Soil as a Construction Material

Merrill Zwanka
Geotechnical Materials Engineer
SCDOT Research and Materials Lab
February 1999

Soil as a
Construction Material

Definitions
Sampling and Testing
Classification

1
 Soil Particle Size

Mixture of any or all of:

Gravel - Rock Particles 5 mm-150 mm
Sand - Rock Particles 0.074 mm-5 mm
Silt - Rock Particles 0.002 mm - 0.074 mm
Cl - Mineral
Clay Mi l Particles
P ti l less than 0.002 mm

Soil Consistency

Consistency denotes the degree of

firmness - a function of particle size and
moisture content
Solid - like Hard Candy
Semi-Solid - like Cheese
Plastic - like soft butter to putty (deforms without
cracks)
Liquid - like pea soup to soft butter

2
 Soil Characteristics

Soil is different than any other

material that we work with in
construction
It is non-uniform
We can use it as it is (good material)
We can improve
i the
h properties
i (mix,
( i geosynthetics)
h i )
We can modify it (cement, geosynthetics)
We can remove it and replace it (poor material)

Soil Properties
How do we determine the soil
properties such as particle size,
consistency etc.?
consistency, etc ?
How do you know what soils are
good or poor for use in construction?

3
 Typical Soil Profile

Horizons
•O -Organic
•A - Eluviated
•B - Accumulated
•C - Parent Material

Fall Line

4
 Soil Sampling

 Sampled using continuous

flight augers for road and
bridge design purposes
 Sampled from road or pit
for use in embankments
and other earthwork
 Observations and
measurements of the soil
type is recorded

Soil Testing

Particle Size Analysis

Mechanical analysis - separate the clay
particles and vibrate the remaining
particles through a nest of sieves

5
 Soil Consistency
Atterberg Limits
Liquid Limit (LL) - Water content in which the
soil behaves as a viscous liquid
Plastic Limit (PL) - Lowest water content in
which the soil behaves as a plastic material

Liquid Limit

 Soil has moisture added to it - placed in cup

cup,
groove carved in center, cup dropped until soil
contacts, repeated at different moisture contents

Sample Preparation Cup Groove

6
 Plastic Limit

 Soil sample is rolled between the fingers and a

solid surface until a 1/8 inch diameter thread is
obtained - it is re-mixed and re-rolled until it
crumbles before obtaining a 1/8 inch thread - the
moisture content is then determined

Plasticity Index (PI)

The range of moisture contents

within which the material is in a
plastic state
PI = LL - PL

7
 Soil Strength Tests

 Triaxial Shear Strength

Tests drained or undrained
shear strength of sample
Used for bridge design,
retaining wall design,
embankment design, etc.

 California Bearing Ratio (CBR)

Measures resistance to
penetration (Index)
CBR Triaxial
Empirical Data
Used for pavement design

Soil Classification

In order to use soil data for design

and construction, we classify it
according to a standard procedure
Predict the behavior of each soil
Ch k ffor compliance
Check li with
ith specifications
ifi ti

8
 Soil Classification

Several procedures available for

classifying soil types
AASHTO
ASTM
USDA (Agriculture)
FAA (Aviation)
Corps of Engineers
USBR (Bureau of Reclamation)

9
10
 Example Soil Classification

% Passing #10 Sieve = 83

% Passing #40 Sieve = 48
% Passing #200 Sieve = 31
Liquid Limit = 37
Plasticityy Index = 17

Given the information above, what is the soil classification?

Soil Classifications

 A-1-a
A1a  Gravel - Well Graded
 A-1-b  Gravel - Silty
 A-3  Sand - Poorly Graded
 A-2-4 or A-2-5  Sand - Silty
 A-2-6 or A-2-7  Sand or Gravel - Clayey
AA-4
4  Silt - Organic or Inorganic
 A-5  Silt - Inorganic
 A-6  Clay - Inorganic
 A-7  Clay - Organic or Inorganic

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 Soil Classification
Group Index

Only for soils classified as A-2-6 and greater

Provides an indication of the material usage for
subgrade
GI of “0” indicates a good subgrade material
GI of “20” or greater indicates a very poor subgrade
Shown in parenthesis after the classification
A-2-6(5), A-7-6(25), etc.

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 Compaction Theory

Soil is composed of three phases

 Air Air

 Water Water
 Solids
Solids

13
What is compaction?
 Compaction
p is the rapid
p application
pp of force
to the soil mass, resulting in the removal of
air.
Air

Water
Uncompacted
Volume
Solids

What is compaction?
 Compaction
p is the rapid
p application
pp of force
to the soil mass, resulting in the removal of
air.
Air
Water
Uncompacted Compacted
Volume Volume
Solids

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What is compaction?
 During
g compaction,
p , there is no change
g in
the volume of water and solids!

Air
Water
Uncompacted Compacted
Volume Volume
Solids

Why is compaction important?

 Compaction:
p
– Increases strength
– Decreases permeability
– Prevents future settlement

15
What is moisture content?
 Moisture content is the weight
g of the water
divided by the weight of the solids.
 Since we are only removing air from the
soil, compaction does not change moisture
content.
 Moisture content can exceed 100%.

What factors control compaction?

 Soil type
yp
 Moisture content
 Compactive effort

We ca
can co
control
t o moisture
o stu e co
content
te t aand
d co
compactive
pact ve effort!
e o t!

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How does moisture content affect
compaction?
 Too much water results in less compaction.
p
 Too little water results in less compaction.
 Water should be “just right”...

Moisture-Density Curves
Zero Air Voids Line

Maximum
Optimum
Density
Moisture
Content

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How does compactive effort
affect compaction?
Increasing compactive effort

How does compactive effort

typically affect compaction?
 As compactive
p effort increases…
– Optimum moisture content necessary to achieve
maximum density decreases
– Maximum density increases

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 Why is lift thickness important?

Importance of Lift Thickness

Compactive Effort Compactive Effort

0’ 0’ An equal compactive effort applied to

an excessively thick lift may be
1’ 1’ substantially reduced at the lower
elevations. A much greater
2’ compactive force would need to be
applied to achieve suitable density.
3’

Variables
Va ab es Note:
No e:
Well graded materials vs. poorly graded materials Maximum lift thickness
requirements are typically given in
Soil type and moisture condition
the project specifications. If
Compaction equipment requirements are not given, the
project geotechnical engineer should
Compaction procedure
be consulted for the recommended
Site conditions lift thickness.

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SCDOT Compaction
Specifications Overview
 Embankment fill
– 8 inches, 95% SC-T-25 or SC-T-29
 Aggregate Bases
– Sand Clay - 10 inches, 100% SC-T-25 or SC-T-
29
– Marine Limestone, Macadam, Recycled
Concrete, Coquina - 10 inches, 100% SC-T-140

So, how do we determine what

moisture content is “just right”??
 The SCDOT One-Point Proctor Curve!!!

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 CompactionAnd Gradation
Control
Definitions
Information
Formulas & Equations

DEFINITION OF COMPACTION

 Compaction-The densifying or Packing Together of Soil

Grains or Particles while Entrapped Air is Squeezed Out.
(Two Things Needed)
Maximum Dry Density-Dry Unit Weight - Obtained From A
Given Compactive Effort As Defined By The Peak of A
Compactive Curve.
Optimum Moisture Content- Amount Of Water At Which
The
h Maximum
i Density
i off A Material
i l Can Be Obtained
b i d
Within A Given Compactive Effort.

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 Density

Density = Weight Per Unit Volume =

Weight/Volume in pounds per cu.ft. or grams per cubic

centimeter

Bucket Capacity-1/4 cu. ft. =22.3 lbs.when full of water.

Empty bucket weighs 6.7
6 7 lbs.
lbs
Wt. Water= 22.3 lbs.- 6.7 lbs. = 15.6 lbs.
Volume of Water= 1/4 cu. ft.= .25 cu. ft.
Density of water= weight water/volume of water
=15.6 lbs./.25 cu. ft.= 62.4 pcf

As Density Increases:

THESE INCREASE THESE DECREASE

shear strength compressibility
load bearing Permeability
shrinking/swell
susceptibility to erosion
freeze/thaw damage

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 Methods Of Measuring Density

LAB PROCEDURES:

AASHTO T-99 moisture-density relations of soils using 5.5 lb.

Rammer & 12 inch drop (method A,B,C,D).
AASHTO T-180- moisture-density relations of material using a
10 lb. Rammer & 18 inch drop(method A,B,C,D).
SC-T-140 same as the old AASHTO T-180.

FIELD PROCEDURES:

SC T-25 field method of determining moisture-density

relations of soils.
SC T-29 field determination of MDD & OMC of soils by one-
point proctor method.

Density Determination

Density which is determined by direct or

indirect measurement is called the ACTUAL
DENSITY.
Actual Dry Density is compared to theoretical
maximum dry density to determine percent
compaction.
compaction
% Compaction = Actual Dry Density divided
by theoretical MAX Dry Density.

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 AGGREGATE BASE DENSITY

 Contract specifies 10” Macadam base.

 Compaction required
required- 100% of MDD as determined by SC-
SC
T-140.
Sample submitted to lab for testing reported MDD OF 138.7
pcf & 5.8 % omc
You ran field density using Troxler nuclear gauge &
determined the actual wet den to be 139.8 pcf. >moisture
content of 3.9 pcf.
 Does
D it meett compaction
ti requirement?
i t?
DD= 139.8 - 3.9=135.9 pcf
% Compaction= 135.9/138.7 x 100= 98 %
(actual/theor.)
Required=100 % >>Fails
 Suggestions to contractor?

Factors That Influence Test

Results

Size & shape of mold

Mold support
Sample prep
Type,magnitude & distribution of
compactive effort
Layer Thickness
Degradation of particles
Temperature

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Two Ways Of Controlling Compaction
(Practical Aspects)

 SPECIFY A METHOD OF COMPACTION

Ex. Sec 303.11 of std specs (old spec) - Initial compaction of
sand-clay base less than 8” thick will be done w/sheepsfoot
roller and will continue until roller walks out of base coarse.
Final rolling done by pneumatic(rubber tire) rollers.

 SPECIFY END RESULT

Ex. Sec.
E S 303.4.6
303 4 6 off std
td specs ((new spec)) - earth
th ttype base
b with
ith
total thickness greater than 8” to be compacted 100% max
den.
Max. den determined by SC-T-25,or SC-T-29.

END RESULT USED

 Where there is a Specified amount of compaction to be

achieved, field compaction tests required.
METHODS USED BY SCDOT
 Actual Density- Nuclear gauge
 Moisture Content- speedy moisture tester, pan drying
 Max Dry density - Lab uses oven drying.
AASHTO T-99(standard), AASHTO T-180(modified), SC-T-
140
 Four Pt. Field proctor (SC- T-25)
 One Pt. Field proctor (SC-T-29)

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 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE COMPACTION

 Moisture content
 Method of preparation
 Uniformity of Procedures
 Environmental influences
 Type of Roller
 Compactive effort
 Underlying layer
 Lift thickness
 Rate of Compaction
 Moisture Content

GRADATION CONTROL

 All subbases & Bases in Standard Specifications except cement mod subbase
have gradation requirements

 Gradation requirements are a means of specifying distribution of particle

sizes which make up an aggregate.

 Normally specified as % passing a particular sieve.

 Ex. Macadam Base (sec. 305.2.5.5)

Sieve % by wgt.pass.
2” 100
1-1/2” 95-100
1” 70-80
1/2” 48-75
#4 30-50
#30 11-30
#200 0-12

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