IET Power Electronics

Special Issue: Enabling Technologies in Electric and More Electric

Transportation

Zero-voltage soft-switching DC–DC converter- ISSN 1755-4535

Received on 31st January 2019
Revised 1st May 2019
based charger for LV battery in hybrid electric Accepted on 23rd May 2019
E-First on 15th August 2019
vehicles doi: 10.1049/iet-pel.2019.0147
www.ietdl.org

Khairy Sayed1
1ElectricalEngineering Department, Sohag University, Sohag, Egypt
E-mail: khairy_sayed@eng.sohag.edu.eg

Abstract: This study presents the implementation of a DC-DC power converter for battery charging from 200 V lithium-ion or
nickel metal hydride (NiMH) battery to lead-acid battery (typically 12 V) utilised in hybrid vehicles such as Toyota Prius. For
hybrid car, a low-voltage (LV) battery is utilised to power air conditioner, main lights, and different actuators in engine controlling
unit etc. The LV battery is usually recharged by car alternator. For the sake of improving fuel efficiency, it is important to regulate
charging by using the charging control scheme, where the battery charging is implemented in deceleration interval avoiding the
acceleration interval of the car. The hybrid car is equipped with a high-voltage (HV) NiMH battery. The lead-acid LV battery is
charged from the HV storage battery. The advantage of this charging method is recognised not only to replace the alternator
from the car, but also to make efficient braking touching for the car driver, because the regenerative breaking recovered energy
can be totally absorbed in the main HV battery. Moreover, the overall efficiency could be easily improved because the total
efficiency of charging DC-DC circuit is greater than that of the car alternator.

1 Introduction energy sources [5]. However, the main HV battery (lithium-ion

Recently, employing hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) drive system is
growing and becoming feasible financially and from technology
point of view. The drive system of HEV enables a good
minimisation of operation costs and reduces emission of
greenhouse gases [1–3]. However, plug-in HEV vehicles (PHEV)
use a higher-voltage battery bank with higher-energy density to
store energy that is required for vehicles electric traction. Thus, this
battery bank can be charged from PHEV/EV charging stations.
Energy storage systems in HEVs enable downsizing of the classical
internal combustion engine and give a means for getting back the
kinetic energy of the movable HEV during braking periods
utilising regenerative breaking [4]. By increasing the employment
of more power electronics, EVs become reliable, achieve higher
reliability, quality, higher performance, low cost, and have higher
efficiency. Various types of PHEVs and EVs technologies exist in
the market worldwide. The electric and hybrid vehicle systems are
composed of several power components to form the drive train and
energy conversion system. To achieve higher efficiency, EV/PHEV
traction drive is regularly energised at a relatively high-voltage
(HV), typically in the rate of 300–600 V. Thus, a DC–DC topology
is utilised to change the voltage level to satisfy the load and power
requirements. Hence, it is equipped to connect low-voltage (LV)
Fig. 1  HEV electrical system block diagram
usually in the level of 400 V) is monitored and managed by the
batteries management systems. Battery charging is considered as
an interesting area to concentrate on for maximising capacity and
extending battery service life cycle [6]. The battery charging
process is done using an on-board charger which is typically an
AC–DC converter circuit. The DC–AC inverter converts the
HVDC supplied by HV battery to an AC current that drives the
vehicle's main motor. During braking periods, the regenerative
braking is applied to retrieve energy back into the HV battery.
However, the HV main battery is interfaced to the LV system and
auxiliary subsystems (typically 12 V) through the DC–DC power
converter. Generally, the HV main battery is interfaced to the
motor drive inverter through a bidirectional DC–DC power
converter. Fig. 1 illustrates the complete electrical system of HEV.
In this system, the LV battery is charged from the HV battery by an
auxiliary charger introduced in this paper. However, alternators are
not used in contrast with the conventional vehicles.
DC–DC converters are attractively exercised in EV power
electronics with corresponding control system utilised to overcome
issues correlating with a wide-range load and voltage fluctuations
and non-linear characteristics of loads [7]. Recently, multilevel
converters have gained a lot of interest because it is appropriate for
power applications that have higher-input voltage. In general,
three-level power converters specified by that the semiconductor
devices have a rating with one-half of the applied input voltage.
The control scheme of the switches is the major difference between
the developed circuits. For instance, some purposes employ pulse-
width modulation (PWM) control scheme with constant frequency,
whereas the other converter circuits utilise phase-shift control
strategy with constant frequency [8]. Three-level techniques have
been proposed previously to DC–DC power converters to decrease
the voltage stresses of the main switches [9–11]. However, the
basic concept of DC–DC three-level converters will be shown in
the following sections.
Switches losses could be efficiently reduced by using the zero-
voltage soft-switching (ZVS) technique and reduced switching
stress can be achieved by active clamping technique. Several soft-
switched converter topologies of thee-level half-bridge (HB)
converters have been introduced for several industry applications
[12–16]. However, there are various promising topologies suitable
for high efficiency high-frequency (HF) link DC–DC converter

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circuits [17–22]. These constructions are completely different
according to the utilisation of voltage-clamp methods. Amongst
them, modern ZVS three-level DC–DC power converters which are
commonly utilised for stepping-down DC–DC power conversion
[23, 24]. As a converter circuit topology to satisfy the power
supply requirements in industry, phase-shift PWM control scheme
was studied [25]. All the active power semiconductor switches in
this circuit can realise soft switching at turning on of type zero-
current switching (ZCS) and soft commutation ZVS at turning-off
process. One of the most attractive techniques is the phase-shifted
ZVS full bridge. Since, it enables soft-switching conditions for all
active switches. This can be achieved by utilising the leakage
inductance of HF transformer. A new family of zero-voltage
transition PWM converters was presented in [24]. These converters
are derived by addition of an inductor–capacitor resonant circuit to
the conventional PWM circuits.
The improvement in power conversion efficiency can be
achieved using advanced circuit topologies [25–27]. For higher
power conversion, usually soft-switched full-bridge circuit
topologies are usually applied. These circuits are operating at soft
switching such as phase-shift converters or series/parallel resonant
converters with secondary-side current doubler (CD). However,
these converters are simple configuration and relatively robust, and
they achieve the requirements of higher power density and higher
efficiency that are suitable for high power applications [28, 29].
For charging the LV battery from the HV battery, the isolation is
provided by an isolated DC–DC converter [30]. Isolation by
transformer provides numerous advantages such as personnel
safety and reduction of noise [31]. To avert input voltage unbalance
issue, a voltage balance capacitor is utilised on HV side so that the
input divided voltages are balanced equally [32]. In [30], the LV
battery charging circuit operates as an active filter to eliminate the
low-frequency ripples at the DC link. Consequently, small film
capacitors can be utilised instead of large-type electrolytic one. By
using the LV battery charger with the active power decoupling
function, the size and cost of the circuit components can be
reduced significantly [33–36]. However, the utilisation of auxiliary
circuits in this method results in increasing in system complexity.
Fig. 2  ZVS three-level DC–DC power converter
(a) CT secondary side, (b) CD secondary
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This work introduces a new circuit topology of a diode-clamped
DC-bus-side active edge-resonance HB DC–DC power converter
with HF link. This converter composes of two sides: low and HV
sides. The higher-voltage stage consists of four active switches,
two reverse-conducting diodes and a flying capacitor to guarantee
the voltage sharing across the switches and blocking diodes. That is
applicable to enable operation of the circuit with a phase-shift
control scheme. Hence, the proposed converter can realise soft
switching by using the leakage inductance in the transformer.
Charging or discharging flying capacitors are depending on the
voltage condition to allow the voltage sharing between the switches
cells. The phase-shift PWM control is used for DC power output
regulation of the proposed ZVS-PWM DC–DC converter circuit.
However, the purpose of this work is to develop an effective DC–
DC charger topology for charging 12 V battery from HV battery
(200 V). To improve the efficiency of the charger circuit, the
studied circuit is analysed and tested with the aid of experimental
results.
2 Proposed charger circuit
2.1 Circuit construction
Fig. 2 illustrates the three-level phase-shift HB-ZVS-PWM DC–
DC converter isolated with an HF link transformer (HFT) [3]. The
modified circuit is depicted by Fig. 2b which is suitable for EV
battery charging applications. The DC–DC charger circuit
composes of HV battery source E, the input smoothing capacitors
on DC busbars C1, C2 for sharing battery voltage, insulated gate
bipolar transistors (IGBTs) Q1–Q4, snubber lossless capacitors
Cs1–Cs4 are placed in parallel with each IGBT switch, the flying
capacitor Css, voltage-clamp diodes Dc1, Dc2 located in the primary
circuit of HFT, higher-frequency centre-tapped (CT) rectifier,
transformer leakage inductance represented by Lk and magnetising
inductance Lm, fast recovery rectifier diodes Do1, Do2 located in
the secondary circuit of isolating HFT, output filter inductor Lo,
and load equivalent resistor Ro.
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Fig. 3  Timing pattern sequences of switching gate driving pulses
2.2 Timing pattern of gate signals
The output charging voltage of the proposed charger is
continuously regulated by PWM phase-shift control strategy. The
gate pulses patterns of converter switches are plotted in Fig. 3. The
phase shift of the PWM signal is obtained by retarding the phase
time of control pulse of inner IGBT switches (Q2, Q3) with respect
to the phase of control pulse of outer switches (Q1, Q4). Hence, the
reference phase is taken for outer switches; upper-side switch Q1
and lower-side switch Q4. The inner switches are upper-side switch
Q2 and lower-side switch Q3 and the phase of control pulse is
determined to regulate the output of the proposed charger circuit.
2.3 CD secondary-circuit rectifier
The secondary-side circuit is a CD-type circuit that is appropriate
for high-current implementations as it employs two inductors as a
filter. The two inductors share equally the output load current. In
this case, the circuit has current ripple cancellation technique.
Moreover, each inductor design becomes easier. The current ripples
in the two inductor coils (L1 and L2, Fig. 1) are interleaved (out of
phase), and the ripple contents in the output current ripple are very
small. Thus, a smaller output capacitor filter can be used. The
reduction in inductor size is due to fractional elimination of the
current ripples as a result of the interleaving feature of the current-
doubling circuit. Through the freewheeling interval, the load
current in the secondary side will be divided evenly between
rectifiers. Compared to the previous implemented circuits [12],
current-doubling circuit reduces the required number of turns in the
HFT primary winding by half. Therefore, it is very easy to design a
simple transformer. However, in CD circuit, the output ripple
current of the capacitor filter is minimised because the current
ripples of both the inductors are partially eliminating each other.
Subsequently, the required value of the filter inductance is
significantly decreased due to the ripple cancellation. Therefore, in
the current-doubling circuit the load current is shared evenly
between the two diode rectifiers D1 and D2 throughout the off-time
interval, as illustrated in Figs. 2 and 3. Consequently, the total
conduction losses during the off time are reduced in the rectifier
circuit.
3 Operating principle
The proposed ZVS soft-switching charger studied here can work
with 16 operation intervals, repeated in a periodic manner. The
operation currents and voltages waveforms for various switching
intervals are illustrated in Fig. 4. Moreover, the corresponding
equivalent switching circuits are depicted in Fig. 5. In these
figures, the first eight operation intervals in the first half cycle are
analysed below. The second eight half cycle operation intervals are
similar in operation as those described in the first eight operation
intervals during the first half cycle.
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© The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2019
Interval 1(t0–t1):This interval 1 starts while leakage current
crosses zero while changing value from negative to positive value.
Both switches S1 of Q1 and S2 of Q2 turning on with both ZVS–
ZCS operation conditions at the same time. The current through
switch Q1 is equal to the total reflected current from secondary side
Io/2 and magnetising current im, which increases linearly with a
constant slope equal E/Lm as in the following equation:
Io E
iQ1 = + im(T O) + (t − T 0) (1)
2N Lm
where Lm is the magnetising inductor and Im is the magnetise
current.
The secondary side of HFT transformer operates in
freewheeling interval because the two clamping diodes Do1 and
Do2 which conduct under the overlapping current intervals or
freewheeling interval. This interval terminates when Do2 is turned
off naturally. The primary-side voltage across the HF transformer
Vab is equalised to the HV battery voltage Vin. The inclination of
primary current Ip is described as
dip V in − (nV o)
= − (2)
dt Llk + (n2Lo)
where the ration n = Np/Ns is the HF transformer turns ratio; Np is
the HF transformer primary turns, whereas Ns is the HF
transformer secondary turns.
Interval 2(t1–t2): In this interval 2, the higher-side switches S1,
S2 and output diode Do1 conduct when the second output diode Do2
is turned off. Interval 2 terminates when the switch S1 is turned off.
Interval 3(t2–t3): In this interval 3, the switch S1 is turned off at
ZVS condition and S2 and Do1 conduct incessantly. At this
moment, the lossless snubber capacitor Cs1 is charged and Cs4 is
discharged through the flying capacitor Css in this interval. This
interval terminates when at the same moment of complete charging
of Cs1 and totally discharging of Cs2.
For achieving ZVS soft-switching operation for the inner active
switches S2 and S3, the proposed charger uses the energy stored in
the HF transformer leakage inductance to discharge and charge
capacitances Cs2 and Cs3 at the moment of turning off the switch
S2. This energy storage relies on primary-side current ilk at moment
t3. For achieving ZVS operation condition, the energy storage in
Llk must fulfil the following inequality:
2
1 4 E
L i > C (3)
2 lk lk 3 s1 2
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Interval 4(t3–t4): The rectifier diode Do1 and the switch S2 continue based unit. The battery charge regulation concept is explored. The
conducting while the reverse-conducting diode D4 of Q4 is turned transition between charging modes from constant current (CC) to
on in this interval. The flying capacitor Css continues to discharge. constant voltage (CV) is decided by measuring the voltage at
Interval 4 ends when the capacitor Css current reaches zero. The terminals of LV battery, in general, CC–CV charging scheme. The
ordinary transition between CC and CV is functional to avoid
current Ip during this period is expressed as
overcharging. However, this causes the total charging period to be
extended. So, the efficient charging scheme is exercised to EV LV
dip E battery charger. By estimating the transition time between the two
= − (4)
dt Llk modes by SOC, the complete charging time can be minimised due
to extension of the CC charging mode. Actually, the major part of
Interval 5(t4–t5): In interval 5, the lower-side diode D4 is turned off
and the active switch S2 and the upper diodes Dc1 and Do1 continue
in conduction state. In this interval, the current circulates through
Dc1 and S2 because that the AC voltage in the HFT primary circuit
becomes zero. This interval terminates while the switch S4 of Q4 is
turned on.
Interval 6(t5–t6): At this moment, the gate pulse vg4 is applied
to the lower-side switch S4 during interval 5, the circuit operation
interval changes to interval 6. At this moment, the switch S4 is
turned on, whereas the switch S2 and the diodes Dc1 and Do1
conduct. This interval ends when Css is charged up.
Interval 7(t6–t7): In interval 7, the switch S2 is achieving ZVS
turning off, the antiparallel-diode D4 is turned on while diodes Dc1,
Do1 conducting. The lossless snubber capacitor Cs2 is charged and
Cs3 in parallel with Q3 is discharged at the same time. This interval
ends when charging time of Cs2 and discharging condition of Cs3
has just completed.
Interval 8(t7–t8): The inner lower-side switch D3 of Q3 is turned
on; the diodes D4, Dc1, Do1, Do2 are conducting in this interval.
While, the secondary circuit of HFT transformer continues into
freewheeling interval. This interval terminates when the currents
passing through diodes D3 and D4 equal zero. At this moment, the
low-side switches S3 and S4 are turned on automatically due to
applying the pulse applied to gate terminals vg3.
Intervals 9–16: In the time intervals explained above, the circuit
operates similar to those of intervals from interval one to interval
eight. The proposed soft-switching charger operates with these 16
operating intervals which repeated cyclically. The charger output
voltage can be characterised as follows:

Ns
V out = V (5)
4Np AB

whereas Vout is the charger output voltage, Np and Ns are the

number of turns of primary and secondary windings of the HF
transformer, respectively.

4 Charging control scheme

The charging control scheme for EV battery has been exceedingly
utilised in EV electrical systems. The maximum obtainable current
is supplied to the battery, which is based on the battery status of
charge. When overcharge violates the preset limit, the battery is
removed from the energy source. In a similar manner, the charger
current is delivered to the LV battery until that its voltage increases
to the control set level. However, it is either controlled at this set
value or at a lower float voltage level [37–40]. The drawbacks of
these procedures are that the voltage-regulating set point or the
overcharge limit does not usually match to the 100% battery status
of charge situation. This is because the battery overcharging
voltage depends on the charging rate, which varies depending on
atmosphere conditions. Consequently, the battery continues in a
float charge state for a long time, until it is completely recharged.
However, the battery status of charge can be estimated. By
employing this method, the evaluation of both state of charge
(SOC) and battery lifetime are substantially affected by the current
measurement inaccuracy. However, the LV battery charging control
technique for EV applications is studied in this work. The block
diagram of the charger control system is depicted in Fig. 6. The
battery charging process is controlled using a microcontroller- Fig. 4  Operating waveforms for voltage and current

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Fig. 5  Switching intervals equivalent circuits
the energy is transferred to the battery in the period of CC mode.
The three-stage charging is the technique that most lead–acid
battery manufacturers advise as the best and most effective
approach to extend battery life. This three-stage method is depicted
in Fig. 7. Stage 1 represents CC charging or bulk charge mode,
where the charger current is kept at a fixed rate and the battery
voltage is enabled to grow accordingly as it is being recharged.
Stage 2 represents absorption mode; at this stage, the voltage level
is preserved at 14.6 V while the battery current decreases to range
of 1–2 A. Usually, the exact amount is not critical. Stage 3
represents float mode; at this stage, the battery voltage is kept at
13.5 V to maintain the full-charging condition in the battery. The
HV battery specifications are given in Table 1. The basic
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construction is the same as the previous model. The major
difference from the previous model is that brushless motor is used.
5 Experimental circuit setup
An experimental setup of 500 W battery charger prototype is
constructed. The HV nickel metal hydride (NiMH) battery is
substituted by 200 V DC source prepared in the laboratory. The LV
12 V lead–acid battery is substituted by a conventional electrical
load in early stage of experimental setup. However, in the later
stage, this load is exchanged by the 12 V actual lead–acid battery
with protecting circuit. The apparatus of implemented charger
circuit is viewed in Fig. 8. The circuit efficiency and voltage
stresses on power switches are measured as performance
3393
indicators. After analysing the different losses in the circuit, some
procedures to reduce the total losses are to be considered. Finally,
the design of the circuit components is adjusted and the conformed
design is to be examined. Fig. 9 shows the implemented control
circuit.
The design specifications and the circuit parameters in the
experimental work for the proposed charger are listed in Table 2. In
this circuit, the PWM phase-shift controller utilises the classical
control IC model UCC3895. Typical measurements of current and
voltages waveforms are depicted in Fig. 10. As one can see from
Fig. 10a, all power switches in the inner and outer bridge arms can
realise soft switching and commutation operation. In this condition,
the outer upper-side and lower-side switches Q1, Q4 can achieve
soft-switching operation.
Estimation of losses is an important issue in power electronic
converter design. It is not only a matter of efficiency, but also one
of reliability and thermal management. Attention of the losses on
each component will also help the designer to a preferable layout
printed circuit board (PCB), e.g. choosing PCBs with the right
copper thickness and number of layers, determining the size of the
circuit components, determining the acceptable placement of these
components etc. Fig. 11 describes the results of quantitative power
losses analysis for semiconductor devices in the charger circuit by
using IGBTs with 600 V rated voltage in the charger circuit. The
power losses are calculated under the situation of the rated output
power of 500 W. One can realise that the overall power losses of
the charger are 42 W in condition of 20 kHz switching frequency
and 49.6 W in condition of 40 kHz. Fig. 12 illustrates the
comparison of loss components under normal operation mode. As
one can see in this figure, the loss components can be divided into
power switches, transformer, and rectifier diodes as the loss
components.

Fig. 6  Simplified schematic diagram of charger with control system

Fig. 7  Three-stage charging scheme

Table 1 HV battery specifications

New PRIUS Previous model
battery module type sealed NiMH battery ←
cell quantity 168 cells (6 cell × 28 modules) ←
nominal voltage 201.6 V (1.2 × 168 cells) ←
service plug grip main fuse 125 A ←
interlock switch With NA
HV battery cooling blower motor type brushless motor brush motor
fan type sirocco fan ←
HV battery temperature sensor for intake air × 1 for battery module × 3 ←
HV junction block assembly SMRs (SMRB/SMRP/SMRG), HV battery current sensor, precharge resistor ←

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Fig. 8  500 W rating DC–DC converter from 200 to 12 V conversion

Fig. 10  Observed voltage and current waveforms

(a) Phase shift angle ϕ = 0°, (b) Phase shift angle ϕ = 60°, (c) Phase shift angle ϕ = 
120°

Fig. 9  Appearance of control circuit

Table 2 Circuit parameters and design specifications

Item Symbol Value
switching frequency f 40 kHz
dead times for Q1 and Q4; Q2 and Q3 td 1.4 µs
input capacitor (DC capacitors) C1, C2 2.2 mF
lossless snubbing capacitors Cs1–Cs4 22.0 nF
floating capacitor Css 500 nF
Fig. 11  Power loss analysis
HF transformer leakage inductance Lk 2.0 µH
HF transformer magnetising inductance Lm 200 µH
HF transformer turns ratio N1:N2:N3 5:1:1
output filter inductance Lo 60 µH
equivalent output resistance Ro 100 mΩ

Fig. 13 shows the output power regulation behaviour after

comparison of CD topology with that of the previously
implemented CT converter topology. As shown in Fig. 13, the
proposed charger can regulate its output current under soft-
switching conditions. However, the actual efficiency of the studied
charger circuit is measured around 90%. Fig. 14 illustrates the
power conversion efficiency characteristics of CD secondary Fig. 12  Conduction loss as compared with switching losses
compared with CT DC–DC power converter and power switching
devices rated 600 V. Observing this figure, the measured efficiency 6 Conclusion
of the proposed charger could be higher than that of the previously
implemented charger with secondary-side CT circuit [3] and two- In this paper, a new circuit for charging LV battery in EV has been
level circuit with CD DC–DC converters in the low- and higher- presented. This charger consists of three-level DC–DC power
output current ratings. Furthermore, the proposed DC–DC converter constructed by low-cost components. The key
converter circuit achieves efficiency of about 90% and this will be advantages of the implemented charger are: simple control
around the charger rated power settings. technique that ensures maximisation of the transferred energy to
the LV battery; increasing the battery lifetime due to that the

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Fig. 13  Charger output power versus output current
Fig. 14  Comparisons of power conversion efficiency
battery is working at a higher SOC. Moreover, charging scheme of
the LV battery does not rely on exact battery current measurement,
thus reducing the accuracy of current sensor and consequently the
cost of the circuit. The experimental waveforms verify
effectiveness of the studied charger. All the power switches in the
inner and outer bridge arms can realise soft switching and
commutation operation in the proposed circuit topology. The larger
part of power loss on the LV side comes from the rectifier stage. To
improve the charger efficiency, it is of great significance to reduce
this power loss. A CD configuration offers a solution and achieves
results better than the CT configuration. Hence, the three-level with
CD circuit achieves more efficiency as compared with two-level
and CT circuits.
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IET Power Electron., 2019, Vol. 12 Iss. 13, pp. 3389-3396
© The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2019