Slave River delta: geomorphology, sedimentology, and Holocene reconstruction

SANDYVANDERBURGH
AND DERALD
G. SMITH
Department of Geography, The University of Calgary, Calgary, Alta., Canada T2N IN4
Received November 13, 1987
Revision accepted February 22, 1988

The Holocene Slave River delta (8300 km2) is a long (170 km), narrow (42 km average width) alluvial sand body, which
extends north from the Slave River rapids at Fort Smith to Great Slave Lake, Northwest Temtories. The delta is.flanked by the
Talston and Tethul rivers and Canadian Shield to the east and by the Little Buffalo River to the west. Wave-associated
sedimentary structures in lithostratigraphic logs from river cutbanks indicate that the sandy delta was wave influenced. Most of
the logs (34) consist of three facies: basal laminated mud (unknown thickness), interbedded mud and sand (2.5 m), and planar-
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tabular ripple sets interbedded with cross-laminated to flat-bedded sand (3.0- 14.5 rn).
Eleven radiocarbon-dated wood samples from river cutbanks were used to reconstruct the delta paleoshoreface and to calcu-
late the rate of progradation, which averaged 20.7 mlyear from 8070 BP to the present. In the same period isostatic rebound of
the delta region relative to the Liard River delta averaged 12 cmlkm (a total rebound of 48 m). The data were calculated normal
to the retreating Laurentide ice front.
From the surface to depths of 59 m, the subaerial and subaqueous delta front exhibits bamer islands, lagoons, offshore bars
or sand waves, tensional cracks, slumps and pressure ridges. The bamers and offshore bars consist of medium grain-sized
sand, whereas the slumps and pressure ridges are interpreted as mud.

Le delta holocbne de la rivikre Slave (8300 km2) est une accumulation alluviale de sable, allongCe (170 km) et Ctroite
(largeur moyenne de 42 km), qui s'Ctend au nord des rapides de la rivibre Slave 2 Fort Smith jusqu'au Grand lac des Esclaves,
temtoires du Nord-Ouest. Le delta est bordt a l'est par les rivibres Talston et Tethul et le Bouclier canadien et a l'ouest par la
rivibre Little Buffalo. Les structures ~Cdimentairesproduites par les vagues observCes dans les coupes lithostratigraphiques des
berges CrodCes des rivibres indiquent que l'origine de ce delta de sable fut considCrablement influencee par 1'Cnergie des
vagues. Les coupes en gCnCral (34) exhibent trois facibs : boue laminte basale; boue et sable intercalks (2,s m); et sCries
planaires et tabulaires de rides interstratifikes avec des lits de sable avec laminations horizontales a laminations obliques
For personal use only.

(3,O- 14,s m).

L'Bge radiocarbone a CtC dCterminC sur 14 Cchantillons de morceaux de bois extraits des berges CrodCes des rivibres, et les
rCsultats ont servi 2 retracer la position du front du delta et le taux de progradation qui Ctait, entre 8070 Av.P. et aujourd'hui,
en moyenne 20,7 mla. Durant ce mCme intervalle de temps, le soulkvement isostatique de la rCgion du delta, par rapport au
delta de la rivibre Liard, Ctait en moyenne 12 cmlkm (soulbvement total de 48 m). Ce rksultat est estimC normal par rapport au
retrait du front de l'inlandsis laurentidien.
De la surface a des profondeurs de 59 m, les skdiments d'origine subakrienne et subaquatique du delta tCmoignent de l'exis-
tence de crCtes d'avant-plage CmergCes, lagunes, cordons littoraux ou dunes sous marines, fissures d'extension, slumps et
crCtes de pression. Les cretes d'avant-plage CmergCes et les cordons littoraux sont formCs de sable 2 grain moyen tandis que les
slumps et les crCtes de pression sont representCs par la boue.
[Traduit par la revue]

Can. 1. Earth Sci. 25, 1990-2004 (1988)

Introduction but a comprehensive study of the geomorphology and sedi-

The Slave River delta is a mud-supported sand body, up to
70 km wide by 170 km long, oriented north-northwest, extend-
ing from the Slave River rapids to the Great Slave Lake in the
Northwest Territories (Fig. 1). The delta is flanked by the
Little Buffalo River to the west and the Talston and Tethul
rivers and the Canadian Shield to the east and has an area of
8300 krn2, a region larger than Banff National Park. Although
we realize that the delta begins closer to the former settlement
of Fitzgerald, located at the head of the rapids (Fig. I), most
measurements have been taken from Fort Smith, located at the
toe of the rapids. Over the 29 krn distance between the two
settlements the delta is 3 km wide. River cutbank exposures
flank 235 km of the 298 km river length downriver from Fort
Smith. Cutbanks are up to 35 m high in the vicinity of Fort
Smith, but downriver they average 8-9 m. The bottomlands
between Fort Chipewyan and Fitzgerald are mantled with a
patchy, thin veneer of lacustrine mud over bedrock (Fig. 1).
Previous papers by McConnell (1890), Cameron (1922),
Taylor (1960), Craig (1960, 1965), Day (1972), Christiansen
(1978), Mollard (1981), Neil1 et al. (1981), and Alberta
Environment (1982) discussed various aspects of the delta,
Pnnted in Canada I ImpnmC au Canada
mentology has never been undertaken. Cameron (1922) indi-
cated the potential for research when he suggested that the
progradation rate of the delta could be determined. A soil
survey by Day (1972) was the first research of the entire delta,
which included a thorough analysis of the soil types, vegeta-
tion, and climatic characteristics. His soil maps, interpreted
from surface morphology and vegetation, allowed workers to
infer deposition environments and sedimentology.
The most comprehensive study of the lower delta plain (a
300 kmz area containing active distributary channels) was pro-
vided by Mollard (1981). A major part of the study involved a
detailed airphoto analysis of the lower delta plain to assess the
morphologic changes of the distributary channels and delta
front.
A third investigation, the "Slave River Hydro Feasibility
Study" (Alberta Environment 1982), was primarily concerned
with the potential environmental impact of damming the Slave
River rapids. In that study and in the aforementioned one,
there was little discussion of the sedimentology, depositional
history, age, progradation rate, and isostatic rebound of the
delta.
 ;H AND SMITH
TUDY AREA
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FIG. 1. Location of the Slave River delta study area in the southern
Northwest Temtories, between the Alberta border and Great
Slave Lake.
As part of an ongoing study of northern lakes and river deltas
by D. G. Smith, the Slave Delta provided a unique research
opportunity. The research objectives included the following:
(i) characterize the three-dimensional sedimentology of the
Slave River delta; (ii) provide a depositional interpretation of
the Slave River delta that would be compared with existing
sedimentary and geomorphic models of deltas; (iii) determine
the time of deposition and progradation rate of the deltaic sand
body; (iv) examine the subaqueous delta processes; (v) esti-
mate the rate of relative isostatic rebound in the region; and
(vi) contribute to the existing knowledge and understanding of
deltaic sedimentation.
Regional setting
The Slave River delta occupies a former southward-extend-
ing arm of Great Slave Lake (Cameron 1922). A similar arm
(North Arm) on the north shore of the lake provides a modem
analogue of the Slave Delta receiving basin as it was prior to
sediment infilling (Fig. 1). The lithologic contact of Devonian
sedimentary rocks and Canadian Shield crystalline rocks
underlies both the North Arm and the Holocene Slave deltaic
sediments (Craig 1965; Day 1972).
Two longitudinal profiles of the delta surface and river
between Fitzgerald and Great Slave Lake were constructed
from topographic maps and altimeter recordings (Fig. 2). The
surface of the delta drops from 204 m as1 at Fort Smith to
156 m as1 at Great Slave Lake; over the 170 km distance the
gradient averages 28.2 cmlkm. The altitude of the upper delta
1991
plain drops substantially, 43.3 m over a distance of 66 km.
Along the Slave River rapids between Fitzgerald and Fort
Smith the river drops 34 m over a distance of 29 km, where it
has incised the underlying Canadian Shield bedrock. From the
base of the rapids at Fort Smith (166.5 m) to the lake, the river
drops only 10.5 m over 170 km (straight-line distance) or
298 km (channel distance), yielding gentle gradients of 6.2
and 3.5 cmtkm, respectively.
The morphology of the Slave Delta is characterized by four
terrain units (Fig. 3): channel scroll bars (ridge and swales)
from point-bar deposits: abandoned distributary channels;
several closely spaced strandlines (located between Fort Smith
and Great Slave Lake); and a vast area that has no pattern. The
abandoned fan-like distributary channels increase in frequency
towards Great Slave Lake and are most prominent along the
eastern margin of the delta. Strandlines are most common
northeast of Fort Smith and on the lower delta plain.
During the eastward retreat of the Laurentide glacier, a large
proglacial lake filled the interconnected topographic basins
now occupied by Great Bear Lake, Great Slave Lake, Lake
Athabasca, and adjacent minor lakes and lowlands (Craig
1965; Day 1972; Smith, in preparation). This lake was named
Glacial Lake McConnell by Craig (1965), and radiocarbon
dates indicate that it was present between 10 500 and 8780 BP
(Prest 1966; Smith, in preparation). Drainage of Lake
McConnell via the Mackenzie Valley was blocked by a rem-
nant of Laurentide ice located northwest of Fort Simpson,
between Camsell Bend and Fort Norman (Craig 1965; Day
1966; Smith, in preparation). The highest stage of Lake
McConnell (stage 1) was about 10 000 BP (Smith, in prepara-
tion). This stage is recorded at approximately 300 m (present
elevation at the east margin of Great Bear Lake and the west
end of Lake Athabasca) and at 180 m (present elevation of the
Liard River delta near Fort Simpson). The difference in eleva-
tion is due to isostatic rebound. The main evidence for this
stage is the presence of raised beaches, wave-cut escarpments,
and high-level deltaic deposits at the mouths of the Liard, Hay,
Peace, and Athabasca rivers in the Great Bear Lake, Great
Slave Lake, and Lake Athabasca regions (Smith, in prepara-
tion). The initial outlet of Lake McConnell was the Hare
Indian Channel (Smith Arm, west side of Great Bear Lake),
now a 120 m deep by 1800 m wide spillway valley occupied by
an underfit stream.
Glacial Lake McConnell (stage 2) occupied only the Great
Slave Lake and Lake Athabasca basins between 10000 and
8780 BP (Smith in preparation). Lake water from stage 2 dis-
charged northward from Great Slave Lake through a low bed-
rock pass just east of Sarah and Mazenod lakes, located
between Great Bear Lake and Great Slave Lake (Craig 1965;
Smith, in preparation). Meanwhile the Mackenzie River con-
tinued to be blocked by sediment of the Liard River delta in the
Fort Simpson area. Continued isostatic rebound raised the
stage 2 outlet above the Liard River delta, causing Lake
McConnell to overflow and rapidly incise the deltaic sediment
and Mackenzie River valley. Lake drainage ultimately led to
the separation of Great Slave Lake from Lake Athabasca
(Fig. 1) at about 8780 BP (Smith, in preparation). As water
levels continued to drop, the southernmost arm of Great Slave
Lake began to infill with lacustrine and deltaic sediments
(McConnell 1890; Cameron 1922; Craig 1965).
Field and laboratory methods
Prominent cutbank exposures caused by channel incision
 CAN. J. EARTH SCI. VOL. 2 5 , 1988
---- Delta Surface
- Slave River Surface
Bank Height at ' 4 C Date Locations
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FIG. 2. Longitudinal profile of the Slave River and delta surfaces between Fitzgerald and Great Slave Lake.
into the Slave River delta extend for approximately 235 km
downriver from Fort Smith. A total of 36 lithostratigraphic
logs were recorded from the cutbanks between Fort Smith and
Great Slave Lake. Sedimentologic information recorded
includes sediment grain size, presence and type of sedimentary
structures, orientation of cross-bedding, presence of organic
material, and bioturbation. The grain size of sand was deter-
mined by visual comparison using a StratICan grain size chart
and a 30-power field microscope. Direction of cross-bedding
dips was measured with a compass. Distinct facies and beds
within each profile were photographed. Two hundred sediment
samples were collected for laboratory analysis (sieving and
hydrometer) to verify grain-size determinations in the field.
Well-preserved, in situ, uncontaminated wood samples were
collected for radiocarbon dating. Eleven of the 20 wood
samples collected between Fort Smith and Nagle Channel were
14Cdated by the Geological Survey of Canada (GSC), Ottawa,
and by Teledyne Isotopes, New Jersey, U.S.A. Locations of
stratigraphic logs and of wood samples and bank heights were
recorded on river navigation charts provided by the Canadian
Hydrographic Service (1975).
A geophysical bottom profiler was used to obtain cross-
sectional profiles of the distributary channels and the delta
front. Transect lines followed compass bearings, and an instant
readout current meter was used to maintain constant boat speed
and determine horizontal distance. Eight bottom profiles from
the lower Slave distributaries and two profiles from the off-
shore delta front were recorded.
In order to emphasize the dynamics of the lower delta plain,
riverbank and shoreline changes were mapped using aerial
photography from 1946 and 1977. Both sets of photographs
were taken in July and have a scale of 1 : 25 000.
Depositional processes and morphology of the active
Slave River delta
Channel morphology
The active lower delta plain located northeast of Fort
Resolution is a muddy area with distributary channels (Fig. 3).
The Resdelta distributary channel dominates, discharging 86 %
of the annual river flow (Mollard 1981). Over 31 years
(1946- 1977), aerial photographs indicate that the average
width of the Resdelta Channel mouth increased from 240 m to
480 m (Fig. 4). The remaining distributary channels, the East,
Middle, Old Steamboat, and Nagle, have partially infilled with
sediments (Fig. 5). Progradation of the delta front was most
pronounced near the mouth of Resdelta Channel, where the
shoreline advanced 527 m, averaging 17 mlyear during the 3 1
year period. The remaining delta front retreated at an average
rate of 19 mlyear. Such advance and retreat conditions are
common to wave-influenced deltas (Elliott 1978).
To determine the potential geometries of distributary-
channel fills, seven cross-sectional profiles were made of the
lower Slave and Resdelta channels (Fig. 5). Channel widths
and depths of profiles 1 and 2 are 790 and 800 m and 13 and
16 m, respectively; widthldepth (WID) ratios are 61 and 50.
Downriver (profiles 3 and 4) width of Resdelta Channel
decreases to 400 m, and WID ratios vary from 33 to 11. A
maximum depth of 24 m was recorded on profile 3 at the junc-
tion of the Middle and Resdelta channels, where flow direction
abruptly changes 6.5" to a northward course (Fig. 4).
Longitudinal profile 1 (LP I), a 330 m long transect (Fig. 5)
shows major bedforms 0.5 - 1.2 m high and averaging 30 m in
wavelength. We interpret the features as sand waves, based on
heights, wavelengths, steep slip face, and repetitive form. The

:' rmsll, nphamerol
' dlslrlbutary channala
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Canadian Shlsld
For personal use only.
FIG.3. Morphological features of the Slave River delta. The unpat-
temed areas exhibit no morphological patterns.
morphology and dimensions fall within the sand-wave bed-
form classification (Southard 1975).
Barrier islands
Seven long and narrow (1.8 km by 0.2 km), arcuate, low-
elevation (0.5 m) barrier islands parallel the shoreline of the
Slave Delta (Figs. 3 and 6). Both sets of aerial photographs
(1946 and 1977) indicate the presence of barriers, except that
locations have shifted accordingly with shore advance and
retreat. The barriers consist of well-sorted fine sand with
sparse vegetation (mostly willows) and many beached logs.
I
Augering penetrated only 10 cm of unfrozen sand in early
spring, 1986. Three processes are necessary for the develop-
ment of barrier islands: a large volume of available sediment, a
I
low offshore gradient, and a modest wave energy (King 1972).
All conditions are present on the Slave Delta front. Barriers
1 have not been reported from other lacustrine deltas.
Offshore subaqueous features
Transects 86-1 and 86-2 (Fig. 7) represent the morphology
of the delta slope. Transect 86-1 extends west (270") from the
beach of Moose Deer Island to 2.03 km, where it was termi-
nated because of lake ice. Water depth increases from 0.8 m to
12.0 m, giving a slope of 5.5 m/km. The profile was generally
featureless except for a bar 800 m offshore at 3.0 m depth. The
much more complex transect 86-2, beginning north of the Res-
delta Channel mouth and barrier island and following a north-
west compass bearing (315"), extends 6.45 km into Great
I AND SMITH 1993
I O S h o r e l i n e and Channel Erosion
FIG. 4. Shoreline erosion and deposition of the Slave River delta
shoreline in the vicinity of the Resdelta distributary-channel mouth,
interpreted from aerial photographs taken between 1946 and 1977.
Slave Lake (Fig. 7). The slope of the profile is subdivided into
four segments (Fig. 7). The initial 3.57 km segment is rela-
tively smooth except for two small, graben-like depressions
and (or) sand waves 3 krn offshore. Over the 3 km distance the
depth drops to 8 m, creating a slope of 2.6 mlkm. Between
3.57 and 4.25 km offshore, the depth drops from 8 m to 34 m
along a series of step-like features up to 5 m high, resulting in
an average slope of 2.19" or 25.3 mlkm. From 4.25 km to
5.55 km, the depth drops from 34 m to 52 m, forming a large
bulge over a slope of 0.79" or 13.8 m/km. Two long, wave-
like ridges are present in the final segment of the profile
between 5.55 and 6.45 km. No bottom sediment was sampled
along the transect.
Major lithofacies: description and interpretation
Sediments in 36 stratigraphic logs have been grouped into
four lithofacies (Fig. 8): (i) facies A, basal laminated mud at
the river level of most measured vertical sections; (ii) facies B,
a transitional interbedded sand and silt deposit with flat bed-
ding and ripples; (iii) facies C, an upper thick sand with cross-
laminated to flat bedding and planar-tabular ripple sets; and
(iv) facies D, a thick, interbedded rippled sand and lami-
nated mud.
 CAN. I, EARTH SCI. VOL. 25, 1988

(1) D i s l a n e e (m)
Lett Bank Right Bank
0 100- ZOO 300
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(LP Distance (m)

Flow
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(5) Distance (m)

Lett Bank Rlght Bank

I,,\ 0 100 -200 300

\ L I O C
Left Bank Distance (in) Right Bank
0 200 400 600 800
-
F O . . - - . - v - . * - . . . - .

Vertical Exaggeration-lox
30

(31 L a l t Bank Distance (m) Right Bank

0 800
Distance (m)
(6) Left Bank Right Bank

0' 1s
Vertical Exaggeration.2Ox
..
I O Vertical ~xa~~eration=20x
15 I
(4 1 Distance (in) Distance (m) Bank
Left Bank Right Bank (7) Lett Bank

Vertical Exaggeration=ZOx
25

FIG. 5. Cross-sectional and longitudinal profiles of the lower Slave and Resdelta channels.

Facies A, basal laminated mud (lacustrine) facies consists of thin, 1-2 cm thick laminations of clay with
Basal laminated mud (silt and clay) deposits, up to 3.5 m occasional silt lenses; no additional sedimentary structures are
thick, are located at or near river level and most probably present. Bioturbation is absent in all of the deposits. Contacts
extend much deeper to glacial till or bedrock (Fig. 8). The between facies A and the overlying facies B are erosional, flat,
 VANDERBURGH AND SMITH
- - -
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FIG.6. Series of banier islands along arcuate shoreline of the Slave River delta. The bamer islands trend from northeast to northwest (upper
left to lower right of the photograph).
and sharp. At the contact between facies A and B in log 2 there
are several pebbles up to 8.5 cm long (a axis), probably ice
rafted.
For personal use only.
The laminated clays and fine silts are interpreted as repre-
senting the basal or prodelta lacustrine mud. The same trend
has been reported by Coleman and Prior (1982a) and Rhine
and Smith (1988). The pebbles located at the boundary
between facies A and B are interpreted as ice-rafted drop-
stones.
Facies B, interbedded mud and sand (lacustrine - delta
shoreface transition)
A transitional zone of horizontally interbedded mud and fine
sand, up to 3.2 m thick, overlies the basal mud (Fig. 8 and 9).
The facies exhibits 1-5 cm laminated silts interbedded with
moderately sorted, fine-grained, mica-rich, occasionally rip-
pled sand. The silt laminations are often wavy and sometimes
contain 10-20 cm thick, ball and pillow, soft-sediment defor-
mation structures at the contact with overlying sand deposits.
Some sedimentary structures in the sand beds are gently dip-
ping (3-5 "), horizontal to cross-laminated, and ripple cross-
bedded. Occasional mud chips, discontinuous mud lenses,
organic liner, and wood fragments are present in the sand.
Contacts between the interbedded sand and silt beds and the
underlying lacustrine mud are wavy and sharp. Towards the
base of the facies grain size decreases and sand beds become
less frequent.
Facies B is interpreted as representing a transitional zone
between the underlying lacustrine mud and the overlying del-
taic lower shoreface. The facies represents the first sub-
aqueous, coarser deltaic sediments entering the lake basin.
Similar deposits characterized by low-angle and planar-tabular
ripple sets that genedly dip basinward have been repofled by
McCubbin (1982a). Sediment transported to the delta front by
fluvial processes, then reworked by storm waves and cumnts
and redistributed as offshore ban, has been described by
Howard and Reineck (1979). Waves and wave-induced cur-
rents interacting with the lower shoreface and basin floor
create the flow conditions necessary to form planar-tabular
---fl.=.L: =. -- -. -
ripple sets (McCubbin 1982a). The hydraulically light density
particles such as mica flakes and organic litter, commonly
present in the transitional environment of the delta, are indica-
tive of rapid vertical accretion (Howard 1972).
Facies C, sand beds (lower and upper shoreface and beach
deposits)
Stratified sand accounts for 70% of the exposed sediment
logged along the Slave River. Thicknesses range from 3 to
14.5 m (Figs. 8 and 10). In all stratigraphic profiles, facies C
overlies both facies A and B and is recognized as a laterally
extensive sand body.
Most facies exhibit a coarsening-upwardsequence beginning
with well-sorted fine sands and ending with medium sand. The
dominant sedimentary structures are planar-tabular ripple sets
with dips oriented basinward at 4 - 8" (Fig. 10). Mud chips
1 - 3 cm in thickness and 3 -4 cm in length and discontinuous
mud beds up to 10 cm long are infrequent. The majority of the
wood samples collected for 14C dating were located near the
base of facies C.
At the surface a poorly developed, cryoturbated regosol up
to 2 m thick is buried by very fine grained sand mixed with fine
organic litter. The contacts between facies B and C are sharp
and planar except where soft-sediment deformation is present
in the underlying silt layers.
The environment of deposition in facies C is interpreted as
lower and upper shoreface and as beach. The planar-tabular
ripple sets are a result of the interaction of waves, backwash,
and subaqueous distributary-channel currents. Similar facies
consisting of seaward-dipping planar-tabular ripple sets of
medium to fine sands have been described in the Gallup Sand-
stone Formation, New Mexico (McCubbin 1982b). Although
rarely preserved in ancient deltaic deposits (Weiss 1980), such
structures are well preserved in the Holocene Slave River
delta. Flat and cross-laminated bedding is interpreted as upper
shoreface and beach deposits formed by waves.
Facies D, alternating sand-mud beds (distributary-channel-
fill deposits)
Although stratigraphically equivalent to facies C, facies D is
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-
(LREAT SLAVE U K L
-

km from North Barrbr Island ot Readella Channel

FIG. 7. Subaqueous delta-front morphology with interpreted processes, recording June 1986.
 VANDERBURGH AND SMITH
up to 8.5 m thick and consists of horizontally bedded, alternat-
ing sand beds 20-60 cm thick and mud beds 10-25 cm thick
(Fig. 8, logs 15 and 28). Occasional mud chips are present in
the sand. Current ripples indicate paleocurrent directions of
350-355", almost due north (based on six measurements).
Facies D extends from the river surface up section to a con-
tinuous fine sand 2.5 m thick at the surface.
There is no surface expression of facies D on soil maps (Day
1972) and existing aerial photography, which excludes low-
energy fluvial point-bar deposits (Smith 1987). The vertical
tend of the facies does not suggest either deltaic shoreface or a
point bar. The absence of morphology suggests that the sedi-
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ments must be depositionally contemperaneous with the orig-
inal delta front.
The alternating sand and mud sequence implies a dramatic
fluctuation of high- and low-energy conditions. Typically,
sand is deposited from bedload during high-energy flow condi-
tions, and mud is deposited from suspended load during low-
energy conditions. Fluctuating flow conditions are common in
oxbow-lake fills, distributary-channels fills, and the lower
shoreface-lacustrine transition. Because of the stratigraphic
position of facies D, the deposits cannot be lower shoreface
transition, and the absence of channel morphology precludes
an oxbow-lake fill. Therefore, we conclude facies D is a dis-
tributary-channel fill.
If facies D is indeed a distributary-channel fill, then we
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suggest that such vertical sequences occur as horizontal,
heterolithic sand -mud couplets that deposit by vertical accre-
tion. If the largest measured cross-sectional geometry of the
active Resdelta Channel is taken into account, then distrib-
utary-channel fills could be up to 800 m wide by 16 m thick,
extending stratigraphically well below the base of any other
sand-associated facies (Fig. 8).
Interpretation and discussion
Wave-influenced delta interpretation
The sedimentary structures commonly associated with wave-
influenced deltas include sandy planar-tabular ripple sets, flat
bedding, and cross-laminated bedding (Oomkens 1967;
Maldonado 1975; Matthews 1984). These structures are
formed in the shoreface by waves and wave-induced bottom
and longshore currents. During storms, sediment is eroded
from the beach face and deposited in the shoreface; in fair
weather, sand is redeposited on the beach face (Sonu and Van
Beek 1971).
The sandy planar-tabular ripples sets in the Slave Delta dip
lakeward at 2-10". They are interpreted as deposits from
northward-moving currents in the shoreface zone. Cross-
laminated and horizontal bedding, which are less frequent, are
commonly deposited by wave wash and backwash during
storms. A recording buoy in 20 m of water depth offshore of
the nearby Hay River delta (Fig. 1) recorded large waves up to
4 m high and with periods of 8 s between June 18 and
September 30, 1975 (Environment Canada 1975). If similar
wind conditions occur on the present Slave Delta front, then
waves up to 2.5 m high with periods of 6.25 s are possible,
according to the conversion charts of Komar (1976). The
reduced wave size and periodicity are due to a shorter fetch
(75 km) and shallower water depth (50 m).
A coarsening-upward trend of sediment grain size is one of
the most common and frequently observed sedimentologic
characteristics of a delta (Scruton 1960; Matthews 1984). The
1997
distribution of sediments in the vertical profile up section is
virtually the same as the lake to landward changes in sediment,
a trend from fine to coarser sediment (Scruton 1960;
Maldonado 1975). Most (34 of 36) of the vertical profiles
logged from cutback exposures in the Slave Delta show a
coarsening-upward grain-size trend from clay-rich mud to
medium sand (Figs. 8 and 11). Two of the exposures (logs 15
and 28, Fig. 8) consist of alternating sand and mud, which we
interpret as distributary-channel fills rather than shore and
beach-face depositional environments.
Wind conditions, the position of lake ice, and shifting ice
flows limited bottom profiling and sediment sampling off-
shore. A sediment sample collected 1.0 km offshore of Moose
Deer Island in 6 m water depth (transect 86-1) was fine sand
(3.5 - 2 3 ) . Because sediment was not sampled from transect
86-2, offshore sediments were interpreted from morpholog-
ically associated features (i.e., offshore bars = sand) and
acoustic reflectance. Approximately 3.57 km offshore at 8 m
depth there is a break in slope between the subaqueous delta
platform and the slump-interpreted deposits. This platform
depth (0-8 m) correlates well with the 0-7.5 m depth of
shoreface sands interpreted in the majority of the cutbank
exposures along the Slave River.
The marine Rhone, Ebro, and Nile deltas have been classi-
fied as fluvial -wave interaction deltas (Elliott 1978). These
deltas are characterized by moderate wave activity on the
shoreline, minimal tidal influence with a dominant coarsening-
upward sediment grain-size trend, and progradation that is
greatest at the mouth of a dominant distributary channel
(Elliott 1978; Oomkens 1967; Maldonado 1975). The main
criterion differentiating a wave-influenced delta from other
delta types is that progradation occurs only in areas near major
distributary mouths, whereas shore retreat occurs elsewhere;
both result in an arcuate shoreline. Aerial photography from
1946 to 1977 indicates simultaneous progradation and retreat
of the Slave Delta front. At the mouth of Resdelta Channel
progradation averaged 17.03 m/year. However, nearby por-
tions of the beachface retreated at an average rate of 19.87 m/
year over the 3 1 year time period (Fig. 4).
Processes in deep-water lacustrine deposits
Along transect 86-2, between the beach face and 3.57 krn
offshore (0 - 8 m depth), the shelf-like topography is inter-
preted as a sandy shoreface depositionally equivalent to facies
C, though this was not verified by grab samples or cores
(Fig. 11). Beyond 8 m depth, mud deposits are interpreted as
dominating the deep-water (8-52 m) sediments. A sand to
mud transition m a i be interpreted from the original bottom-
profile printout of transect 86-2: a change in the acoustic
reflectance from a weak sand-scattered signal to a strong return
signal for mud was recorded.
Lakeward of the Resdelta distributary channel and shoreface
zone (3.57 km) along bottom-profile transect 86-2, several
interesting morpholo$c features are interpreted in lacustrine
mud. Two small, graben-like collapse features are present at
3.5 km offshore at 6 m water depth (Fig. 7). We interpret the
features as tensional cracks associated with the failure of the
offshore delta slope rather than as ice-scour marks. Similar
features have been described on the Mississippi Delta by
Galloway and Hobday (1983). We cannot interpret these
features as longshore bars or sand waves because the side
slopes of the features are too steep and abrupt (Fig. 7).
The next segment of transect 86-2 (Fig. 7), 3.57 -4.25 km
 1998 CAN. 1. EARTH SCI. VOL. 2 5 , 1988

LEGEND

Lithology: Sedimentary Structures

--
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Sand and Wood Locations:

Silt
horizontal to c r o s s -
Clay laminated stratification

-
and planar-tabular

-
ripple sets
Size Scale: Grain
discontinuous sand lens

discontinuous mud lens

cl = c l a y wyw mud chips

s r silt
soft-sediment
vfl = v e r y fine lower sand deformation
v f u = rr rr uDDer
.. sand
fl = fine l o w e r sand
organic b e d s
.
f u = n upper s a n d
m l = medium l o w e r sand Xrooting
For personal use only.

mu= n upper s a n d

Paleocurrent Data: * w o o d sample l o c a t i o n s

t paleoflow direction
(inferred from
current ripples) -2ripple m a r k s

FIG.8. (a)Locations of the 36 lithostratigraphic logs taken from river cutbanks of the Slave River delta. (b) Legend for the longitudinal profile
of the logs shown in (c) (foldout).

offshore, exhibits a series of 10 step-like features up to 5 m in
height in water depths between 8 and 34 m. The displacement
of the features increases lakeward and is most pronounced at
30 m depth. The average slope is 2.2". These step-like features
are interpreted as underwater back-rotational slumps, similar
to examples offshore of the Mississippi Delta (Coleman and
Prior 1980, 1982b; Prior and Coleman 1978; Prior and
Suhayada 1979). The slump scarps identified on the Missis-
sippi Delta front are 3 - 8 m high in depths of 15 to 40 m, on
slopes of 0.5 - 1S o . Subaqueous slumps are composed pre-
dominantly of silt- and clay-sized sediments and begin on the
delta-front slope in the vicinity of the main distributary-
channel mouths (Coleman and Prior 1 9 8 2 ~Prior
; and Coleman
1978). Slumping is caused by an oversteepened delta-front
slope combined with saturated, unstable lacustrine sediments,
degassing, and storm surge (Coleman and Prior 1980).
Because of the morphologic similarity of the Slave Delta
slumps and those of the Mississsippi, it is reasonable to assume
that the sediments are similar.
At the base of the subaqueous slump-like zone, a bulge-like
protrusion (Fig. 7) extends from 34 m to 52 m depth. We inter-
pret the bulge as being caused by the lateral movement of mud,
like ogives at the base of a glacier icefall. Below the gravity
mud bulge are two wave-like features 2 -3 m high at 52 m lake
depth. These features extend lakeward between 5.55 and
6.45 krn and dominate the otherwise smooth topography. They
are interpreted as pressure ridges caused by gravitational
downslope movement and the weight of the mud bulge. Pres-
sure ridges are also common at the foot of other subaqueous
delta fronts (D. B. Prior, personal communication, 1987).
Progradation rates of the Holocene Slave River delta
Progradation rates, determined for the Slave Delta between
the proximal upper delta plain at Fort Smith and Great Slave
Lake, are based on 11 14C-dated wood samples (Table 1)
found in cutbanks (Fig. 12). Some discrepancy may result
from the depth of the buried wood in relationship to the shore-
line position at the time of deposition. Because of relatively
steep (2.6 mlkm) shoreface slope of the active delta (Fig. 7),
the deepest buried wood samples would probably be deposited
within 1-4 km of the shoreline to be located in the sandy part
of the delta. Therefore, the position of the wood samples
closely approximates the delta front position in the shoreface
and beach face. Another discrepancy may result from the
difference in dating methods at the two laboratories (GSC and
Teledyne Isotopes). Only two wood samples yielded 14Cdates
(8180 and 5860 BP) slightly out of sequence in the expected
trend of decreasing delta age towards Great Slave Lake; how-
ever, these dates were within several hundred years of the
expected ages.
Can. J. Earth Sci. Downloaded from www.nrcresearchpress.com by CONCORDIA UNIV on 12/08/14
For personal use only.
 VANDERBURGH AND SMITH
Can. J. Earth Sci. Downloaded from www.nrcresearchpress.com by CONCORDIA UNIV on 12/08/14
For personal use only.
FIG.9. Facies B, transitional lacustrine to delta, consisting of inter-
bedded mud and sand. Scale is 1 m.
Wood samples 1 and 10 provide the most proximal and distal
dates for the Slave Delta; wood sample 10 was also located on
the active portion of the Slave Delta in the lower delta plain.
Wood sample 9 was split into two portions (9a and 9b) and
analyzed by two different dating laboratories (GSC and Tele-
dyne Isotopes) to allow comparison of accuracy (Table 1). The
7.2% variation in radiocarbon age determined for samples 9a
and 9b is attributed to the difference in the two laboratoly tech-
niques. The minor variation reinforces the credibility of the
remaining 14Cdates.
Between 8070 BP and the present there has been approx-
imately 167.5 krn of progradation, averaging 20.76 mlyear
(Fig. 12). Similar progradation rates of 31 mlyear have been
calculated for the Rhone Delta in France (Oomkens 1970). The
average 14Cdates of samples 1 and 2, 6, and 7, and 9a and 9b
(Table 1) were used to reconstruct the sequential infilling of
the former south arm of Great Slave Lake during the Holocene
time (Fig. 13).
An expected trend of decreasing progradation rate was
observed from the proximal to distal positions of the delta. It
appears that progradation was initially rapid (51.0 mlyear),
perhaps caused by a paraglacial influence (Rhine and Smith
1999
FIG. 10. Planar-tabular ripples dipping basinward (north) charac-
terize the upper shoreface. They dominate the Slave River exposures
and account for over 70% of the structure in facies A. Scale is 1 m.
1988), then decreased to 9.96 mlyear from 1180 BP to the
present. However, a reduction in progradation rate is clearly
evident from 7610 to 6380 BP. A topographic low at the delta-
front receiving basin at that time may have contributed to the
reduced progradation rate. Vertical and lateral accretion of
lacustrine mud would have occurred in order to overcome this
depression. Also, 175 km downriver from Fort Smith several
small (300 mZ)gravel deposits along the Slave River suggest a
variable topography in the delta receiving basin. As the depth
of the receiving basin decreased progradation probably
increased.
Fluctuations in sediment supply may also help explain the
reduction in progradation rates between 7610 and 6380 BP.
Incision by the Peace River of the Late Pleistocene deltaic and
valley-fill deposits would have initially increased the volume
of sediment supplied to the Slave River delta. Similar river
valley incision has been observed in the North Saskatchewan
River by B. Rains (personal communication, 1987) and in the
nearby Athabasca River delta and valley by Rhine and Smith
(1988). Formation of the Holocene Peace River delta southeast
of Fort Chipewyan, Alberta, may also have affected the
 2000 CAN, J. EARTH SCI. VOL. 25, 1988

-aeolian cover (31, vfu sand

- cryoturbated silty regosol

- fu to ml sand
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- delta shoreface and beach:

- planar-tabular ripple sets;
cross-laminated and
horizontal sand

-vfu to f l sand
.wood ~ a r n p I e 1 ~date
~ C locations
--delta-front posltlona
For personal use only.

- lacustrine-delta transition

- laminated lacustrine silty mud

FIG.12. Approximate Slave River delta-front positions determined

FIG. 1I. Idealized lithofacies vertical profile of the Slave River from 11 wood sample locations and radiocarbon ages from 8 180 BP to
delta, based on 34 of 36 lithostratigraphic logs (Fig. 8). Width of log the present.
does not follow the scale in Fig. 8.

many locations is "locked into position." As a consequence,

TABLE1. Age, identification, and taxa of the 11 dated wood sediment supply to the Slave Delta should continue to diminish
samples collected from the Slave River cutbank exposures over time, particularly since the Bennett Dam, constructed in
1968 on the upper Peace River in British Columbia, regulates
Sample Age flow and reduces flood magnitude, sediment supply, and
No. Lab. ID NO. (years BP) Taxa transport.
In the future, greater amounts of sedimentation must accum-
1 TDI-14, 569 8070k 140 * ulate for there to be any significant basinward progradation.
2 TDI-14, 568 8180k140 * Presently, the delta extends 16 km farther into the main water
3 TDI-14, 580 7610k 130 *
4 GSC-4121 6960k70 salix body 'of Great Slave Lake than a northeast - southwest-trend-
5 GSC-4106 6380+70 picea ing regional bedrock shoreline. Lake depths exceed 70 and
6 GSC-4 118 5860+70 populas 103 m at distances of 9.0 and 12.0 krn offshore, respectively
7 TDI-14, 512 6030+ 110 * (spot soundings, Canadian Hydrographic Service 1975). With
8 TDI-14, 513 5020+ 100 * deeper water and increased wave and longshore-current activ-
9a GSC-4197 3370+60 picea ity, the delta-front progradation will decrease with time. Pro-
9b TDI-14, 579 3600k 100 * gradation at present is localized at the mouth of the main
10 TDI-14, 552 1180+80 * distributaly channel, the Resdelta channel, but in the period
NOTES: TDI, Teledyne Isotopes Dating Laboratory, New Jersey. between 1946 and 1977 the shoreline in other areas of the delta
GSC, Geological Survey of Canada Dating Laboratory, Ottawa. retreated up to 616 m (Fig. 4).
*Unidentified taxa. During the early Holocene progradation of the Slave Delta,
400 km of fetch from the north-northwest and deeper water
would have allowed greater wave energy to be generated by
availability of sediment. The combination of continued valley northern winds than at present. However, during the middle
incision, changes in receiving-basin morphology, and sedi- Holocene, low hills to the west would have somewhat pro-
ment-supply reductions may have affected the progradation tected the delta front from westerly waves. At present, the
rates. Presently, the Peace River has incised bedrock and in Slave Delta is no longer protected from the wind and experi-
 VANDERBURGH AND SMITH
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For personal use only.

FIG. 13. Reconstruction of sediment infilling in the former south arm of Great Slave Lake caused by the Slave River delta from 8180 BP to the
present. The reconstruction is based on 11 C-dated wood samples and locations.

ences greater wave erosion than at any previous time. Now
fetch to the north-northwest is 152 km, and to the west it is
113 krn.
Isostatic rebound
In the vicinity of the Slave Delta, isostatic rebound was
determined by comparing present elevations of other deltas
formed in former Glacial Lake McConnell stage 2 (Fig. 14).
Evidence of an extensive, stable paleoshoreline of McConnell
stage 2 includes the Late Pleistocene Peace-Athabasca delta
surfaces (228 m) and the Liard Delta surface (180 m) located
further to the west (Fig. 14) (Smith, in preparation). A date of
approximately 8780 BP has been proposed for the age of the
Late Pleistocene Peace -Athabasca deltas (Smith, in prepara-
tion). If it is assumed that both deltas were at equivalent eleva-
tions at 8780 BP, then differential isostatic rebound must
account for the present 48 m difference in elevation. The posi-
tions of the retreating Laurentide ice front, delineated by Prest
(1969), indicate that rebound would have occurred over a dis-
tance of 400 krn normal to the retreating ice front. Therefore,
rebound of the Slave Delta relative to the Liard Delta over the
400 km distance is 48 m (Fig. 15), which averages 12 cmlkm
or 0.5 cmlyear over the last 8780 years. Greater rebound rates
of 37.5 and 47.5 cmlkm were estimated by Craig (1965) from
elevations of McConnell stage 1 beach lines (Smith, in
preparation) for the Great Bear Lake and Great Slave Lake
basins from about 10 500 BP to the present.
Presently, an elevational difference of 72 m exists between
the Late Pleistocene Peace- Athabasca delta surfaces (228 m)
and the present level of Great Slave Lake (156 m). A total
rebound of 48 m for the past 8780 years having already been
determined, the remaining 24 m of elevation difference is
explained by incision of an outlet in the Liard Delta by water
from Lake McConnell stage 2. This assumption is supported
by the 24 m elevation difference between the Liard Delta sur-
face and Great Slave Lake (Fig. 15).
 CAN. J. EARTH SCI. VOL. 25. 1988
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For personal use only.

/
,6 Lines of Equal Postglacial Uplift With Numbered lsobases
At 100 km Intervals

--....:' Limit of Lake McConnell (Craig 1965)

@ Locations of Western Outlet and Peace-Athabasca Delta Surface

FIG. 14. Extent of Glacial Lake McConnell (after Craig 1965) and rebound isobases between the Liard and Slave deltas. Rebound estimates are
relative to the Liard Delta at Fort Simpson between 8780 BP and the present. North of Great Slave Lake the isobases are speculative.

Rebound was quite rapid immediately following deglacia-
tion and was greatest where thicker ice was formerly present
and last retreated and where lake water was deeper. A topo-
graphic longitudinal profile constructed between Fitzgerald
and Great Slave Lake indicates two interesting trends (Fig. 2):
(i) a rapid drop in delta-surface elevation between Fitzgerald
and a position 63 km downriver, a total elevation decrease of
43.3 m (14C date of 6960 BP in associated sediments); and
(ii) (a subsequent break of slope and relatively gradual 14 m
drop in the delta surface to Great Slave Lake (142 km) over
6690 years. If it is assumed that channel incision of the Liard
Delta was complete by 6960 BP and rebound accounts for all
of the 14 m drop of delta surface between 6960 BP and the
present (Fig. 2), then 34 m of rebound must have occurred
between 8780 and 6960 BP (1820 years), an average rate of
1.8 cmlyear (Fig. 16). Between 6960 BP and the present there
has been a total of 14 m of rebound, a rate of 0.2 cmlyear
(Fig. 16). These data correlate well with the hypothesis that
isostatic rebound was initially rapid following deglaciation and
that rebound has steadily decreased to the present (Andrews
1970). J. D. Mollard (personal communication, 1987) has sug-
gested that rebound was a "jerky" process, based on several
sets of beach ridges (Fig. 3) in proximal to distal locations on
the delta. However, the beach-ridge sets could be accounted
for by other factors, such as severe storms and ice push.
Conclusions
(1) Three major lithofacies have been recognized in 34 of the
36 vertical profiles logged from river cutbank exposures in the
Holocene Slave River delta: (facies A, laminated clay with
 VANDERBURGH AND SMITH

@elevations determined from topographic maps and altlmeter

Peace-Atha.
- -- -- -- -- - - - - -- -- - - -- -- -----
1 I
Drop of Lake Level

2 0 4 Ft.Smlth

Liard River Delta

Can. J. Earth Sci. Downloaded from www.nrcresearchpress.com by CONCORDIA UNIV on 12/08/14

------ 156 SlaveDelta

,
' Outlet (Ft-Provldence) (Present)

1-u---
/
N4present Long. Profileof Mockenzie R
1403

km from western outlet

FIG. 15. Lake McConnell stage 2 diagram, showing the former water levels in the Great Slave Lake region taking rebound into account. See
Fig. 14 for locations of the Liard and Peace- Athabasca deltas.

n
For personal use only.

Lake McConneIl 226

ward-extending arm of Great Slave Lake. This long embay-
Stage 2 (2281
216 ment would have had a longer fetch and allowed a subsequent
higher impact of wave energy on the shoreface in early and
middle Holocene time.
(5) From 11 14Cdates obtained from buried wood samples, it
can be determined that progradation of the Slave River delta
between 8070 BP and the present over a distance of 167.5 km
Slope Break averaged 24.3 m/year. Initially, progradation was greater,
averaging 51.0 m/year. Since 1180 BP progradation has
Great Slave
Lake 9000 7000 5000 3000 1000 o
decreased, averaging 9.96 mlyear.
Time (14cyears BP) (6) There has been 48 m of isostatic rebound in the Slave
River delta region relative to the Liard Delta near Fort
FIG. 16. Graph portraying the variation of isostatic rebound rates Simpson between 8780 BP and the present, averaging 12 cm/
between 8780 BP and the present. Notice the reduction in the rate
beginning at 6960 BP. km or 0.5 cmlyear. Between 8780 and 6960 BP rebound at the
Slave Delta averaged 1.8 cmlyear. The rate decreased substan-
tially to 0.2 cm/year from 6960 BP to the present.

occasional silt lenses; facies B, a transition of interbedded silt Acknowledgments

and sand; and facies C, an extensive, vertically coarsening-
upward sand with cross-laminated bedding and planar-tabular
ripple sets, dipping basinward. The sequence of facies is inter-
preted as lacustrine, prodelta transition, and lower and upper
shoreface and beach environments of a river delta.
(2) The sand body is interpreted as a wave-influenced delta,
based on the following criteria: (i) a predominance of shore-
face and beach-associated sedimentary structures; (ii) a
coarsening-upward trend of sediment grain size; (iii) the
morphology of the present delta (an arcuate shoreline with low
barrier islands); and (iv) localized progradation at the mouth of
the active distributary channel while nearby the beach face is in
retreat.
(3) Morphologic features of the subaqueous delta and lacus-
trine deposits offshore of Resdelta Channel mouth are inter-
preted as shoreface tensional cracks, slump scarps, gravity
mud bulge, and pressure ridges.
(4) The Slave River delta now occupies a former, south-
-
We would like to thank Bill and Roberta Halase, who pro-
vided field assistance; Dabbs Environmental Consultants and
Wood Buffalo National Park for aerial photography; the
McDonald family at the Salt River Settlement, who provided a
permanent base camp; and Roger Wheate for photographic
services. Field equipment was supplied by the Department of
Geography, The University of Calgary. Support from the
Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of
Canada, the Department of Indian and Northern Affairs (north-
em science training grant), and the Radiocarbon Dating
Laboratory of the Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa, is
gratefully acknowledged. The manuscript was reviewed by
J. Coleman and J. Mollard.
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