for comments on applicability.
Another source of alteration is the reports of
the Board of Inspection and Survey (INSURV).
Upon completion of each ship material inspection,
the Board, in its report of the general condition
of the ship and its suitability for further naval
service, furnishes a list of repairs and alterations,
which, in opinion, should be made. Alterations
its

to a fully operational condition without a change recommended by the Inspection and Survey Board
in the design, location, or relationship of parts. (INSURV) normally are not acted upon by
Repairs may be made by the ship's force, by repair NAVSEA until after the receipt of appropriate

ships and tenders, or by naval shipyards or other comments from the commanding officers of the
shore-based activities. ships inspected and the recommendations of the
An ALTERATION is any modification to type commanders (TYCOMs).
the hull, machinery, equipment, or fittings
that involves a change in the design, materials, TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH
number, location, or relationship of the com- NAVY ALTERATIONS
ponent parts of an assembly. Alterations"
may be made by themselves or in conjunction Approved Alteration An alteration approved
with repairs. Requests for alterations may foraccomplishment without funding and year of
originate from the fleet, from the Naval Sea accomplishment identified.
 Authorized Alteration An alteration ap- modification meets all of the following con-
proved for accomplishment with funding and year ditions:
of accomplishment identified.
Can be accomplished without changing an
Alteration Equivalent to a Repair (AER) interface external to the equipment or system
An alteration that has one or more of the
following characteristics: 9 Is a modification made within the
equipment boundary or is a direct replacement of
1. The use of different materials that have the original equipment design
been approved for like or similar use and are
available from standard stock Can be accomplished without the ship
The replacement of obsolete, worn-out or
2. being in an industrial activity
damaged parts, assemblies, or equipment,
requiring renewal by those of later and more Will be accomplished individually and
efficient design previously approved by the not conjunctively with a SHIP ALT or other
Systems Command concerned MACHALT
3. The strengthening of parts that require
repair or replacement in order to improve For detailed information concerning
of the parts and of the unit, provided
reliability MACHALTs, refer to the Fleet Modernization
no other change in design is involved Program Management and Operations Manual
4. Minor modifications involving no signifi- (SL720-AA-MAN-010) and NAVSEA Instruction
cant changes in design or functioning of 4720.15, Policy and Procedures for Imple-
equipment but considered essential to prevent mentation of Machinery Alterations on Hull,
recurrence of unsatisfactory conditions Machinery, and Electrical Equipment and
5. The replacement of parts, assemblies, Systems.
or equipment with like items of later or Military Alteration An alteration that
more efficient design when it can be demon- changes or improves the military characteristics
strated that the cost of installation and main- of a ship. This alteration is managed by the CNO.
tenance of the new parts, assemblies, or Technical Alteration An alteration that
components is less than the cost of main- affects safety, maintainability, reliability, or
taining the installed parts, assemblies, or system performance. This alteration is managed
components by the Chief of Naval Material (CNM).
Ordnance Alteration (ORDALT) An altera-
NOTE: Only the systems Command exercising tion to ordnance equipment under the technical
technical control over the article, or the authority cognizance of NAVSEA and composed of the
to whom such technical control has been delegated following:
by that command, shall designate an alteration
as equivalent to a repair and approve it for Ordnance Alteration Instruction A
accomplishment. technical document containing instructions,
drawings, test procedure, and directions to
Electronic Field Change Any modification accomplish a material change, modification;
or alteration made to electronic equipment repositioning, or alteration in the physical
after its delivery to the government. appearance of an installation of different parts
in subassemblies, assemblies, or components in
Machinery Alteration (MACHALT) The a weapon or system. Technical publication
MACHALT program is a kit concept that changes are supplied as part of that data package.
enables hull, machinery, and electrical (HM&E) ORDALT Kit All the material and
changes to be accomplished in an expeditious documentation required to perform an ORDALT,
manner, eliminating these changes from the which may include materials and documentation
formal SHIP ALT process. A MACHALT is a necessary for testing, operating, and maintaining
planned change, modification, or alteration the equipment after alteration. ORDALT Kits
of any HM&E equipment in service (ship- include complete hardware, special tools if
board or shore activities) when it has been required,and a copy of the ORDALT instruction.
determined by the MACHALT Configuration In some cases, a conjunctive SHIP ALT may be
Control Board (CCB) that the alteration or required with an ORDALT.
 Programmed Alteration An alteration that SHIP ALT AUTHORIZATION LETTERS
isscheduled for accomplishment by CNO in the
Ship Alteration Management Information System SHIPALT Authorization Letters specify to the
(SAMIS) on one or more specific hulls in a specific installing activity the alterations that are to
fiscal year. be accomplished during an availability. They are
Ship Alteration (SHIP ALT) Any changes in issued by the cognizant Ships' Logistics Manager
the hull, machinery, equipment or fittings that (SLM) and contain a list of all authorized
involves change in design, materials, number, alterations, material status, development status
location, or relationship of the component parts of the alteration, funding information, and
of an assembly. SHIPALTs are classified by pertinent instructions.
title, as shown in the following: Thus a SHIP ALT Authorization Letter serves
three purposes:
9 Title D Alteration An alteration
equivalent to a repair, approved by NAVSEA. It provides the program authorization for
D
Title ship alterations are authorized by the alterations specifically programmed for accom-
TYCOM and funded under Operation and plishment in the FMP.
Maintenance of the Navy (O&MN) as operating
expenses. It provides NAVSEA with planning
estimates for the program authorized.
Title F Alteration An alteration that can
be accomplished by Forces Afloat and that does It provides procurement/requisitioning

not require special program material or centrally
procured material for accomplishment. Title F
alterations may only be authorized for accom-
plishment by TYCOMs, who must fund all
costs except Design Services Allocation (DSA)
and coordinated shipboard allowance list
(COSAL).
9 Title K Alteration An alteration
authorized for accomplishment through the Fleet
Modernization Program (FMP) and usually
requiring special program material. It is accom-
plished by industrial activities and approved
by the CNO through the FMP process.
Title K-P Alteration An alteration that
changes the military or technical characteristics
of the ship and involves the installation of special
program material, but is within Forces Afloat
program and
capability for installation. Special
procured materials required for accom-
centrally
plishment of these alterations are normally
provided as a package by NAVSEA at no charge
toTYCOM O&MN funds. Title K-P alterations
may only be authorized by NAVSEA.
instructions for the material required for
alteration accomplishment.
The SLM forwards separate SHIPALT
Authorization Letters for each ship scheduled for
an availability to the cognizant Naval Shipyard
Commander 360 days prior to the start of the
availability. However, SHIPALT Authorization
Letters for availability scheduled to occur in
commercial facilities are to be received by the
cognizant SUPSHIP 360 days prior to the
commencement of the availability. Included in the
SHIPALT Authorization Letter are specific
reporting instructions on estimated man-day and
dollar expenditure rates, material costs for
alterations, and program reports required by FMP
financial management procedures.
The SLM includes total planning estimates of
funds authorized for title K alteration accomplish-
ment in a SHIPALT Authorization Letter; these
estimates are not to exceed programmed FMP
funds.
LEVELS OF SHIP MAINTENANCE

Alteration requests addressed to NAVSEA are Navy policy requires that ship maintenance
endorsed by the TYCOMs (or other administrative and modernization work be performed at the

commanders, as appropriate), with their recom- lowest effective level through the life cycles of
mendations on approval, classification, and ships. The Ship Maintenance and Modernization
applicability to other ships. Copies of the basic Program was developed to implement this policy.
request and endorsements are forwarded to other This is a balanced program which requires a
TYCOMs, who are requested to comment for contribution from all levels of maintenance within
NAVSEA. the Navy.
 There are three specific levels of ship
maintenance, each requiring a greater degree of
capability. Organizational level maintenance and
intermediate level maintenance are within the
capability of the operating forces and are their
responsibility. The greatest industrial capability
resides at the depot level, composed of naval and
private shipyards, ship repair facilities, and
assigned Navy, Department of Defense (DOD),
or commercial designated overhaul points
(DOPs).
ORGANIZATIONAL (SHIPBOARD)
LEVEL MAINTENANCE
Organizational level maintenance is the first
level of maintenance and consists of corrective and
preventive maintenance performed on a ship by
the ship's force. This work is a blend of
equipment operation, condition monitoring,
planned maintenance actions, and repair. It ranges
from simple equipment lubrication to component
changeout and, in some cases, complete rework
in place.
INTERMEDIATE LEVEL
MAINTENANCE
Intermediate level maintenance is normally
performed by Navy personnel on tenders, repair
ships, aircraft carriers, fleet support bases, SIMAs
and Naval Reserve maintenance facilities (SIMA
NRMFs). Within the limits of each IMA's
facilities, such as shops, docks, and machinery,
and personnel, such as numbers, skills, and levels,
IMAs perform maintenance, repair, overhaul,
installation, quality assurance, tests, and related
functions on the HM&E and combat equipment,
and systems that are beyond the capabilities of
each customer. This applies specifically to
intermediate level maintenance required to
support ships. The term fleet support bases refers
to IMAs such as Trident Refit Facilities; Naval
Submarine Support Facility, New London; and
Submarine Base, Pearl Harbor.
DEPOT LEVEL MAINTENANCE
Depot level maintenance requires skills and
beyond those of the organizational and
facilities
intermediate levels and is performed at naval
shipyards, private shipyards, naval ship repair
facilities, or other shore-based activities. During
depot availabilities (yard periods), large scale
maintenance and repairs requiring industrial
facilities are performed. Approved alterations
and modifications that update and improve a
ship's military and technical capabilities are also
made.
CLASSES OF SHIP SYSTEMS
AND COMPONENT OVERHAULS
Work at of the three levels of
each
maintenance always specified as one of five
is
classes. The class designation system enables both
maintenance personnel and their supervisors to
know the extent of work requested for a particular
item. The following is a brief explanation of the
five classes, lettered A through E:
Class A Designed to bring a system, a
subsystem, or a component up to most recent
design and technical specifications. Products of
class A overhauls are in like new condition in
appearance as well as in operation and per-
formance. During a class A overhaul, all
applicable manufacturers' and technical manual
performance standards and specifications are met,
all technical documentation is brought up to date,
and the overhauled item is tested for compliance
with government-specified performance criteria.
Class A overhauls may be made to components
or subsystems of ship weapons, machinery,
electrical, hull, or electronics systems, or to an
entire system, and include all actions required to
bring the item scheduled for overhaul up to
required standards. These overhauls may include
ORDALTs or SHIPALTs.
Class B Designed to bring a system,
a subsystem, or a component back to its
original design and technical specifications.
Other modifications, including SHIPALTs
and ORDALTs are not performed unless they are
specifically requested by the customers.
Maintenance and calibration routines are per-
formed, as appropriate, and each item is tested
for compliance with government specified per-
formance criteria.
Class C Involves repair work specified on a
work request or work to correct deficiencies or
malfunctions identified on a work request, for a
system, a subsystem, or a component. The
repairing activity must show that the requested
work has been completed or that the deficiencies
or malfunctions have been corrected. However,
the repairing activity is not responsible for
ensuring that components associated with the
repaired item function properly or that the entire
system functions properly.
 Class D Consists primarily of diagnostic alterations by depot and/or intermediate level
work associated with the open, inspect, and report maintenance activities. These availabilities are for
type of request in which the customer is not sure accomplishing work required to sustain the
what is wrong with the item. The repairing material condition of the ship between overhauls,
activity reports its findings, recommendations, particularly ships on extended operating cycles.
and cost estimates to the customer for authori- SRAs are used exclusively for required depot
zation to begin repair work. Minor repairs and level maintenance of ships on progressive or
adjustments may be made, as specified by the incremental overhaul schedules. SRAs are short,
customer, without additional authorization. labor-intensive availabilities generally scheduled
Class E Involves work required to make at specific times throughout a ship's operating
specific modifications to a designated system, cycle. They are scheduled sufficiently in advance
subsystem, or component. The repairing activity to ensure that advanced planning time and funds
must show that the modifications were successful are used effectively.
and that the item meets operational standards, but
only to the extent required by the modification PHASED MAINTENANCE
orders. However, the repairing activity may, at AVAILABILITY (PMA)
the request of the customer, conduct system tests
to prove that the system will operate satisfactorily A phased maintenance availability is a short,
with the modified item. Repairs, if any, are minor. labor-intensive availability for making general
repairs and alterations by depot level maintenance
activities. Ships assigned to phased maintenance
SHIP AVAILABILITIES programs are maintained through PMAs in lieu
of regular overhauls.
An AVAILABILITY is a time period during
which a ship is assigned to a repair activity so that EXTENDED REFIT PERIOD (ERP)
repairs can be made or maintenance can be
performed on the ship or its equipment. The types An extended period is a 60-day
refit
of abilities are described in the following planned availability for SSBN nuclear submarines
paragraphs. scheduled approximately 41/2 and 71/2 years
after overhaul to accomplish major depot and
REGULAR OVERHAUL (ROH) intermediate level work.

Aregular overhaul is an availability for RESTRICTED AVAILABILITY (RAV)

making general repairs and alterations at a naval
shipyard, a private shipyard, or another shore-
based repair activity, normally scheduled during
an established cycle, such as every five years.
COMPLEX OVERHAUL (COH)
A
complex overhaul is an overhaul that,
because of funds, time, or manpower constraints,
or due to the complexity of the various ship
subsystems involved, requires extraordinary
coordination and extensive management of the
planning and industrial phases of the overhaul.
All CV, LHA, AGF, and nuclear-powered
surface ship overhauls (CGN, CVN)
definition, complex overhauls.
SELECTED RESTRICTED
AVAILABILITY (SRA)
A restricted availability is an availability
during which specific items of work are
accomplished by an industrial activity with the
ship present, during which time the ship is
rendered incapable of fully performing its
assigned mission and tasks. Restricted
availabilities are assigned by TYCOMs.
TECHNICAL AVAILABILITY (TAV)
A technical availability is an availability
during which specific items of work are
accomplished by a repair activity, normally
are, by at a naval base, during which the ship's
ability to fully perform its assigned mission and
tasks is not affected.
VOYAGE REPAIR (VR)

A selected restricted availability is an A voyage repair is emergency work necessary to

for making repairs and selected enable a ship to continue its mission and that can
availability
be completed without requiring a major change
in the ship's operating schedule.
SERVICE LIFE EXTENSION
PROGRAM (SLEP)
A program is a depot
service life extension
levelprogram to extend the service life of a ship
beyond that for which it was initially designed.
Following SLEP the ship will be maintained and
modernized through normal overhaul procedures.
FITTING OUT
AVAILABILITY (FOA)
A fitting out availability is an availability at
the shipyard designated as the fitting out activity
to place aboard ship the material specified in the
ship's allowance lists.
POST SHAKEDOWN
AVAILABILITY (PSA)
Apost shakedown availability is an availability
assigned to a newly built, activated, or converted
ship upon completion of its shakedown. The PSA
willnormally last for six calendar weeks and will
be completed not later than the end of the eleventh
month after the completion of fitting out, at
which time the Shipbuilding and Conversion,
Navy (SCN) funding and work authority
terminate. Work performed normally includes
correction of defects noted during the shakedown,
correction of deficiencies remaining from the
acceptance trials, and performance of class
modifications remaining from the new con-
struction period.
on the above topics,
For detailed information
refer to Maintenance of Ships; Policies and
Procedures (OPNAVINST 4700.7).
REPAIR SHIP/TENDER REPAIRS
All ships are scheduled for regular tender
availabilities or for upkeep periods alongside
repair ships or tenders at certain intervals of time.
Each availability period is usually planned far in
advance and is based on the type of ship
concerned and on its quarterly employment
schedule.
When a ship receives its employment schedule,
or is otherwise notified of an availability, it
preparation of work requests is based on
information contained in the ship's maintenance
deferred action sheets. Completed work requests
are sent with a forwarding letter to the TYCOM
after they are screened by the ship's staff material
officer handling material and maintenance. The
amount of corrective action taken by the
reviewing staff officer will depend upon how well
the work requests are written and the extent that
they follow established policies and procedures.
ARRIVAL CONFERENCE
An arrival conference is usually held as soon
as a ship begins an IMA availability period or an
upkeep period. The conference, attended by
representatives of the ship, the repair department,
and the TYCOM, is used to discuss relative needs
of the ship and the priority of each job. The
arrival conference clarifies all uncertainties for
repair department personnel who have received
and studied the work requests in advance.
Arrangements are also made for the afloat IMA
to provide, if necessary, hotel services (for
example, steam and electricity). In addition to
these services, the tender or the repair ship may
take over communication watches. Freshwater
and fuel requirements are not usually supplied
except from barges.
The IMA repair department makes repairs in
a manner similar to that of a production
department in a naval shipyard or an SRF, even
to the extent of assigning a ship superintendent
(Ship Sup) as a representative of the repair officer.
WORK REQUESTS
AND JOB ORDERS
Although the terms work request and job
order are sometimes used interchangeably, the two
terms actually have slightly different meanings.
Work requests are written by the ship and are
forwarded through proper channels to the repair
activity. When the work request has been
approved by the repair activity, it is issued as a
job order.
As soon as your work requests have been
approved at the arrival conference, start the jobs
that require delivery to the repair activity.
Starting these repair jobs early is very important
in getting all necessary jobs completed. Equipment
that isnot needed for the operation of the ship
may be disassembled in advance so that defective
1should include your snip's number and name;
2
department, division, or space from which the
m was removed; and the job order number,
m may also include additional identifying
formation, if necessary. If you send reference
iterial, such as drawings and technical manuals,
sure they are identified with your ship's name
d number.
HP-TO-SHOP JOBS
Many repair jobs are designated by the
ip or approved by the repair activity as
ip-to-shop jobs. In a job of this type, the
ip's force does a large part of the repair
>rk. For example, the repair or renewal
adamaged pump shaft might well be
itten up as a ship-to-shop job. The pump
disassembled and the shaft is removed by
; ship's force, and the shaft and any necessary
leprints are delivered to the machine shop
the repair activity. The machine shop
pervisor checks the job and gives an
proximate date of completion. When the
aft has been repaired, or when a new one
s been made, it is picked up and brought back
the ship by the ship's force. The pump is
issembled, inspected, and tested by the ship's
rce according to procedures in the appropriate
ihnical manual.
Repair jobs on portable equipment, such as
tall gauges and valves, are almost always
itten up as ship-to-shop jobs.
IECKING THE PROGRESS
F TENDER REPAIR JOBS
The primary purpose of a naval shipyard is
to provide services to the fleet in the form of
efficient and economical repair, alteration,
overhaul, docking conversion, outfitting, and
replenishment and to perform related special
manufacturing when required. Naval shipyards
perform many other functions, including research
and design, which are not discussed here.
Naval shipyards are designated as planning
yards. A
PLANNING YARD is a shipyard
designated by the COMNAVSEASYSCOM to
undertake the design work for a particular type
or class of ship.
WORK REQUESTS
The procedures for submitting shipyard
work requests prior to a regular overhaul are
contained in the Maintenance and Material
Management (3-M) Manual, OPNAVINST
4790.4 (series).
TYCOMs require that work requests for work
to be undertaken during a repair period (regular
or interim) be submitted to them for review,
approval, and forwarding to the shipyard well in
advance of the beginning of an overhaul. This is
necessary to permit successful preliminary
planning and material procurement by the
shipyard.
Aboard ship, each work request is submitted
on the standard work request form. All work
requests are screened and assigned a work priority
at a conference of the department heads, the
executive officer,and the commanding officer.
A work list containing brief statements of the
work to be done, arranged in the ship's priority
sequence, is prepared and submitted along with
the work requests to the TYCOM for screening.

You should know at all times the status FLEET MODERNIZATION

repair work (including ship's force repair PROGRAM
>rk) being done for your work center or
uipment. The Fleet Modernization Program (FMP) is

You can check on repairs that are being made
.
your own ship by discussing them with the
tty officer in charge of the repair detail,
lecking on the progress of work in the shops
the repair activity requires planning and
ordination. Personnel in the repair activity's
a program approved by the Chief of Naval
Operations (CNO) to modernize and improve
the
ships of the fleet, by providing a structure for
orderly planning, programming, budgeting,
and installationof military and technical
improvements. combines improvements from
It

ops are busy with their repair work, so the Military Improvement Plans (MIPs) and from
2 method you use to check on the progress the Technical Improvement Plans (TIPs), and
work must be one that does not interfere selected TYCOMs' improvements arranged by
th the work. individual hull type. These are based on

8-7
scheduled ship overhauls plus related non-hull
identified program funding requirements (for
example, design, planning, COSAL, service craft
ALTs).
The FMP identifies alterations that are
applicable to specific ships on a year-by-year basis
within a 5-year period. The execution year
program of the FMP forms the basis for
implementing current year improvements as
funded. The formulation year programs are
used as a basis for the annual Navy budget
submission; four planning outyears provide a
basis for procurement of special program material
and for planning other ship alterations.
Ship alterations and improvements are
programmed for completion by the CNO
approved FMP. The program is developed by the
office of the CNO (OPNAV) hull and equipment
sponsors based on the operational requirements
of each fleet.
The FMP has three primary goals. They are
as follows:
To improve naval ships' capabilities and
material conditions by installation of approved
alterations and modifications
To increase the fleet readiness by improv-
ing standardization within the ships' class
To improve safety, reliability, repair-
and habitability of naval ships and
ability,
equipment in the fleet.
Naval Shipyard
Arrival Conference
When the ship arrives at the shipyard for a
routine overhaul, an arrival conference is held.
The conference is usually supervised by the
planning officer of the shipyard and is attended
by representatives from the ship, the TYCOM,
and the naval shipyard planning department.
Members of the conference review the ship's work
requests and the individual item costs estimated
by the shipyard planning department.
The limitations of the funds made available
by the TYCOM determine to a great extent the
amount of repairs that will be completed during
a naval shipyard repair period. The estimated cost
of each repair job, when approved at the
conference, is added up to give the total cost.
When the total cost equals either the amount of
funds appropriated or the cutoff amount, the
shipyard will not accept additional repair requests.
Under this condition, when several additional
important jobs should be performed, the TYCOM
must either furnish more funds or revise the
priority list.
Establishing the cutoff point enables the
shipyard to make certain that the most important
repairs and alterations are completed during the
availability period. This does not imply that other
items with less urgent priority will not be
undertaken and completed before the end of the
overhaul period. After the ship has been placed
in drydock, for example, workers may find that
anticipated repairs to the shafting and to the
propeller are not necessary, and the funds reserved
work can be used to finance other items.
for this
Sometimes a job may be greatly underestimated
because of conditions that do not become
apparent until the job is well underway. If the
funds originally provided to cover the cost of the
work are not sufficient, the necessary funds may
have to be provided by deferring other approved
items of lesser importance.
Also established at the arrival conference
are tentative dates for drydocking, operation
of the propulsion machinery and associated
auxiliary equipment, and dock and sea trials.
When agreement has been reached at the
arrival conference on the items of work to be
undertaken, the planning department issues job
orders authorizing the work to be performed by
the production shops. Each job order clearly
defines the scope of the work, includes complete
specifications, and identifies the necessary plans.
Job orders are not issued for all work at the same
time. The first to be issued are for those jobs
requiring practically the entire availability period
for accomplishment. The other orders are issued
as soon as possible thereafter. If design plans are
required for any specific item, the issue date of
the job order is coordinated with their planned
completion date. In any case, job orders for all
items approved at the arrival conference are
usually issued during the first third of the overhaul
period.
The method of numbering job orders differs
somewhat among the naval shipyards. However,
all of the numbering systems are used to identify
each item of work by a job order number. In
addition to the naval shipyard job order number,
the ship's work request or work item number is
shown on the job order sheets.

During a routine shipyard overhaul the ship
istsubmit shipyard progress reports as required
the TYCOM's instructions. Supervisory
sonnel of the ship must, therefore, keep an
urate check on the progress of all work
eluding the ship's force work) at all times,
indard progress charts are available for
ording and reporting progress. As a rule, one
)gress chart is used to record shipyard repairs,
3ther to record alterations, and another to
ord ship's force work. Copies of the progress
irts should be posted and kept up to date by
p's personnel.
The shipyard commander holds frequent
ually weekly) conferences with the com-
inding officer of the ship to review progress,
e ship superintendent and other key shipyard
:sonnel also attend these conferences.
You may be required to monitor the progress
repair jobs from your area. Always check the
:ails of the job orders before you start
jcking on the progress of a repair job. You can
information from the job orders issued
this
the planning department of the yard. The ship
;eives three or more copies of the job orders,
complete set of job orders is usually kept on
jaboard your ship. Your division officer should
ye copies of the job orders that apply to your
ision.
tYDOCKING THE SHIP
The ship is drydocked each time it goes
a naval shipyard for a regular overhaul,
ydocking is usually scheduled as early as
ssible in the overhaul period, since it is difficult
in advance just how much repair work will
tell
required. Scheduling the drydocking for early
the overhaul permits all necessary drydock
rk to be done without interfering with work
it must be done later and without
interfering
;h machinery trials, strength tests of structural
>rk, and so forth. As soon as all drydock work
5 been completed, the ship is removed from
fdock.
Before the ship goes into drydock, ship's
"sonnel must have detailed information on the
1valves. When preparing to drydock the ship,
s
engineer officer is required to furnish the
pyard with a sea valve checkoff list indicating
:
size, the location, and the function of each
L valve. The engineer officer must also furnish
8-9
shipyard, the last docking report. The shipyard
maintains file copies of docking drawings for each
ship that it is expected to drydock. However, the
engineer officer must check these drawings against
the ship's copy to make any corrections
reflecting work done elsewhere and to determine
the last drydocking position used.
Aship entering drydock should not list and
should not have trim in excess of that shown in
Naval Ships' Technical Manual, chapter 997.
Trim in excess of 1 foot per 100 feet of length is
sufficient to make the docking operation
hazardous. If possible, the trim should be brought
below the prescribed limit before any attempt is
made to drydock the ship.
While the ship is in drydock, no fuel oil, water,
or other weight should be shifted, added, or
removed, except as specifically authorized by the
docking officer or the contractor's dockmaster.
Water tanks and oil tanks should be either
completely full or completely empty, if possible.
When permission is given by the shipyard to shift
weight, the shipyard must keep accurate records
of the amount of weight shifted, the location from
which it is shifted, and its new location. The
responsibility for keeping an accurate record of
the amount and location of weight changes made
by the ship's personnel rests with the ship's
commanding officer.
The propellers must not be turned without
permission of the docking officer after the ship
enters the dock. No fuel oil or other flammable
liquid should be drained or pumped into the dock.
If the need arises, the shipyard will provide special
containers for the disposal of these liquids.
During freezing weather, all valves, pipes, and
fittings attached to the hull should be drained to
prevent the liquids they contain from freezing and
cracking them.
Whenever a ship is drydocked, propellers,
shaft tubes, outboard portions of the shafting,
couplings, bearings, and all sea valves must be
examined and the results of the examination
entered into the engineering log.
Examination of each sea valve should include
determination of the condition of the yoke, the
yoke rods, the valve stem, all securing bolts, and
allinternal parts of the valve. At least two of the
bolts holding outboard valves to sea stools should
be removed from each valve for inspection, and
the remaining bolts should be sounded with a
hammer. If defects are found in any bolt, all the
other bolts for the valve should be removed for
inspection. Whenever all bolts are removed, the
gasket should be replaced. All repairs required to
place the sea valves in good condition should be
made while the ship is still in dry dock.
While the ship is in drydock, the ship's force
and shipyard personnel may need to work on the
sea valves. All openings in the hull must be
blank-flanged at the end of working hours. The
ship's force and shipyard personnel are each
responsible for closing the openings they make in
the hull. At the end of each working day, the
status of all sea valves must be reported to the
engineer officer and entered into the engineering
log.
Before the drydock is flooded, all sea valves
must be carefully inspected to be sure they are
properly secured. The results of this inspection
should be reported to the engineer officer and
entered into the engineering log.
While the drydock is being flooded, there must
be continuous inspection of all sea valves until the
ship is afloat and all valves are under a normal
head of water. Any unsatisfactory condition must
be reported at once to the engineer officer so the
docking officer can be notified. A
report of
leakage must be made in sufficient time so the
docking officer can stop flooding, if necessary,
before the ship lifts from the supporting blocks.
Shortly after the undocking of a ship, the
shipyard submits the docking report to NAVSEA
with copies to the commanding officer and to the
TYCOM. The docking report includes the name
and the and date of
class of the ship, the place
docking and undocking, the number of days
underway and not underway, the number of days
waterborne since the last docking, the formula for
the paint used and the extent of bottom painting,
the shaft and rudder clearances, the docking
position used, and the details of all other work
performed.
SHIP TRIALS
Ship conducted to determine such
trials are
things as performance characteristics, readiness
for service, the extent of necessary repairs, the
adequacy of completed repairs, and the most
economical rate of performance under various
conditions of service. This section contains
information concerning some of the trials
performed to determine the condition of the ship.
For an in-depth study of all the trials, refer to
NAVSEA S9086-04-STM-000, chapter 094,
"Trials."
CONTRACT TRIAL
A contract trial consists of the builder's
trial, an acceptance trial, and a final con-
tract trial. These trials are conducted on
newly constructed ships and on ships that
have undergone major conversion prior to
acceptance of the ship by the Department
of the Navy. These trials determine whether
a ship has been built and will operate
according to the contract specifications.
BUILDER'S DOCK TRIAL
A builder's dock trial (BDT) is conducted after
the installation of a unit is complete and the
systems test of all machinery in the engineering
spaces is finished. The BDT
is held to demonstrate
to the supervising authority, to the Supervisor of
Shipbuilding (SUPSHIP), and to the builder that
the machinery is ready for a sea trial.
BUILDER'S SEA TRIAL
A builder's sea trial (BST) is conducted after
dock have been satisfactorily completed. The
trials
BST necessary for the proper evaluation of
is
electronic installations and of machinery systems
that require a deep water sea environment in
which to operate.
All tests and demonstrations that cannot be
conducted dockside should be conducted during
a BST.
ACCEPTANCE TRIAL
All machinery, electronics, and combat
systems installed in naval ships must meet the
requirements of an acceptance trial prior to their
formal acceptance and delivery to the Navy.
Acceptance trial requirements are set up to
ensure that a ship and its equipment meet all
performance specifications.
FINAL CONTRACT TRIAL
A final contract trial is conducted prior to the
end of the guarantee period for all U.S. Navy
ships constructed, converted, or modernized in
a private shipyard. Similar trials are held for ships
constructed, converted, or modernized in naval
shipyards, as required by the CNO. These trials
are used to determine if there are any defects,
failures, or deteriorations other than those due
to normal wear and tear.
COMBINED TRIAL
A combined trial is a combination of
acceptance and final contract trials. It is
conducted only when authorized by the CNO.
POST REPAIR TRIAL
A post repair trial should be made when the
machinery of a vessel has undergone extensive
overhaul, repair, or alteration that may affect the
power or the capabilities of the ship or machinery.
A post repair trial usually made when the ship
is
has completed a routine naval shipyard overhaul
period. The optional whenever machinery
trial is
has undergone only partial overhaul or repair. The
object of this trial is to ensure that work
has been performed and completed
efficiently
satisfactorily.
Thepost repair trial should be held as soon
as possibleafter the repair work has been
completed. It is held after the preliminary dock
trial, and the persons responsible for the work
must be satisfied that the machinery is ready for
a full power trial. The conditions of the trial are
largely determined by the kind of work that has
been done. The ship's commanding officer and
the commander of the shipyard determine the
manner of the trial. In some cases, such as when
repairs have been slight and the commanding
officer is satisfied with the repairs, a post repair
trial isnot held. Minor repairs can usually be
adequately tested without a full power trial.
Any unsatisfactory conditions beyond the
repair capability of the ship's force should be
corrected by the naval shipyard. If necessary,
machinery should be opened up and carefully
inspected. This is done to determine the extent of
any damage, defect, or maladjustment that may
have appeared during the post repair trial.
Acertain number of naval shipyard personnel
accompany the ship on a post repair trial. These
are usually technicians, inspectors, and repair
personnel. The yard personnel witness the
operation of machinery that has been overhauled
by the yard. If a unit of machinery is not operating
properly, the yard technicians should carefully
inspect it and try to determine the cause of the
unsatisfactory operation.
SPECIAL TRIALS
COMNAVSEASYSCOM requires that special
be conducted on one ship from each class
trials
of ships. This requirement covers both new
construction and major conversions. These trials
are made to determine various characteristics of
the class and to supply data for the
development
of operational information furnished to all ships
of the class. The trials may also be of an
experimental nature not related to class per-
formance but conducted to obtain specific data
for design purposes. Special trials may also be
conducted on ships not considered as new
construction or major conversion. This is to
determine the effect of the installation of newly
designed equipment, such as a propeller or
rudder. In addition to miscellaneous experimental
trialsand tests, special trials include standard-
ization trials, tactical trials, plant efficiency trials,
vibration trials, and noise trials. All of these trials
require the installation and operation of special
instruments and are conducted by experienced
technical personnel.
COMNAVSEASYSCOM selects a ship for
special trials and submits a letter to the CNO
outlining the scope and duration of the trial and
requesting that the ship be made available for
conducting the trials. When the ship is made
available, the cognizant TYCOM
makes arrange-
ments with the COMNAVSEASYSCOM for
conducting the trials. NAVSEA prepares and
issues to all participating activities an agenda
outlining the procedures for the trials. The
procedures assign responsibility for preparing the
ship, conducting the various trials, preparing trial
reports, and removing test equipment upon
completion of the trials. Preferably, members of
the engineering department of the ship act as
engineering observers and record data during the
trials.
One example of these special trials is the Ship
Shock Trial. Primary objectives of the trial are
to demonstrate the ability of the ship to operate
in a simulated combat environment and to
validate the shock hardening designs incorporated
into the ship. Since validation is a basic
objective, many of the trial preparations center
upon identification and correction of potential
shock deficiencies. The ship's force plays an
important role in this preparation. Awareness of
good shock design and installation practices
allows the ship's force to identify potential
problems for correction. The trials themselves
consist of the detonation of a series of large high
explosive charges at carefully controlled standoff
distances. During each shot the ship is at General
Quarters, with all systems operational. Follow-
ing each shot, the ship's force maintains system
operation through reconfiguration as required.
Detailed inspections are then conducted and
deficiencies are documented for correction.
Repairs that are outside the capability of
the ship's force and available industrial facilities
are deferred until the post shock availability.
In many cases the post shock availability
is incorporated into the post shakedown avail-
ability. Lessons learned from the trial are
incorporated into a follow-up action plan
that results in the development of SHIPALTs
required to correct any design deficiencies
that have been uncovered during the trial.
Additional by-products of these trials are
heightened crew awareness of what combat-
induced shock is and firsthand knowledge
of how to prepare for shock and how to recover
from its effects.
 APPENDIX I

OCCUPATIONAL STANDARDS

NUMBER OCCUPATIONAL STANDARD CHAPTER

MACHINERY REPAIRMAN FIRST CLASS (MR1)

37 MECHANICAL MAINTENANCE
37003 ALIGN AND BALANCE MACHINE SHOP EQUIPMENT 4

39 FABRICATION AND MANUFACTURING

39362 MANUFACTURE SPLINES AND SPROCKETS 2

39364 MANUFACTURE WORM WHEEL HOBS 2

39375 MANUFACTURE BEVEL, WORM, WORM WHEELS AND 2

HELICAL GEARS

51 METALLURGY
51001 PERFORM HEAT TREATMENT OF METALS 5

54 QUALITY ASSURANCE
54006 CONDUCT QUALITY ASSURANCE INSPECTIONS 3, 7

57 MAINTENANCE PLANNING
57023 PREPARE PLANNED MAINTENANCE SCHEDULES 6

57024 REVIEW COMPLETED MAINTENANCE DATA SYSTEM (MDS) 6

FORMS
70 TRAINING

70008 INSTRUCT PERSONNEL IN OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE 3, 6

PROCEDURES
79 LOGISTICS

79014 MAINTAIN COSAL 7

98 PLANNING AND ESTIMATING

98001 ESTIMATE TIME AND MATERIALS FOR JOB 7, 8

AM
NUMBER OCCUPATIONAL STANDARD CHAPTER
CHIEF MACHINERY REPAIRMAN (MRC)

57 MAINTENANCE PLANNING
57026 REVIEW PLANNED MAINTENANCE SCHEDULES 6

58 DAMAGE CONTROL
58253 ORGANIZE AND SUPERVISE A REPAIR PARTY UNIT 7

59 MATERIAL CASUALTY CONTROL

58253 ORGANIZE AND SUPERVISE A REPAIR PARTY UNIT 7

59 MATERIAL CASUALTY CONTROL

59002 PERFORM CASUALTY ANALYSIS 7

67 MANAGEMENT AND SUPERVISION

67351 SUPERVISE OPERATIONS OF A MACHINE SHOP 7

68 GENERAL ADMINISTRATION
68020 MAINTAIN DIRECTIVES 7

68024 MAINTAIN PUBLICATIONS 7

68026 MAINTAIN RECORDS 7

68066 PREPARE REPORTS 7

69 TECHNICAL ADMINISTRATION
69041 MAINTAIN MANUALS 7

69491 WRITE REPAIR WORK PROCEDURE INSTRUCTIONS 8

79 LOGISTICS

79022 POST CHANGES TO SECAS 7

 INDEX
Aligning and balancing Continued
checking the accuracy and alignment of
8-10 milling machines, 4-5 to 4-9
Acceptance trial,
alignment, 4-6 to 4-7
Advancement, preparing for, 1-1
cylindrical posts, 4-6 to 4-7
Alloy tool steels, ferrous metals, 5-28
sweeps, 4-7
Annealing, ferrous metals, 5-26 checking the end support and end
Arrival conference, 8-6 support block, 4-8 to 4-9
Austempering, ferrous metals, 5-26 to 5-27 leveling the horizontal boring, drill-
ing, and milling machine, 4-6
Availabilities, ship, 8-5 to 8-6
spindle alignment, 4-7 to 4-8
Aligning and balancing, 4-1 to 4-23
correcting unbalance by adding weight,
balancing, 4-9 to 4-16 4-22 to 4-23
balance tolerances, 4-10 correcting unbalance by removing
castings, 4-10 weight, 4-22 to 4-23
causes of unbalance, 4-9 terms used in balancing, 4-23
leveling, aligning, and adjusting machine
damage to parts or assemblies, 4-9
tools, 4-1 to 4-4
distortion during operation, 4-9
adjusting clutches, 4-4
effects of centrifugal force, 4-13
adjusting gibs, 4-4
to 4-14
alignment of the tailstock, 4-3 to 4-4
theory of balancing, 4-10 to 4-13 alignment of turret holes with the
types of unbalance, 4-14 to 4-16 spindle, 4-4
leveling lathes for alignment, 4-1 to
dynamic (or moment) unbalance,
4-3
4-15 to 4-16
spirit level method, 4-1 to 4-3
static (or force) unbalance, 4-14
test bar method, 4-3
to 4-15

balancing machines and their functions,

4-16 to 4-22
angular location of correction, 4-20 B
to 4-21
basic operating principles, 4-16 to Balancing and aligning, 4-1 to 4-23
4-18 Bath furnaces, 5-10
drives for the workpiece, 4-21 (BDT), builder's dock trial, 8-10

elimination of unwanted Bevel gears, 2-11 to 2-19

vibrations,
4-21 bevel gear nomenclature, 2-13 to 2-16
milling the bevel gear teeth, 2-17
mass of work-supporting structures,
offsetting the cutter, 2-18
4-18 to 4-19
rolling the gear blank, 2-18 to 2-19
measurement in units of correction,
selecting a bevel gear cutter, 2-16 to 2-17
4-21 to 4-22 nonferrous metals, 5-32
Blistering,
measurement of amount of unbal- (BST), builder's sea trial, 8-10
ance, 4-19 to 4-20 Burns, surface, 3-1
Carbon tool steels, ferrous metals, 5-27 to Finishes and measurement, surface, 3-6 to
5-28 3-17
Case hardening, ferrous metals, 5-27 Fleet modernization program, 8-7 to 8-8
Castings, 4-10 (FOA), fitting out availability, 8-6
Cathodic protection, 6-9
Centrifugal force, effects of, 4-13 to 4-14 G
Classes of ship systems and component
overhauls, 8-4 to 8-5 Gears and gear cutting, 2-1 to 2-28
Clutches, adjusting, 4-4 bevel gears, 2-11 to 2-19
Coatings, Corrosion-resistant, 6-9 bevel gear nomenclature, 2-13 to 2-16
(COH), complex overhaul, 8-5 backlash allowance of a bevel
Cooling equipment, 5-12 to 5-14 gear, 2-16
Combined trial, 8-11 chordal addendum and chordal
Contract trial, 8-10 thickness, 2-15 to 2-16
Corrosion, prevention of, 6-8 to 6-9 milling the bevel gear teeth, 2-17
Corrosion-resistant metals and alloys, 6-9 offsetting the cutter, 2-18
COSAL, coordinated shipboard allowance list, rolling the gear blank, 2-18 to 2-19
7-4 to 7-5 selecting a bevel gear cutter, 2-16 to
Cracking, nonferrous metals, 5-31 2-17
Crystals and grains, metal, 5-1 to 5-3 helical gears, 2-1 to 2-11
CSMP (Current ship's maintenance project), center-to-center distance, 2-8 to 2-9
6-2 dimensions of a helical gear, real and
Cylindrical posts, alignment, 4-6 to 4-7 normal, 2-4 to 2-8
backlash allowance for helical
gears, 2-8
D corrected chordal addendum and
chordal thickness, 2-6 to 2-8
Depot level maintenance, 8-4 determining the dimensions of a
Detection, methods of, 3-2 to 3-6 helical gear, 2-4 to 2-5
liquid penetrant inspection, 3-4 to 3-6 selecting a helical gear cutter,
magnetic particle inspection, 3-2 to 3-4 2-5 to 2-6
visual inspection, 3-2 gear train ratio, 2-9
Greases, lubricating, 6-7 to 6-8 manufacturing a helical gear, 2-10 to
classification of greases, 6-8 2-11
common terms associated with lubricating manufacture of gears, 2-1
greases, 6-8 materials used for gears, 2-1
Drydocking the ship, 8-9 to 8-10 splines, 2-26 to 2-27
tooth numbers, 2-27
sprockets, 2-27 to 2-28
E classes of sprockets, 2-28
manufacture of sprockets, 2-28
Electric furnaces, 5-8 to 5-9 material for sprockets, 2-28
Equilibrium diagrams, 5-14 to 5-15 stub tooth gears, 2-24 to 2-26
Equipment, heat-treating, 5-7 to 5-14 American standard system, 2-25
(ERP), extended refit period, 8-5 fellows stub tooth gears, 2-25
Estimating, 7-8 to 7-9, 7-11 to 7-12 method of manufacture, 2-26
nuttals stub tooth system, 2-26
worms and worm gear, 2-19 to 2-24
center-to-center distance (worm and
worm wheel), 2-23
FBR (feedback report form), 6-3 cutting worm wheel teeth on a
FCFBR, fleet COSAL feedback report, 7-5 milling machine, 2-24

INDEX-2
rears and gear cutting Continued
worms and worm Continued
gear
worm
selecting a wheel cutter, 2-22 Job orders and work requests, 8-6 to 8-7
worm and worm wheel nomenclature
and formula development, 2-19 to
2-11
worm wheel hobs, 2-23 to 2-24
hob nomenclature, 2-23to 2-24 Lattices, space, 5-3 to 5-6
types of hobs, 2-23 body-centered cubic lattice, 5-3
Jibs, adjusting, 4-4 body-centered tetragonal lattice, 5-4
Jrains and crystals, metal, 5-1 to 5-3 face-centered cubic lattice, 5-3
Jrinding inspections, 3-1 to 3-19 hexagonal close-packed lattice, 5-4 to 5-6
injury to ground surfaces, 3-1 to 3-2 Leveling, aligning, and adjusting machine
grinding cracks, 3-1 tools, 4-1 to 4-4
surface burns, 3-1 Liquid penetrant inspection, 3-4 to 3-6
surface stresses, 3-2 Lubricants, 6-6 to 6-7
methods of detection, 3-2 to 3-6
liquid penetrant inspection, 3-4 to
3-6 M
magnetic particle inspection, 3-2 to
3-4 Machine shop management, 7-1 to 7-18
visual inspection, 3-2 quality assurance inspector, program, 7-2
surface finishes and measurement, 3-6 to planning and estimating division, 7-2 to
3-17 7-3
surface texture symbols, 3-17 to 3-19 repair party, 7-16 to 7-18
ship superintendent, 7-1 to 7-2
supervising a machine shop, 7-3 to 7-16
calculating the estimate, 7-11 to 7-12
H consideration of other areas of
difficulty, 7-10 to 7-11
lardening, ferrous metals, 5-24 to 5-25 coordinated shipboard allowance list

leat treatment, metals, 5-6 to 5-7 (COSAL), 7-4 to 7-5

Jelical gears, 2-1 to 2-11 directives, 7-3 to 7-4
center-to-center distance, 2-8 to 2-9 estimating time for a job, 7-8 to 7-9
dimensions of a helical gear, real and machine operation time, 7-9
normal, 2-4 to 2-8 machine setup time, 7-8 to 7-9
gear train ratio, 2-9 machine teardown time, 7-9
manufacturing a helical gear, 2-10 to miscellaneous time allowances,
2-11 7-9
lobs, worm wheel, 2-23 to 2-24 teardown time, 7-8
hob nomenclature, 2-23 to 2-24 fleet COSAL feedback report
types of hobs, 2-23 (FCFBR), 7-5
material estimates, 7-12 to 7-13
other repair shops, 7-10
planning the work, 7-5 to 7-8
I determination of required re-
pairs, 7-7 to 7-8
njury to ground surfaces, 3-1 to 3-2 information on incoming jobs,
grinding cracks, 3-1 7-7
surface burns, 3-1 laying-out and assigning work,
surface stresses, 3-2 7-7
nspection, visual, 3-2 priority of jobs, 7-7
ntermediate level maintenance, 8-4 records and reports, 7-3
ron-carbon phase diagram, 5-16 to 5-18 reference books and material, 7-16
sothermal transformation, 5-20 to 5-22 required parts and material, 7-10
Machine shop management Continued
ship superintendent Continued
scheduling of work, 7-13
ship equipment configuration ac-
counting system (SECAS), 7-5
shop housekeeping, 7-16
shop workload, 7-9 to 7-10
supervising repair work, 7-13 to 7-15
checking on completed jobs,
7-14 to 7-15
checking the progress of work,
7-14
starting the job, 7-14
training shop personnel, 7-15 to 7-16
Machine tool maintenance, 6-1 to 6-10
3-M systems, the, 6-1 to 6-3
current ship's maintenance project
(CSMP), 6-2 ,
feedback report (FBR) form, 6-3
maintenance data system (MDS), 6-2
to 6-3
planned maintenance system (PMS),
6-1 to 6-2
ship's maintenance action form, 6-2
general care, 6-9 to 6-10
maintenance program, 6-1
new machine, the, 6-3 to 6-8
friction, 6-4 to 6-5
factors affecting lubrication,
6-5 to 6-6
fluid lubrication, 6-5
lubricants, 6-6 to 6-7
lubricating oil characteristics,
6-6 to 6-7
lubricating greases, 6-7 to 6-8
classification of greases, 6-8
common terms associated with
lubricating greases, 6-8
lubrication, 6-4
prevention of corrosion, 6-8 to 6-9
cathodic protection, 6-9
corrosion-resistant coatings, 6-9
corrosion-resistant metals and alloys,
6-9
Machinery repairman, 1-1 to 1-5
preparing for advancement, 1-1
scope of this training manual, 1-1
sources of information, 1-1 to 1-5
Naval Education and Training
(NAVEDTRA) publications, 1-2 to
1-4
correspondence courses, 1-4
Machinery repairman Continued
sources of information Continued
Naval Education and Training (NAV-
EDTRA) publications Continued
other NAVEDTRA publications,
1-3
rate training manuals, 1-3
NAVSEA publications, 1-4
Naval Ship's Technical Manual,
1-4
NAVSEA Deckplace, 1-4
Occupational Standards, 1-1 to 1-2
OPNAV publications, 1-4
personnel qualification standards
(PQS), 1-4 to 1-5
training films, 1-5
Machines and their functions,- balancing,
4-16 to 4-22
Magnetic particle inspection, 3-2 to 3-4
Maintenance, ship, levels of, 8-3 to 8-5
classes of ship systems and component
overhauls, 8-4 to 8-5
depot level maintenance, 8-4
intermediate level maintenance, 8-4
organizational (shipboard) level main-
tenance, 8-4
Manufacture of gears, 2-1
Manufacturing a helical gear, 2-10 to 2-11
Martempering, ferrous metals, 5-27
Materials used for gears, 2-1
MDS (Maintenance data system), 6-2 to 6-3
Measurement and finishes, surface, 3-6
to 3-17
Metallurgy and heat treatment, 5-1 to 5-32
heat-treating equipment, 5-7 to 5-14
cooling equipment, 5-12 to 5-14
heating equipment, 5-7 to 5-12
bath furnaces, 5-10
electric furnaces, 5-8 to 5-9
fuel-fired furnaces, 5-9 to 5-10
temperature measurement and
control, 5-11 to 5-12
heat-treating ferrous metals, 5-23 to 5-28
alloy tool steels, 5-28
annealing, 5-26
austempering, 5-26 to 5-27
carbon tool steels, 5-27 to 5-28
case hardening, 5-27
hardening, 5-24 to 5-25
martempering, 5-27
normalizing, 5-26
stallurgy and heat treatment Continued New machine, the Continued
heat-treating nonferrous metals, 5-28 to friction, 6-4 to 6-5
5-32 lubrication, 6-4

blistering, 5-32 Nomenclature, bevel gear, 2-13 to 2-16

backlash allowance of a bevel gear, 2-16
cracking, 5-31
chordal addendum and chordal thickness,
design problems, 5-30 2-15 to 2-16
heat-treating problems, 5-30 Nonferrous metals, heat-treating, 5-28 to 5-32
size changes, 5-32
soft spots, 5-31 to 5-32

spalling, 5-32
O
warping, 5-31 Occupational standards, 1-1 to 1-2, AI-1 to
heat treatment, 5-6 to 5-7 AI-2
principles of heat-treating, 5-14 to 5-23 OPNAV publications, 1-4
effects of heating, holding, and Organizational (shipboard) level maintenance,
8-4
cooling, 5-18 to 5-23
continuous cooling, 5-22 to 5-23
isothermal transformation, 5-20
to 5-22
equilibrium diagrams, 5-14 to 5-15 Planning and estimating division, machine
iron-carbon phase diagram, 5-16 to shop, 7-2 to 7-3
5-18 PMS (planned maintenance system), 6-1 to 6-2
transformation temperatures, 5-15 to Post repair trial, 8-11
5-16 PQS, personnel qualification, 1-4 to 1-5
structure of metal, 5-1 to 5-6 Principles, basic operating, 4-16 to 4-18
Principles of heat-treating, 5-14 to 5-23
crystals and grains, 5-1 to 5-3
effects of heating, holding, and cooling,
space lattices, 5-3 to 5-6
5-18 to 5-23
body-centered cubic lattice, 5-3
equilibrium diagrams, 5-14 to 5-15
body-centered tetragonal lattice,
iron-carbon phase diagram, 5-16 to 5-18
5-4
transformation temperatures, 5-15 to 5-16
face-centered cubic lattice, 5-3
Priority of jobs, 7-7
hexagonal close-packed lattice,
5-4 to 5-6
machines, checking the accuracy and
filling

alignment of, 4-5 to 4-9

alignment, 4-6 to 4-7 Quality assurance inspector, 7-2
checking the end support and end support
block, 4-8 to 4-9
R
leveling the horizontal boring, drilling,
and milling machine, 4-6 restricted availability, 8-5
(RAV),
spindle alignment, 4-7 to 4-8 Reference books and material, 7-16
Repair party, 7-16 to 7-18
Repair work, supervising, 7-13 to 7-15
checking on completed jobs, 7-14 to 7-15
N checking the progress of work, 7-14
starting the job, 7-14
aval shipyard repairs, 8-7 to 8-10
Repairs and alterations, ship maintenance,
avy alterations, terms associated, 8-1 to 8-3 8-1 to 8-3
AVSEA publications, 1-4 SHIP ALT authorization letters, 8-3
ew machine, the, 6-3 to 6-8 terms associated with Navy alterations,
factors affecting lubrication, 6-5 to 6-6 8-1 to 8-3
fluid lubrication, 6-5 (ROH), regular overhaul, 8-5
 Ship superintendent, 7-1 to 7-2
SHIP ALT authorization letters, 8-3
SEC AS, ship equipment configuration ac- Shop housekeeping, 7-16
counting system, 7-5 Soft spots, nonferrous metals, 5-31 to 5-32
Ship maintenance and modernization, 8-1 Spalling, nonferrous metals, 5-32
to 8-12 Special trials, 8-11 to 8-12
levels of ship maintenance, 8-3 to 8-5 Spheroidizing, ferrous metals, 5-26
classes of ship systems and component Spindle alignment, 4-7 to 4-8
overhauls, 8-4 to 8-5 Spirit level method, 4-1 to 4-3
depot level maintenance, 8-4 Splines, 2-26 to 2-27
intermediate level maintenance, 8-4 tooth numbers, 2-27
organizational (shipboard) level Sprockets, 2-27 to 2-28
maintenance, 8-4 classes of sprockets, 2-28
Naval shipyard repairs, 8-7 to 8-10 manufacture of sprockets, 2-28
checking the progress of work, 8-9 material for sprockets, 2-28
drydocking the ship, 8-9 to 8-10 Stresses, surface, 3-2
fleet and modernization program, 8-7 Stub tooth gears, 2-24 to 2-26
to 8-8 American standard system, 2-25
Naval shipyard arrival confer- fellows stub tooth gears, 2-25
ence, 8-8 method of manufacture, 2-26
work request, 8-7 nuttals stub tooth system, 2-26
repair ship/tender repairs, 8-6 to 8-7 Supervising a machine ship, 7-3 to 7-16
arrival conference, 8-6 Surface finishes and measurement, 3-6 to 3-17
checking the progress of tender Sweeps, alignment, 4-7
repair jobs, 8-7 Symbols, surface texture, 3-17 to 3-19
ship-to-shop jobs, 8-7
work requests and job orders, 8-6 to
8-7
repairs and alterations, 8-1 to 8-3
SHIP ALT authorization letters, 8-3
terms associated with Navy altera- 3-M systems, the, 6-1 to 6-3
tions, 8-1 to 8-3 Tailstock of the alignment, 4-3 to 4-4
ship availabilities, 8-5 to 8-6 (TAV), technical availability, 8-5
complex overhaul (COH), 8-5 Tempering, ferrous metals, 5-25
extended refit period (ERP), 8-5 Tender/ship repairs, 8-6 to 8-7
fitting out availability (FOA), 8-6 arrival conference, 8-6
phased maintenance availability checking the progress of tender repair
(PMA), 8-5 jobs, 8-7
regular overhaul (ROH), 8-5 ship-to-shop jobs, 8-7
restricted availability (RAV), 8-5 work requests and job orders, 8-6 to
selected restricted availability (SRA), 8-7
8-5 Terms used in balancing, 4-23
service life extension program Test bar method, 4-3
(SLEP), 8-6 Texture symbols, surface, 3-17 to 3-19
technical availability (TAV), 8-5 Theory of balancing, 4-10 to 4-13
voyage repair (VR), 8-5 to 8-6 Time for a job, estimating, 7-8 to 7-9
ship trials, 8-10 to 8-12 maching setup time, 7-8 to 7-9
acceptance trial, 8-10 machine tear down time, 7-9
builder's dock trial (BDT), 8-10 miscellaneous time allowances, 7-9
builder's sea trial (BST), 8-10 teardown time, 7-8
combined trial, 8-11 Train ratio, gear, 2-9
contract trial, 8-10 Training films, 1-5
final contract trial, 8-10 Training shop personnel, 7-15 to 7-16
post repair trial, 8-11 Treatment, heat metals, 5-6 to 5-7
special trials, 8-11 to 8-12 Trials, ship, 8-10 to 8-12
 u w
Unbalance, types of, 4-14 to 4-16 Warping, nonferrous metals, 5-31
moment) unbalance, 4-15 to Weight correcting unbalance by adding, 4-22
dynamic (or
to 4 " 23
4-16
Work, planning, 7-5 to 7-8
static (or force) unbalance, 4-14 to Work request and job orders, 8-6 to 8-7
4-15 Workload, shop, 7-9 to 7-10
Worms and worm gears, 2-19 to 2-14
center-to-center distance (worm and worm
wheel), 2-23
V cutting worm wheel teeth on a milling
machine, 2-24
Vibrations, elimination of unwanted, 4-21 selecting a worm wheel cutter, 2-22
\r* in -~ A />+;/* n 3-z
: * o worm and worm wheel nomenclature and
Visual inspection,
formula development, ^2-19 to 2-22
,, . , .

(VR), voyage repair, 8-5 to 8-6 worm wheel hobs, 2-23 to 2-24

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U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1990 -731 6 8 '
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