HEAT

Heat is a form of energy that is transferred from a hotter to a colder region by

one or more of the following methods conduction, convection and radiation.

When heat is given to a body one or more of the following may happen

(i) Increase in temperature

(ii) Increase in length ( area, volume)

(iii) Change in state of the body

Solid Liquid
Liquid Gas

(iv) Change in chemical composition

(v) Change in electrical properties

(vi) Change in colour

Heat is a form of energy, so it has the units of energy. In the SI system, this is Joules. Many other
units to measure thermal energy are in common use. Calories and BTU's are common heat units.

TEMPERATURE

Temperature is a measure of the Heat energy that a body contains or a

measure of the Kinetic energy of the molecules of the material. It is a
measure of hotness or coldness expressed in terms of any of several
arbitrary scales like Celsius and Fahrenheit.
S.I. Unit of temperature is Kelvin.

By heating a material the kinetic energy of the molecules of the material increase.

The temperature controls the direction of flow of Heat Energy.

Heat Energy always flows from a higher temperature to a lower temperature.

Thermal Expansion
Most substances expand when heated; the change in length or volume
is typically proportional to the change in temperature. The
proportionality constant is called the coefficient of linear expansion.
The relationship governing the linear expansion of a long thin rod can be reasoned out as
follows:

Wave
A wave is defined as a disturbance which is travelled through a particular medium. The medium
is material (solid, liquid, or gas) through which a wave is travelled from one to other location.
There are two basic types of wave motion for mechanical waves: longitudinal waves and
transverse waves.

Longitudinal Wave
The movement of wave is parallel to medium of particles in these waves. In longitudinal waves
the displacement of the medium is parallel to the propagation of the wave. Sound waves in air
are longitudinal waves.

A longitudinal wave travel through a medium in the form of compressions or condensations C

and rarefaction R. A compression is a region of the medium in which particles are compressed
i.e. particles come closer i.e. distance between the particles become less than the normal distance
between them. Thus there is temporary decrease in volume and as a consequent increase in
density of the medium in the region of compression. A rarefaction is a region of the medium in
which particles are rarefied i.e. particles get farther apart than what they normally are. Thus there
is temporary increase in volume and a consequent decrease in density of the medium in the
region of rarefaction.
The distance between the centers of two consecutive rarefaction and two consecutive
compressions is called wavelength.

Examples of longitudinal waves are sound waves, tsunami waves, earthquake waves, ultra
sounds, vibrations in gas, and oscillations in spring, internal water waves, and waves in slink etc.

Transverse Waves

A transverse wave is a wave in which particles of the medium move in a direction perpendicular
to the direction that the wave moves. For transverse waves the displacement of the medium
is perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave. A ripple on a pond and a
wave on a string are easily visualized transverse waves.

Transverse waves cannot propagate in a gas or a liquid because there is no mechanism for
driving motion perpendicular to the propagation of the wave.

Sound Waves

Are Sound Waves Longitudinal? Yes, Sound wave travels as longitudinal wave in nature.
Sound wave behaves as a transverse wave in solids. Through gases, plasma and liquid the
sound travel as longitudinal wave. Through solids it can be transmitted as transverse as
well as longitudinal wave.

Material medium is mandatory for the propagation of the sound waves. Sound waves are
mostly longitudinal in common nature. Speed of sound in air at N.T.P is 332 m/s.
Vibrations of air column above the surface of water in the tube of a resonance apparatus
are longitudinal. Vibrations of air column in organ pipes are longitudinal. Sound is
audible only between 20 Hz to 20 KHz. Sound waves cannot be polarized.

Vibrations of air column in organ pipes are longitudinal. Vibrations of air columns above
the surface of water in the tube of a resonance apparatus are longitudinal.
Propagation of Sound Waves in Air :

Sound waves are classified as longitudinal waves. Let us now see how sound waves
propagate. Take a tuning fork, vibrate it and concentrate on the motion of one of its
prongs, say prong A. The normal position of the tuning fork and the initial condition of
air particles is shown in the fig (a). As the prong A moves towards right, it compresses air
particles near it, forming a compression as shown in fig (b). Due to vibrating air layers,
this compression moves forward as a disturbance. As the prong A moves back to its
original position, the pressure on its right decreases, thereby forming a rarefaction. This
rarefaction moves forward like compression as a disturbance. As the tuning fork goes on
vibrating, waves consisting of alternate compressions and rarefactions spread in air as
shown in fig (d). The direction of motion of the sound waves is same as that of air
particles, hence they are classified as longitudinal waves. The longitudinal waves travel
in the form of compressions and rarefactions.
The main parts of the sound wave are:

Amplitude: The maximum displacement of a vibrating particle of the medium from the
mean position. A shows amplitude in y = A sin wt, The maximum height of the wave is
called its amplitude. If the sound is more than the amplitude is more.

Frequency: Number of vibrations made per second by the particles and is denoted by f

. Which is given as f = 1T and its unit: Hz. We can also get the expression for Angular
frequency : W = 2πf

Pitch: It is that characteristic of sound with the help of which we can distinguish between
a SHRILL note and a note that is grave. When a sound is shriller it is said to be of higher
pitch and is found to be of greater frequency. On the other hand, a grave sound is said to
be of low pitch and is of low frequency. Hence pitch of a sound depends upon its
frequency. It should be made clear that pitch is not the frequency but changes with
frequency.

Wavelength: The distance between two consecutive particles in the same phase or the
distance travelled by the wave in one periodic time and denoted by lambda.

Sound wave is a longitudinal wave with regions of compression and rarefactions. The
increase of pressure above its normal value may be written as :
Velocity of sound:

The speed of sound in dry air is given approximately by,

for temperatures reasonably close to room temperature, where TC is the Celsius

temperature.

It is important to note that the sound speed in air is determined by the air itself. It is not
dependent upon the sound amplitude, frequency or wavelength.

Infrasonic and ultrasonic waves:

Ultrasonic waves
The waves of frequency greater than 20,000Hz are known as ultrasonic waves or
ultrasound. Bats can produce ultrasonic waves. They can also detect these waves.

The ultrasonic waves produced by the bats on reflection from the obstacles like building
guide them to remain away from the obstacles during night. Hence, they can fly without
hitting the obstacles. Bats also catch their prey during night with the help of ultrasonic
waves. The ultrasonic waves produced by a bat spread out. These waves after reflecting
from a prey, say, an insect reach the bat. Hence, the bat can easily locate its prey as
shown in figure. Bat which can locate its prey by the help of ultrasonic waves.

Dolphins also produce ultrasonic waves. They can also detect the ultrasonic waves. They
catch their prey, like fish due to their ability to detect the ultrasonic waves reaching them
after reflecting from a fish.

Application of ultrasonic waves: There are following applications ultrasonic waves.

a. Ultrasonic waves are used to establish ship to ship to communication.

b. Ultrasonic waves are used for welding plastics.

c. These waves are used to analyze the development of unborn child.

d. Ultrasonic waves are used for cleaning the hidden parts of an instrument.

e. Ultrasonic waves are used to determine the depth of a sea.

Infrasonic wave

The waves of frequency less than 20Hz are known as infrasonic waves.

The infrasonic waves are produced by large vibrating bodies. These waves are not
audible to a human ear. For example, infrasonic waves are produced by the vibration of
the earth’s surface during the earthquake. Some animals like elephants, rhinoceroses and
whales etc. also produce infrasonic waves.

Application of infrasonic waves: there are following applications of infrasonic waves.

a. Infrasonic waves are produced by large vibrating bodies.

b. Its frequency is less than 20 Hz.

Supersonics:

Supersonic refers to any speed over the speed of sound.

Supersonic speed is a rate of travel of an object that exceeds the speed of sound. For
objects traveling in dry air of a temperature of 20 °C (68 °F) at sea level, this speed is
approximately 343.2 m/s or 1,235 km/h. Speeds greater than five times the speed of
sound are often referred to as hypersonic.