BIBLIOGRAPHY OF URBAN

FORESTRY

Compiled and Edited

by
Celia Lane
Student at the Johns Hopkins University

Edited
by
Dr. Jonathan Haskett
Adjunct Associate Research Scholar in the Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences at the
Johns Hopkins University
Fellow at the Global Evergreening Alliance

THE GLOBAL EVERGREENING ALLIANCE

2020

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 Note from the Editors

The purpose of this bibliography is to organize and comment on key current references that can
be used as a resource for those working in topics relating to the field of urban forestry. While we
do not pretend this is a comprehensive review we hope it will be a useful tool for learning and
research.

The bibliography is intended to serve as a living document that will continue to grow and evolve.

If you have any questions or suggested entries please reach out to

urbanforestryanbib@gmail.com

The editors would like to provide a special thanks to the following persons for their contributions

Contributors:

Tian Lin of the Geography & Planning Department at the University of Toronto

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1) Quantitative Values for Potential Carbon Sequestration by Urban Trees 4

2) Optimization of Tree Planting in Urban Areas 7
i) Tree Species and Position 7
ii) Urban Forests and Equity 10
iii) Urban Greening as an Economic Tool 14

3) A Critical Review of Urban Forestry 16

4) The Effect of Urban Trees on Mitigating the Urban Heat Island Effect and
Reducing Energy Consumption in Buildings 18
5) Overview of the Optimization of Public Health Benefits from Urban Trees 21
i) Urban Food Forests 21
ii) Urban Forests and Well-being 23
iii) Urban Forests and Crime 26

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1) Quantitative Values for Potential Carbon Sequestration by Urban Trees

Baró, Francesc, Lydia Chaparro, Erik Gómez-Baggethun, Johannes Langemeyer, David J.

Nowak, and Jaume Terradas. “Contribution of Ecosystem Services to Air Quality and
Climate Change Mitigation Policies: The Case of Urban Forests in Barcelona, Spain.”
AMBIO​ 43, no. 4 (May 2014): 466–79. ​https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-014-0507-x​.

This case study quantifies the ecosystem services provided by urban forests in Barcelona,
Spain and evaluates their contribution to air quality and climate change mitigation policy
compliance set by the EU. They provide numbers for both biophysical and monetary
values of the two ecosystem services (air purification and global climate regulation) using
iTree analysis and accounting also for the ecosystem disservice of air pollution associated
with VOC emissions. Their results show that while urban forests currently contribute
substantially to pollution and GHG abatement, these contributions are much more modest
when compared to total pollution and emission levels in cities. They conclude that net
carbon sequestration by urban forests has a very low influence when compared to total
annual GHG city emissions but it has the potential to contribute considerably to meeting
GHG reduction policy standards if implemented on a larger spatial scale.

Chen, Wendy Y. “The Role of Urban Green Infrastructure in Offsetting Carbon Emissions in 35
Major Chinese Cities: A Nationwide Estimate.” ​Cities​ 44 (April 2015): 112–20.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2015.01.005​.

This piece presents a nationwide study about how urban green infrastructure could
contribute to offsetting carbon emissions in 35 major Chinese cities. It includes data on
how much green area is in each of the cities studied and how much carbon these green
areas store and sequester annually. It highlights how crucial the transformation of all
urban infrastructure to green infrastructure is for cities to successfully mitigate and adapt
to climate change. It also details the relatively low estimates of carbon density within
these 35 Chinese cities as compared to various international cities, illustrating that there
is ample room for China’s urban green infrastructure to act as active, natural carbon
sinks. This case study is significant because as the world’s largest emitter of carbon
dioxide, China’s potential to expand urban forestry and green infrastructure could have a
profound impact on climate mitigation efforts if they pursue rigorous, large-scale
greening efforts.

Li, Jian-feng, Onyx W.H. Wai, Y.S. Li, Jie-min Zhan, Y. Alexander Ho, James Li, and Eddie
Lam. “Effect of Green Roof on Ambient CO2 Concentration.” ​Building and Environment​ 45,
no. 12 (December 2010): 2644–51. ​https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2010.05.025​.

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 This paper studies the effects of green roofs on ambient CO2 concentrations in urban
settings as an example of the carbon sequestration benefits of urban greening. They found
that the extent of the green roof effect is highly dependent on the condition of the plants
and their positioning in relation to ambient airflow patterns. They found that on a sunny
day, a green roof may lower CO2 concentration in the nearby region by as much as 2%.
However, this study is limited in scope in that it looks at smaller shrubs on green roofs
rather than urban trees and it focuses on the short term reduction of ambient CO2 rather
than long-term sequestration. However, the methods employed in the study can also be
applied to evaluate the effect of trees in urban areas on air pollutant concentrations
including CO2.

McGovern, Mark, and Jon Pasher. “Canadian Urban Tree Canopy Cover and Carbon
Sequestration Status and Change 1990–2012.” ​Urban Forestry & Urban Greening​ 20
(December 2016): 227–32. ​https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2016.09.002​.

This study tracks changes in trends in urban tree status and ecosystem services such as
carbon sequestration from 1990- 2012 in Canada. During this time period they saw that
Canada’s urban areas grew by 6% while their national urban tree canopy decreased
slightly and carbon sequestration by urban trees increased slightly. This conclusion shows
that it is important to analyze land-use and tree canopy changes over longer time scales
because tree planting and growth in newly developed urban areas can offset tree canopy
losses in other areas to maintain or even increase the overall amounts of canopy cover. It
is important to note that the primary goal of this paper was to update Canada’s UTC
assessment tools and standardize them under the UNFCCC reporting system.

Nowak, David J., Eric J. Greenfield, Robert E. Hoehn, and Elizabeth Lapoint. “Carbon Storage
and Sequestration by Trees in Urban and Community Areas of the United States.”
Environmental Pollution​ 178 (July 2013): 229–36.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2013.03.019​.

This study provides a great overview of the quantitative data regarding the ability of
urban trees in the US to store and annually sequester substantial amounts of carbon. The
stated purpose of this paper is to update the national urban tree carbon storage and
sequestration estimates using urban field data from 28 cities and 6 states and newer
estimates of urban land area and urban tree cover (uses iTree analysis). It also states that
given the potential pervious land in urban areas, carbon storage from increased tree cover
could substantially increase in the United States given the proper social and physical
conditions. This study was conducted in 2013 and was followed up in 2018 with a similar

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 study that includes more recent and comprehensive data on carbon storage sequestration
in urban trees.

Nowak, David J, and Eric J Greenfield. “US Urban Forest Statistics, Values, and Projections.”
Journal of Forestry​ 116, no. 2 (March 12, 2018): 164–77.
https://doi.org/10.1093/jofore/fvx004​.

This study gives detailed numbers on urban forests nationally in the US, providing
specific data for urban trees in all 50 states in terms of air pollution removal, carbon
sequestration, altered building energy use, and consequent change in fuel-based pollutant
emissions. They estimate annual gross carbon sequestration by urban forests in the US as
36.7 million tons with an estimated value of $4.8 billion, which is higher than previous
estimates due to increased urban land and urban tree cover (shown in Table 6). They also
estimate carbon storage by urban forests nationally as 919 million tons with an estimated
value of $119 billion (shown in Table 5). Their calculations show that urban forests in the
United States annually reduce residential building energy use to heat and cool buildings
by $5.4 billion per year. They predict that given the amount of pervious land in urban
areas, there is great potential to increase carbon storage within cities if there is a major
effort to change current social and physical conditions. These numbers are great,
providing a more detailed update from the Nowak et al. 2013 study, but the authors do
highlight the need for further research to evaluate and quantify more ecosystem services.

Zhao, Shuqing, Yujia Tang, and Anping Chen. “Carbon Storage and Sequestration of Urban
Street Trees in Beijing, China.” ​Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution​ 4 (May 12, 2016).
https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2016.00053.

This study looks at the potential for street trees in Beijing, China to store and sequester
carbon. Their calculations demonstrate that the magnitude of carbon sequestration by
street trees in Beijing is comparable to that of non-urban forests. However, they note that
annual net carbon sequestration by urban street trees across the entirety of Beijing’s
urban districts is equal to only 0.2% of its annual CO​2​ emissions from energy
consumption. Thus, they conclude that the carbon sequestration of street trees alone
should not be considered as an effective mechanism to offset CO​2​ emissions in Beijing.
Despite these conclusions, it is important to note that urban forests do not begin adding
value to communities only when they offset all of the emissions that their host city
generates. That would be truly remarkable as the study estimates that these urban areas
are responsible for ~75% of global anthropogenic carbon emissions. By assessing only
street trees and not other modes of urban forestry, and by not considering the other
climate mitigation benefits of urban trees, the scope of this study is limited.

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2) Optimization of Tree Planting in Urban Areas

i) Tree Species and Position

Gómez-Muñoz, V.M., M.A. Porta-Gándara, and J.L. Fernández. “Effect of Tree Shades in Urban
Planning in Hot-Arid Climatic Regions.” ​Landscape and Urban Planning​ 94, no. 3–4 (March
2010): 149–57. ​https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2009.09.002​.

This study measured the effects of different types of shade trees on energy consumption
in buildings in urban areas with hot, dry climates. The results demonstrate that larger
trees can provide up to 70% shade cover during spring and autumn and that this external
shading can be optimized to reduce HVAC energy loads. Through their calculations, they
determined that it is economically more beneficial to plant large trees rather than planting
small trees and nursing them to grow throughout a longer time period. This study does
not provide a comprehensive quantification of how much energy is reduced, only which
size/shape of tree is most effective. They recommend that the effect of shade from urban
street trees on building energy consumption be included in future optimization
calculations.

Hauer, Richard J., Andrew K. Koeser, Stephani Parbs, Jim Kringer, Randy Krouse, Ken Ottman,
Robert W. Miller, David Sivyer, Nilesh Timilsina, and Les P. Werner. “Long-Term Effects
and Development of a Tree Preservation Program on Tree Condition, Survival, and Growth.”
Landscape and Urban Planning​ 193 (January 2020): 103670.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2019.103670​.

This study determines the most economically advantageous areas to plant urban trees in
relation to construction zones. This 39 year study in Milwaukee, Wisconsin investigated
how repairs to streets, curbs and sidewalks affected tree condition, survival and growth
compared to control trees outside construction zones and the effect of a tree preservation
program on reducing construction impacts. Results show that a tree preservation program
can successfully be implemented to promote survival and maintain the condition of street
trees and that it was more economically advantageous than studies with no such program
in place. Results also show the importance of developing urban green spaces where trees
are planted farther away from curbs and sidewalks as these always have a much higher
tree condition and survival rate, regardless of whether or not there is a preservation
program in place. They recommend that any future construction projects that take place
in close proximity to urban trees implement a similar preservation program so that the
benefits from these trees are not disrupted.

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Kendal, Dave, Cynnamon Dobbs, and Virginia I. Lohr. “Global Patterns of Diversity in the
Urban Forest: Is There Evidence to Support the 10/20/30 Rule?” ​Urban Forestry & Urban
Greening​ 13, no. 3 (2014): 411–17. ​https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2014.04.004​.

This study assesses the 10/20/30 ‘rule of thumb’ proposed by Santamour (Santamour,
1990, see full citation in Section 2 - Optimization of Tree Planting in Urban Areas) which
states that urban forests should not have more than 10% of any single species, 20% of
any single genus, or 30% of any single family. By analyzing 151 urban forest inventories
from 108 cities worldwide, the authors found that relative abundance of common species,
genus, and family was a good proxy of diversity. Santamour’s benchmark values are
similar to the global median values for relative abundance at the genus and family level
but are lower at the species level. Differences in climate and land use are likely to result
in these different patterns of diversity. Specifically, diversity was consistently lower in
continental climates and in streetscapes, and higher in temperate climates and in urban
forests that incorporated several land uses. The authors argue that the further application
of the 10/20/30 rule can help boost tree species diversity but may have minimal effects at
the genus or family level as these benchmark values are mostly met.

Moradpour, Maryam, and Vahid Hosseini. “An Investigation into the Effects of Green Space on
Air Quality of an Urban Area Using CFD Modeling.” Urban Climate 34 (December 2020):
100686. ​https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2020.100686​.

This case study examined the effects of vegetation on air quality near a high pollutant
highway corridor in Tehran, Iran. Their analysis shows that urban trees are effective in
reducing average concentrations of the pollutants examined, PM10, CO, NOx and VOC
at the pedestrian level. They explained the mechanisms behind this change in air quality
as the effect trees have on aerodynamics from leaves altering air flow as well as pollutant
deposition on leaves. This effect is important at the pedestrian level because trees can act
as a barrier between emission sources on the roads and people on the sidewalks. Another
finding was that increasing leaf area density led to a greater deposition effect, which is
important for the optimization of tree planting in urban areas as it suggests that tree
varieties with greater leaf areas which retain their leaves through the seasons would be
most optimal for reducing air pollutants.

Ng, Edward, Liang Chen, Yingna Wang, and Chao Yuan. “A Study on the Cooling Effects of
Greening in a High-Density City: An Experience from Hong Kong.” ​Building and
Environment​ 47 (January 2012): 256–71. ​https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2011.07.014​.

This study attempts to estimate the optimal tree planting in Hong Kong to mitigate the
urban heat island effect. They do not consider other benefits of urban trees in this

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 optimization calculation. They conclude that to achieve maximum pedestrian level air
temperature reduction, greening and tree planting should be positioned nearer to the level
where human activities are concentrated. Thus they recommend planting urban trees
close to ground level rather than pursuing green roofs or other green infrastructure. This
study is limited in that it only analyzes the cooling effects of greening in high-density
cities, it does not discuss carbon sequestration or storage. They also do not consider the
effects that green infrastructure such as green roofs can have on cooling within buildings
and subsequent reduced energy consumption.

Othman, R. (2019). ESTIMATION OF CARBON SEQUESTRATION RATE OF URBAN

PARK WITH LINEAR AND CURVILINEAR DESIGN LANDSCAPE SETTING. ​Applied
Ecology and Environmental Research,​ ​17(​ 4). ​https://doi.org/10.15666/aeer/1704_80898101

This study looks at the predicted carbon sequestration rate for different landscape settings
of urban parks using a case study in Selangor, Malaysia. It concludes that the carbon
sequestration rate in urban parks is optimized by using a curvilinear landscape design
with plants with a bigger girth. It provides numbers on the sequestration rate of trees in
urban parks but these numbers are specific to the case study.

Santamour, Frank. “Trees for urban planting: Diversity, uniformity, and common sense.”
Proceedings of the Seventh Conference of the Metropolitan Tree Improvement Alliance
(1990): pp.57–65.
https://agroforestry.org/the-overstory/144-overstory-126-trees-for-urban-planting-diversity-u
niformity-and-common-sense

In this paper, Santamour proposes the 10-20-30 formula rule among urban foresters and
arborists to boost tree diversity and uniformity. This formula is derived from the idea that
protection of urban forests is maximized when it contains: i) no more than 10% of any
single tree species, ii) no more than 20% of species in any tree genus, and iii) no more
than 30% of any tree family. Genetic diversity is achieved by mixtures of uniformity
across different spaces, which can provide desirable characteristics from certain species
and reduce the cost of maintenance. While there are limited safeguards against potential
pest and disease outbreaks within a single species, the benefits in the application of this
formula include increased resilience by taking into account family diversity of trees.

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ii) Urban Forests and Equity

Amano, Tatsuya, Isabel Butt, and Kelvin S.-H. Peh. “The Importance of Green Spaces to Public
Health: A Multi-Continental Analysis.” Ecological Applications 28, no. 6 (September 2018):
1473–80. ​https://doi.org/10.1002/eap.1748​.

This study examines a gap in current literature on the contribution of green spaces to
livable cities by focusing on cities outside of developed countries. Their analysis shows
that the public health benefits of urban green spaces are context dependent, and that green
spaces do not offer the same public health outcomes in poorer cities. They do not
recommend that these cities abandon green planning on account of these reduced
outcomes, but rather focus more on actively maintaining and promoting them to address
specific challenges relating to quality, access and engagement. Their analysis suggests
that it is important for researchers to look more closely at cities across different regions
and wealth levels rather than assume that the current insights from cities in developed
countries can be applied universally. A key aspect of this analysis is that it does not take
into account the quality of green spaces and that poorer cities may have poorer quality
green space which in addition to issues of access and cultural attitudes may prevent these
spaces from being used in a way that would yield the high levels of public health benefits
measured in wealthier cities.

Danford, Rachel S., Chingwen Cheng, Michael W. Strohbach, Robert Ryan, Craig Nicolson, and
Paige S. Warren. “What Does It Take to Achieve Equitable Urban Tree Canopy Distribution?
A Boston Case Study.” ​Cities and the Environment (CATE)​ 7, no. 1 (2014).
http://digitalcommons.lmu.edu/cate/vol7/iss1/2​.

This Boston case study examines whether urban tree planting efforts can increase equity
by redressing the marked disparity in canopy cover for low income and minority
communities while controlling for real-world political and environmental constraints.
They find that even when tree planting policies target environmental justice and an
equitable distribution of ecosystem services, there are still other barriers to achieving
those goals. For example, in an intensely developed city like Boston, site constraints
mean that the communities most in need of trees may not have sufficient pervious
surfaces for planting. However, they emphasize that although optimal equity cannot
realistically be obtained, tree planting initiatives are still very important, and have a
greater likelihood of success when pursued in tandem with other targeted land use
policies. They suggest policymakers pursue city codes which require a certain percentage
of canopy on development sites and provide incentives for parking garages and lots to
free up more surface area for tree planting. Transforming impervious spaces and pursuing

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 unconventional planting locations such as green roofs can help cities improve
environmental justice with tree planting and still provide the infrastructure required for
projected population growth to earn a “liveable” city status.

Flocks, Joan, Francisco Escobedo, Jeff Wade, Sebastian Varela, and Claudia Wald.
“Environmental Justice Implications of Urban Tree Cover in Miami-Dade County, Florida.”
Environmental Justice​ 4, no. 2 (June 2011): 125–34. ​https://doi.org/10.1089/env.2010.0018​.

This study examines statistical differences in the condition and density of urban forests in
White, Hispanic and African American areas in Miami-Dade County to identify
inequities in the distribution of tree cover. Figure 2 highlights differences in surface area
use in these areas, comparing the percent tree, shrub, grass, impervious and plantable
space. They found that White areas in Miami-Dade County possess not only more trees,
but greater tree diversity and energy savings from trees. However, African American
areas had greater plantable space, with slightly less impervious surface area than White or
Hispanic areas, suggesting that site constraints are not responsible for this environmental
injustice. The paper suggests that the unequal distribution of urban tree cover could be
linked to differences in housing tenure, with the high levels of home-ownership in White
areas resulting in greater benefits while the many renters in African American and
Hispanic areas face limited control over the physical environment and a lack of incentive
or means to invest in the long-term benefits of urban trees on rented properties. This link
between tenant turnover and urban tree cover suggests that policymakers should focus
urban forestry efforts more heavily in areas with a greater number of home renters as a
means to achieving tree equity.

Leahy, Ian. “URBAN FORESTRY TAKES ON THE WORLD, BUT FIRST, RHODE
ISLAND.” ​American Forests​ 125, no. 3 (2019): 40.

This article from ​American Forests​ reports that urban forests comprise 17 percent of the
total U.S. carbon sink, or 1.8 percent and rising of U.S. emissions every year. They
provide an overview of a suite of analysis, planning, policy and finance tools that are
being developed in Rhode Island for cities and nonprofits to use urban forestry to slow
global warming. The first tool they introduce is ‘Tree Equity Scores,’ which allow cities
to quantify how well the multiple benefits of urban forests are being delivered to those
who need them most, integrating tree canopy analysis with climate projections and public
health data. Next they provide an overview of a free tool that the National Institute of
Applied Climate Science is creating for cities and nonprofits to help with factors such as
species selection and urban wood reuse to help urban forests maximize their ecological,
economic and health benefits as the climate changes. Finally they introduce City Forest
Credits which work like traditional carbon credits but are designed for the unique

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 dynamics of city trees to quantify not only carbon dioxide storage but also rainfall
interception, air pollution reduction and energy savings.

Nitoslawski, Sophie A., Nadine J. Galle, Cecil Konijnendijk Van Den Bosch, and James W.N.
Steenberg. “Smarter Ecosystems for Smarter Cities? A Review of Trends, Technologies, and
Turning Points for Smart Urban Forestry.” ​Sustainable Cities and Society​ 51 (November
2019): 101770. ​https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2019.101770​.

This paper reviews the different public health benefits of urban green spaces and forests
and explores to what extent they can be integrated into smart city planning. They outline
prhow smart-city technologies such as big data analytics, robotics and augmented/virtual
reality have been and can be applied to urban forestry and green-space planning. They
argue that these digital technologies combined with citizen science, or the partnership
between scientists and non-scientists in data collection and analysis can improve the
delivery of urban forest benefits while simultaneously enabling stakeholder participation
and engagement. The use of citizen science recognizes that community-based
stewardship is an effective form of environmental governance and that improving
ecological literacy among urban residents can lead to a more engaged citizenry and more
equitable policies. The researchers suggest smart technologies may allow trees to
"connect" with us- to communicate their condition, convey health and optimize
functioning and potentially enhance co-benefits. They predict that in an increasingly
digital society, intersections between urban nature and technology will become more
prominent.

Richards, Daniel R., Paul Passy, and Rachel R.Y. Oh. “Impacts of Population Density and
Wealth on the Quantity and Structure of Urban Green Space in Tropical Southeast Asia.”
Landscape and Urban Planning​ 157 (January 2017): 553–60.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2016.09.005​.

This study investigates the impacts of population density and wealth on the percentage
cover of green space, the quantity of green space per capita, and the aggregation of green
space in 111 urban areas in Southeast Asia. Using Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer
Suite satellite images and city attribute data including size, population density, and GDP
per capita, the authors found that richer cities in terms of GDP per capita had a higher
percentage coverage of green space. Cities with a higher percentage of green cover also
had less fragmented green spaces. However, cities with greater population density had
lower green space coverage and thus less green space per capita. These analyses are
important because the distribution and structure of green space determines which
ecosystem services and public health benefits are most pronounced, and thus as urban
populations grow in Southeast Asia city planners can optimize urban green areas to

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deliver the greatest benefits to the greatest number of people. To this end, the authors
recommend the protection of semi-natural green space at the early stages of urban
development, as these habitats cannot be easily recreated in the future and often provide
critical ecosystem services more efficiently than heavily managed green spaces.

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iii) Urban Greening as an Economic Tool

Chan, Ka-Lai, Chengyu Dong, Man Sing Wong, Lee-Hyung Kim, and Shao-Yuan Leu. “Plant
Chemistry Associated Dynamic Modelling to Enhance Urban Vegetation Carbon
Sequestration Potential via Bioenergy Harvesting.” ​Journal of Cleaner Production​ 197
(October 2018): 1084–94. ​https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.06.233​.

This study looks at practices to maximize the carbon sequestration potential of rain
gardens in urban environments. They consider plants’ ability to fix and store carbon in
biomass, and the potential for using that biomass as an energy substitute for fossil fuels.
They conclude that the carbon sequestration potential of rain gardens in urban
environments can increase significantly if the frequency of plant biomass management
and energy recovery is increased. This means that maximum carbon sequestration was
observed in scenarios dominated by fast-growing shrubs with a harvesting frequency of
one year. However, it is important to note that these calculations did not include the
carbon emissions associated with transportation or preprocessing of biomass. They
propose a closed loop biomass policy in which residuals from urban forests and rain
gardens are collected and converted into bioenergy. They did not provide numbers on
how much this policy would curb fossil fuel use.

Horn, Christopher. “The GREEN FACTORY: Urban Forestry Is Ready and Able to Help Tackle
Unemployment in Urban Communities across the U.S.” ​American Forests​ 124, no. 2 (2018):
16–23.
http://search.ebscohost.com.proxy1.library.jhu.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=asn&AN=13
1499870&site=ehost-live&scope=site​.

This article discusses the ways that urban forestry can tackle the pervasive problem of
unemployment in urban areas. Opportunities for job creation in the field of urban forestry
come from programs to reuse wood resources from urban trees, maintenance agencies
and groundskeeping as cities begin to develop their own nurseries. The article cites a
statistic from the US Bureau of Labor Statistics which states that landscaping and
groundskeeping jobs are projected to grow nearly 12% by 2026. The article further
describes how some of the different organizations and agencies across the US that are
creating these green jobs are also working to ensure that they are equitably distributed
and accessible to all communities. They describe the social and economic impact that
urban forests can have on communities, particularly underserved communities where
economic opportunity is scarce. The new green jobs created will not only give employees
much-needed salaries and benefits but also help them develop a long-lasting connection
with the landscape in their community.

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Nowak, David J. “Institutionalizing Urban Forestry as a ‘Biotechnology’ to Improve
Environmental Quality.” ​Urban Forestry & Urban Greening​ 5, no. 2 (August 2006): 93–100.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2006.04.002​.

This paper shows how quantification of the various environmental benefits provided by
urban forests can lead to government programs and regulations that credit tree planting as
a means to improve air quality, water quality and sequester carbon. They say this process
is already underway for national air quality regulators and can thus be applied to water
quality regulators and those looking into carbon sequestration. Table 2 details the
estimated carbon storage, gross and net annual sequestration, number of trees and percent
tree cover for 14 cities across the globe. They provide an overview of the environmental
programs and protocols in the US that urban forestry could make a contribution to. These
include State Implementation Plans of the Clean Air Act and the Kyoto Protocol.

Nowak, David J., Eric J. Greenfield, and Ryan M. Ash. “Annual Biomass Loss and Potential
Value of Urban Tree Waste in the United States.” ​Urban Forestry & Urban Greening​ 46
(December 2019): 126469. ​https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2019.126469​.

Urban trees can release carbon back to the atmosphere upon removal as they are often
treated as a waste product left to decompose or removed through costly maintenance
methods. These are common arguments against pursuing urban forestry policies to
mitigate climate change. This study shows the potential for urban tree waste to be utilized
for various products to create jobs and another income stream for cities that can recoup
the costs associated with tree maintenance. In addition to the direct revenue from sales of
tree waste, there are many environmental benefits such as reducing landfill waste,
fertilizer use and fossil fuel use in energy production. This paper argues that creating
markets and systems to utilize urban tree waste can help enhance income for urban forest
management as well as create social and environmental goods. The utilization of urban
forest waste could produce significant value to society and enhance urban forest
sustainability. They conclude that urban tree wood waste could reasonably produce
between $100 million to $1 billion dollars in annual value nationally if utilized rather
than discarded. The value varies by state and type of wood product used and they specify
these variations.

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3) A Critical Review of Urban Forestry
Amini Parsa, Vahid, Esmail Salehi, Ahmad Reza Yavari, and Peter M. van Bodegom.
“Evaluating the Potential Contribution of Urban Ecosystem Service to Climate Change
Mitigation.” ​Urban Ecosystems​ 22, no. 5 (October 2019): 989–1006.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-019-00870-w​.

This paper provides valuable insights by balancing the argument against the potential for
urban forestry to contribute significantly to climate mitigation goals. The authors use
Tabriz, Iran as a case study to examine the current and future potential of urban trees in
contributing to the compliance of CO​2​ mitigation targets. In their analysis they find that
more mature trees can generally store 1000 times more carbon than small trees and thus,
large, healthy trees have the best potential for climate change mitigation. However,
proposed newly planted trees are young, and a 20 year time span is too short for them to
become large enough to have a significant impact. This means that investing substantially
in urban tree planting does not provide a reliable contribution to climate change over the
next 20 years. Substantial benefits will eventually accrue, but only after a longer time
period which does not incentivize policymakers to promote immediate tree planting.
Additionally, the results of their case study show that the contribution of urban trees to
climate mitigation is meager, accounting for only 0.2% of GHG emissions while other
types of trees in more natural preserved areas with less intensive management practices
were much more effective in sequestering carbon. They conclude that urban forestry can
only play a supportive role and cannot stand alone as a viable climate mitigation strategy.
This article is very comprehensive, but still faces limitations by considering urban
forestry only in its role as an offsetter of GHG emissions without taking into account the
other benefits that make trees a worthwhile investment for urban communities.

Fares, Silvano, Elena Paoletti, Carlo Calfapietra, Teis N. Mikkelsen, Roeland Samson, and
Didier Le Thiec. “Carbon Sequestration by Urban Trees.” In ​The Urban Forest,​ edited by
Carlo Calfapietra, Roeland Samson, Liz O’Brien, Silvija Krajter Ostoić, Giovanni Sanesi,
and Rocío Alonso del Amo, 7:31–39. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2017.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-50280-9_4​.

This chapter reviews various studies on the contribution of urban forests to carbon
sequestration and counters them by stating that the environmental stresses which urban
plants experience can compromise their photosynthetic apparatus and, in extreme cases,
can turn them from carbon sinks into carbon sources. They cite different evidence of
these environmental stresses to support this claim, such as that vegetation in urban
environments is artificially created and managed, and often experience much more
intensive management practices than trees in semi-natural ecosystems. These

16
 management practices can include deadwood removal, pruning, fertilization, irrigation or
removal of dead leaves, all of which can lead to even further CO2 emissions. These valid
criticisms of urban forestry management techniques show that in order for urban trees to
deliver their anticipated climate benefits, they must be managed in non-carbon intensive
ways. This review does not consider potential climate-friendly alternatives to CO2
intensive management practices such as biomass recycling of urban tree waste, which can
prevent urban trees from becoming carbon sources.

Lyytimäki, Jari, and Maija Sipilä. “Hopping on One Leg – The Challenge of Ecosystem
Disservices for Urban Green Management.” ​Urban Forestry & Urban Greening​ 8, no. 4
(January 2009): 309–15. ​https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2009.09.003​.

This article identifies the various negative impacts that urban forests can have on local
populations and thus highlights the importance of incorporating local populations into
urban ecosystem management. This article acknowledges the prominent role that
ecosystem service analysis has played in assessment of urban green management;
however they call for the integration of ecosystem disservices to the assessment. They
argue that it is important to know what kind of harm, as well as benefit, ecosystems can
produce for local populations and suggests that public participation in urban green space
management should take ecosystem disservices into account.

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4) The Effect of Urban Trees on Mitigating the Urban Heat Island Effect and
Reducing Energy Consumption in Buildings

Aboelata, Amir, and Sahar Sodoudi. “Evaluating the Effect of Trees on UHI Mitigation and
Reduction of Energy Usage in Different Built up Areas in Cairo.” Building and Environment
168 (January 2020): 106490. ​https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2019.106490​.

This study looks at the effect of current urban trees on the urban heat island effect and
energy use in Cairo, Egypt, one of the hottest and most humid cities in the world. The
goal of the study was to find the most heat- and energy-reducing ratios of urban
vegetation for decision makers and stakeholders to consider in different built up areas in
Cairo. They examined areas with different density levels to determine the reduction in
electricity consumption from mitigating the urban heat island and enhancing thermal
performance in these built-up areas. They conclude that trees are effective at lowering air
temperature and reducing energy usage in very high density built up areas, but are less
effective in low density built up areas. They calculated the quantitative effect that urban
trees had on reducing the urban heat island effect in their case study of Cairo and
calculated the monetary value of associated energy savings.

Brack, C.L. “Pollution Mitigation and Carbon Sequestration by an Urban Forest.” ​Environmental
Pollution​ 116 (March 2002): S195–200. ​https://doi.org/10.1016/S0269-7491(01)00251-2​.

This case study looks specifically at the ecosystem services of the Canberra urban forest
in Australia. It focuses not only on carbon sequestration but also the energy reduction and
pollution mitigation that also come from urban vegetation. They conclude that the
reduction of energy consumption in buildings represents a greater reduction of CO2 than
direct sequestration and that the reduction of air and water pollution is also more
substantial than their sequestration potential. They suggest that larger trees tend to extract
and store more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and tend to have a greater leaf area to
trap airborne pollutants, cast shade and intercept rainfall runoff. These conclusions
suggest that the focus of urban forestry should be optimizing for energy reduction in
buildings rather than focusing planting on where there is the most sequestration potential.

Di Leo, Néstor, Francisco J. Escobedo, and Marielle Dubbeling. “The Role of Urban Green
Infrastructure in Mitigating Land Surface Temperature in Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso.”
Environment, Development and Sustainability​ 18, no. 2 (April 2016): 373–92.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-015-9653-y​.

This study analyzes the relationship between green infrastructure and land surface
temperatures in the urban area of Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso. They first provide an

18
 overview of current literature on the urban heat island effect and the ability of urban trees
to mitigate it. Then the authors track the spatial and temporal patterns of urbanization and
land surface temperatures in Bobo-Dioulasso over 20 years from 1991 to 2013. Their
results show increased urbanization rates correlated with increased temperature trends.
However, land uses with green infrastructure exhibited lower mean land surface
temperature compared with adjacent built-up environments. A negative relationship
between land surface temperature and vegetative abundance is thus identified in this
study. The authors suggest further allocation of municipal funding for the management
and development of green infrastructures to mitigate land surface temperature, secure
urban green spaces and to support the city’s climate change adaptation strategy. This is
an important contribution to the current literature because it highlights that urban trees
are effective in mitigating the urban heat island effect in a region of the developing world
where fewer resources have been dedicated to green infrastructure and tree quality.

Donovan, Geoffrey H., and David T. Butry. “The Value of Shade: Estimating the Effect of
Urban Trees on Summertime Electricity Use.” ​Energy and Buildings​ 41, no. 6 (June 2009):
662–68. ​https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2009.01.002​.

This study looks beyond high density built-up urban areas and assesses the effect of trees
on energy consumption in less built-up suburban zones. They analyzed electricity billing
data in suburbs in Sacramento, California to estimate the effects of shade trees in
reducing electricity costs and, by extension, carbon emissions associated with energy
consumption. For the hot summertime months, they found that tree cover on the west and
south sides of a house is effective in reducing electricity use, while trees on the north side
of a house can actually increase summertime electricity use. They tracked specific
species-placement examples, such as that a London Plane Tree planted on the west side
of a house in the suburbs would, over 100 years, reduce the net carbon emissions from
summertime electricity use by 31%. These calculations can inform best practices for tree
placement in relation to buildings for reducing energy consumption when the heat island
effect is less pronounced.

Estoque, Ronald C., Yuji Murayama, and Soe W. Myint. “Effects of Landscape Composition and
Pattern on Land Surface Temperature: An Urban Heat Island Study in the Megacities of
Southeast Asia.” ​Science of The Total Environment​577 (January 2017): 349–59.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.10.195​.

This study assesses the urban heat island (UHI) effect by examining the spatial patterns
of land surface temperature and green space density in the metropolitan areas of Bangkok
(Thailand), Jakarta (Indonesia), and Manila (Philippines). The authors found the mean
land surface temperature of impervious surfaces was 3 °C higher than that of green

19
 spaces, highlighting the important role of green spaces in mitigating UHI effects while
taking into account other factors which can explain these temperature patterns such as
geographical location and microclimate conditions. They suggest that urban planners and
policymakers take into account the spatial pattern of green space in built environments to
optimize the role of vegetation cover and promote healthier cities. This study represents
an important contribution because it focuses specifically on the megacities of Southeast
Asia where there is rapid urban population growth and subsequent infrastructure
expansion and loss of urban green space.

Niachou, A, K Papakonstantinou, M Santamouris, A Tsangrassoulis, and G Mihalakakou.

“Analysis of the Green Roof Thermal Properties and Investigation of Its Energy
Performance.” ​Energy and Buildings​ 33, no. 7 (September 2001): 719–29.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-7788(01)00062-7​.

This study explains the ability of green roofs to lower building energy costs in urban
areas by reducing thermal fluctuations. It analyzes at the thermal properties of green roofs
mathematically to calculate the amount of energy savings for different building types. It
finds that the impact of green roofs on energy savings depends on the amount of
insulation a building already has. The study showed that the greatest energy savings
during a whole year period were from non-insulated buildings which saw a 37% savings
while the impact of the green roof on the energy savings of a well-insulated building was
less than 2%. This suggests that green roofs have great potential for climate mitigation
when retro-fiting existing buildings, but their benefits are greatly reduced when they are
incorporated into new building plans that have sufficient insulation. The next step would
be further study into how this translates into fossil fuel reduction on a larger scale.

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5) Overview of the Optimization of Public Health Benefits from Urban Trees

i) Urban Food Forests

Gori, Antonella, Francesco Ferrini, and Alessio Fini. “Growing Healthy Food under Heavy
Metal Pollution Load: Overview and Major Challenges of Tree Based Edible Landscapes.”
Urban Forestry & Urban Greening​ 38 (February 2019): 403–6.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2019.01.010​.

This paper provides an overview of the implementation challenges that urban food forests
face with an emphasis on the effect that pollution has on edible landscapes. They conduct
a literature review to assess current knowledge on the effect that soil and air contaminants
prevalent in urban areas have on food safety. They stress the importance of understanding
species-specific patterns of metal translocation within plants to their edible parts to assist
in the planning of edible landscapes in urban and peri-urban polluted sites. They conclude
that although the scientific understanding of uptake and translocation of metals from
plant to fruits are limited, many woody species are suitable to produce food in polluted
sites. They emphasize that their work is not conclusive and that many more future studies
are required to ensure food safety in polluted urban edible landscapes.

Nytofte, Josefine Lærke Skrøder, and Christian Bugge Henriksen. “Sustainable Food Production
in a Temperate Climate – a Case Study Analysis of the Nutritional Yield in a Peri-Urban
Food Forest.” ​Urban Forestry & Urban Greening​ 45 (October 2019): 126326.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2019.04.009​.

This study estimated the food production potential of peri-urban food forests in a
temperate climate. They measured the amount of carbohydrates, proteins and fats
produced annually by a 0.08 ha peri-urban food forest in Scotland. They report that the
yields measured were somewhat lower than previous assessments and that this could
potentially be increased by incorporating more variation in crops to obtain a higher
protein and fat yield by including legumes and nut trees. This study highlights the
importance of biodiversity in urban food forests in providing food security to
communities.

Riolo, Francesca. “The Social and Environmental Value of Public Urban Food Forests: The Case
Study of the Picasso Food Forest in Parma, Italy.” ​Urban Forestry & Urban Greening​ 45
(October 2019): 126482. ​https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2018.10.002​.

This case study of the Picasso Food Forest in Parma, Italy focuses on the benefits of
urban food forests aside from carbon storage and sequestration. It instead highlights
contributions to developing a sense of community and place attachment among

21
 participating citizens to challenge issues such as biodiversity loss, community
segregation, food insecurity, climate breakdown, unsustainable consumption and
production systems. They provide detailed assessments of the challenges and
achievements of the project, highlighting its low costs and potential for creating more
sustainable cities and communities.

Salbitano, Fabio, Alessio Fini, Simone Borelli, and Cecil C. Konijnendijk. “Editorial - Urban
Food Forestry: Current State and Future Perspectives.” ​Urban Forestry & Urban Greening
45 (October 2019): 126482. ​https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2019.126482​.

This document provides a good introduction to urban food forestry, defining key topics
and explaining their differences. They define urban food forests as the “intentional and
strategic use of woody perennial food producing species in urban edible landscapes to
improve the sustainability and resilience of urban communities.” They explore both the
potential benefits and negative consequences of these urban food forests, highlighting
that on the positive side they can increase soil perviousness, improve flood control,
remove atmospheric pollutants, conserve water and mitigate local weather extremes.
They also acknowledge that on the negative side, urban food forests can produce mess
and be a nuisance to residents by attracting undesired species and affecting pollen-food
allergy syndrome. Most importantly, they explain the uncertainty over whether pursuing
edible vegetation in cities will displace traditional urban forests and therefore reduce the
amount of carbon that urban vegetation is able to store. However, they explain that the
carbon storage potential of edible urban vegetation is comparable to that of non-edible
urban vegetation. Furthermore, because the sequestration potential of different species
(both edible and non-edible) can be measured, an optimization model can be developed to
maximize these different benefits so that plants are placed in a way that maximizes their
positive interactions while minimizing nutrient waste and negative interactions.

Schafer, Luke J., Marin Lysák, and Christian B. Henriksen. “Tree Layer Carbon Stock
Quantification in a Temperate Food Forest: A Peri-Urban Polyculture Case Study.” Urban
Forestry & Urban Greening 45 (October 2019): 126466.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2019.126466​.

This case study quantifies the amount of carbon stored in different components of the tree
layer of vegetation in the Agroforestry Research Trust’s peri-urban food forest in Devon,
UK. They provide numbers on exactly how much carbon was stored during the time of
their field survey in January 2017 and compare these numbers to other land uses such as
traditional urban forests with non-edible vegetation. Their results show that urban or
peri-urban food forests have the potential to store a considerable amount of carbon that is
comparable or at least within a similar range to other urban and peri-urban land uses. This

22
proves that if urban food forests were to replace regular urban food forests, it would not
significantly alter the amount of carbon stored.

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ii) Urban Forests and Well-being

Afrad, A., and Y. Kawazoe. “Can Interaction with Informal Urban Green Space Reduce
Depression Levels? An Analysis of Potted Street Gardens in Tangier, Morocco.” Public
Health 186 (September 2020): 83–86.​ ​https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhe.2020.06.034​.

This study investigates the relationship between ownership of potted street gardens and
depression levels in a densely populated, disadvantaged neighborhood in Tangier,
Morocco. The authors use cross-sectional data from face-to-face surveys to measure and
evaluate depression levels among 338 participants. They found potted street garden
ownership was negatively associated with depression levels and neighbourhood life
satisfaction, suggesting that land ownership has a negative impact on people's mental
health in these neighbourhoods. The authors highlight that this finding is not consistent
with the documented mental health benefits of grassed areas, trees or community gardens
and that this finding may be explained by the safety risks and fear of crime related to the
possession and protection of private property in an uncontrolled environment. This study
demonstrates that not all types of urban greening can have a positive effect on well-being
and so like any other ecosystem service, it must be optimized via planning.

Barton, Jo, and Jules Pretty. “What Is the Best Dose of Nature and Green Exercise for Improving
Mental Health? A Multi-Study Analysis.” Environmental Science & Technology 44, no. 10
(May 15, 2010): 3947–55. ​https://doi.org/10.1021/es903183r​.

This study examined the optimal physical exposure to different types of green space for
improving mental health outcomes across population groups. Their results show that
short-term exposure to green exercise improves both self-esteem and mood irrespective
of duration, intensity, location, gender, age and health status. They found there was an
immediate improvement with mental health outcomes after just 5 minutes of exposure,
with incremental improvements over longer time periods. Furthermore, they found that
these improvements held across each examined green environment, especially those
which also contained water features. The greatest improvement measured was among
young people and especially those who are mentally ill, confirming that providing
accessible green space is an important health service. This data carries implications for
public planning by demonstrating that access to nature, even in small doses, is an
important feature of healthy and sustainable societies, and is beneficial to all, especially
those who are facing stress and mental illness.

Bratman, Gregory N., J. Paul Hamilton, and Gretchen C. Daily. “The Impacts of Nature
Experience on Human Cognitive Function and Mental Health: Nature Experience, Cognitive

24
 Function, and Mental Health.” ​Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences​ 1249, no. 1
(February 2012): 118–36. ​https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06400.x​.

This review explores the leading theories behind the effect of nature on human cognitive
function and well being by bringing together work from environmental psychology,
urban planning, medicine, and landscape studies. They synthesize various studies to
explain the thinking behind attention restoration theory, stress reduction theory and the
social psychology theory of conscious place preference for natural settings to explain
how nature improves mental health outcomes. These studies show measured
improvements in memory, attention, concentration, impulse inhibition and mood. The
authors use this information to argue that the psychological benefit values of natural areas
be included alongside the biophysical processes within the ecosystem service paradigm
used by policymakers making decisions about green spaces in urban environments. This
is compelling because they frame these mental health services within the context of a
recent fundamental change in exposure to natural spaces, citing that today the typical
American spends 90% of their time indoors, and that this effect of urbanization could
carry significant impacts for human cognitive function across society, and thus the effect
of natural and urban settings on the mind should be closely studied and prioritized
through policy.

Douglas, Owen, Mick Lennon, and Mark Scott. “Green Space Benefits for Health and
Well-Being: A Life-Course Approach for Urban Planning, Design and Management.” ​Cities
66 (June 2017): 53–62. ​https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2017.03.011​.

This paper adopts a life-course approach to review literature which explores the role of
urban green spaces in promoting health and well being outcomes throughout different life
stages. The authors argue that in the context of rising urbanization, we must develop
policy frameworks which not only promote increased urban green space, but also specific
designs for those green spaces to be inclusive and promote health and well being across
all life stages. For each stage of life - prenatal, childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and
later life - they provide an overview of key health and wellness issues, the urban green
space interventions that address them and references to studies which demonstrate those
effects. This organization is useful because it highlights which features of green space are
most beneficial to the wellbeing of different age groups, and how these can be integrated
in the planning process to maximize outcomes for the entire population.

Elsadek, Mohamed, Binyi Liu, and Junfang Xie. “Window View and Relaxation: Viewing Green
Space from a High-Rise Estate Improves Urban Dwellers’ Wellbeing.” ​Urban Forestry &
Urban Greening​ 55 (November 2020): 126846. ​https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2020.126846​.

25
 This study examines the effects of the perception of green spaces in high-rise buildings
on human psychological well being. The authors randomly assigned thirty participants to
two offices, one with a window overlooking an urban space and the other with a window
overlooking green space. By measuring the impacts on cerebral functioning, the authors
found that exposure to green space was associated with promoting a sense of calm and
relaxation compared to built-up urban space. While the health benefits of viewing green
space from high-rise buildings require additional research, they recommend that green
spaces should be close to high-rise buildings to improve the life quality, especially for
residents who have to stay indoors for an extended period. This is an important finding
because it shows that urban forests can offer well being benefits to urban dwellers just
from their presence, even if those dwellers are not directly engaging with those trees.

Nath, Tapan Kumar, Shawn Sim Zhe Han, and Alexander Mark Lechner. “Urban Green Space
and Well-Being in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.” ​Urban Forestry & Urban Greening​ 36
(December 2018): 34–41. ​https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2018.09.013​.

This study explores park users’ health and well-being outcomes associated with urban
green space in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Through collecting survey data of 310 park
users in 3 parks across the city, the authors assessed perception of the quality of the
visited green space, recreation and leisure, health and well-being, and willingness to
contribute towards park management. The majority of respondents have positive
perceptions of the urban green spaces. For example, 70% of respondents approved the
management and planning of trees and other vegetation in the selected landscapes, 98%
of respondents felt the parks had sufficient space for recreation and leisure facilities, and
93% of respondents felt the parks had a positive effect on mindfulness. Respondents
attributed these outcomes to the careful management by authorities, indicating the
integral role of municipalities and park management authority in the impacts of green
spaces on health. Given these findings, the authors suggest that the promotion and
support for urban green spaces in Malaysia should be viewed as an important public
health intervention. Nonetheless, additional sampling of sites is necessary to disentangle
the benefits and costs of urban spaces for health and well-being outcomes in Malaysia.

26
iii) Urban Forests and Crime

Boykin, Sam. “Better Living through Forestry.” Sierra 88, no. 5 (September 2003): 42.
http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=f5h&AN=10649685&site=ehost-live
&scope=site​.

This article from Sierra provides an overview of the various benefits that trees provide to
urban society not only through greenhouse gas reduction but also by reducing noise
levels, stimulating economic development and reducing crime rates. They summarize
different studies which conclude that urban residents with access to forested areas felt a
stronger sense of community and experienced less violence in their homes than residents
who lived in developments with impervious surfaces such as concrete and asphalt. They
present evidence that trees stimulate economic development by drawing new businesses
and tourism as well as increasing property values and reducing individual heating and
energy costs. This article provides a valuable overview of these benefits of urban trees,
but serves primarily to summarize other existing studies and not present new data.

Burley, Blair Alexandra. “Green Infrastructure and Violence: Do New Street Trees Mitigate
Violent Crime?” Health & Place 54 (November 2018): 43–49.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2018.08.015​.

This study looks at the effects of planting new trees on violent crime in neighborhoods in
Portland, Oregon. They find a strong negative correlation between the number of trees
planted and the rate of violent crimes in the years following their planting. They find that
this effect is particularly pronounced in underserved neighborhoods with lower median
household incomes, suggesting that incorporating new street trees in underserved
neighborhoods may serve as a means to reduce the endemic violence that plagues these
urban environments. They explain this trend by proposing that access to nature that new
street trees provide has the potential to mitigate diminished mental health outcomes that
come from urban living, such as aggression, fear and mental fatigue.

Kondo, Michelle C, Eugenia C. South, Charles C. Branas, Therese S. Richmond, Douglas J.

Wiebe, The Association Between Urban Tree Cover and Gun Assault: A Case-Control and
Case-Crossover Study, American Journal of Epidemiology, Volume 186, Issue 3, 1 August
2017, Pages 289–296, ​https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwx096

This study presents evidence that green space and vegetation play a protective role
against urban violence. This case study focused on adolescents and young adults in
Philadelphia and discovered that there is an inverse association between tree cover and
gun assault. Their data covered not only the locations of various gun assaults but also the
amount of exposure to green spaces during routine activities for both victims and

27
 assailants. In their Discussion section, the authors noted the different ways in which
green spaces can alter the environmental context in which opportunities for violence
exist. These include improved social interactions between neighbors, temperature
moderation, improved mental health outcomes which result in a reduced propensity for
fear and violence, and the informal surveillance that green spaces imply.

Kondo, Michelle C., Sarah C. Low, Jason Henning, and Charles C. Branas. “The Impact of
Green Stormwater Infrastructure Installation on Surrounding Health and Safety.” American
Journal of Public Health 105, no. 3 (March 2015): e114–21.
https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2014.302314​.

This study reviewed the effects of green stormwater infrastructure installments (use of
plants, soils and permeable surfaces to mitigate stormwater runoff) on health and safety
outcomes in Philadelphia from 2000 to 2012. Table 2 shows that they found narcotics
manufacture decreased at the quarter-mile distance (21%), half-mile distance (15%), and
census tract level (20%). They also found that burglaries reduced at the half-mile distance
(6%) and the quarter-mile distance (5%) from GSI installment sites. Other crime
outcomes, both violent and nonviolent such as homicides, assaults, thefts, public
drunkenness, and narcotics sales showed nonsignificant reductions as well. While not
every installment incorporated urban trees (some were rain gardens or planters), this
study shows that the incorporation of green infrastructure is effective at reducing crime.
The authors hypothesize that this is a result of the broken windows theory of crime
reduction.

Kuo, Frances E., and William C. Sullivan. “Environment and Crime in the Inner City: Does
Vegetation Reduce Crime?” Environment and Behavior 33, no. 3 (May 2001): 343–67.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916501333002​.

This extensive study presents data on the relationship of vegetation and crime collected
from inner-city neighborhoods in Chicago and pairs it with in-depth analysis to conclude
that the greener an area is, the fewer crimes are committed. Figure 3 shows that the mean
number of crimes reported per building was much lower for buildings with high
vegetation, and that this pattern held for both property crimes and violent crimes. They
found that residents living in greener surroundings reported lower levels of fear, fewer
incivilities and less aggressive and violent behavior. They recognize that at a certain
point, vegetation can reach a density level that reduces visibility and may therefore
support criminal activity. However, they propose that in some settings,
visibility-preserving forms of vegetation can inhibit crime both via increasing
surveillance and also by mitigating some of the psychological precursors to violence.

28
 These findings draw an important connection between the psychological and wellness
effects of urban trees and their effect on crime.

Mouratidis, Kostas. “The Impact of Urban Tree Cover on Perceived Safety.” Urban Forestry &
Urban Greening 44 (August 2019): 126434. ​https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2019.126434​.

This paper investigates the impact that tree canopy cover has on perceived safety of urban
residents. The study which focused on residents of Oslo, Norway found that higher urban
tree cover is significantly associated with higher levels of perceived safety. The authors
suggest that these findings indicate the importance of promoting urban tree cover to
improve mental health and safety outcomes. They present and assess different theories to
explain the psychological effect that trees have on urban residents including the Attention
Restoration Theory and Stress Reduction Theory. They stress however, that increasing
vegetation in poorer neighborhoods to improve mental health outcomes must be paired
with suitable housing policies to prevent the associated changes in property values and
housing costs from displacing vulnerable social groups.

Sreetheran, Maruthaveeran, and Cecil C. Konijnendijk van den Bosch. “A Socio-Ecological

Exploration of Fear of Crime in Urban Green Spaces – A Systematic Review.” Urban
Forestry & Urban Greening 13, no. 1 (2014): 1–18.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2013.11.006​.

In this literature review, the authors assess attributes that evoke fear of crime in urban
green spaces and their socio-ecological interactions across 48 research papers. Most of
the studies were conducted in the USA (23 articles) and UK (13 articles), indicating
limited geographical distribution. They found gender was a significantly strong predictor
of fear of crime in the majority of studies that included this attribute as an independent
variable. Social attributes, such as the presence of disorderly persons, were also signs of
criminal activity among participants in the selected studies. Physical attributes, such as
physical appearance and signs of negligence, were significant causal agents of evoking
fear in urban green spaces. The authors conclude that physical and environmental aspects
of green spaces do not cause fear of crime themselves but rather entwine with social and
individual factors to arouse those sentiments among select groups of the population. This
highlights the importance of physically maintaining these green spaces as avoiding signs
of negligence can improve people's perceived safety and subsequent use of a green space.

Troy, Austin, J. Morgan Grove, and Jarlath O’Neil-Dunne. “The Relationship between Tree
Canopy and Crime Rates across an Urban–Rural Gradient in the Greater Baltimore Region.”
Landscape and Urban Planning 106, no. 3 (June 2012): 262–70.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2012.03.010​.

29
 This study focused on the relationship between tree canopy cover and crime in the
Baltimore area. They found that there is a strong inverse relationship between tree canopy
and robbery, burglary, theft and shooting with a 10% increase in tree canopy being
associated with an 11.8% decrease in crime. They found that this inverse relationship has
a greater magnitude for public lands relative to private lands and that it is consistently
present across the urban-rural gradient. This study is particularly valuable because while
they recognized a strong negative correlation, they also identified a few isolated sites in
the Baltimore area where the relationship was flipped, and tree cover was positively
correlated with crime. They hypothesize that these anomalies can be attributed to the fact
that the areas are located in the interface zone between residential and industrial areas
where vegetation is unmanaged, creating an environment in which the concealment value
of the vegetation outweighs its deterrent effect.

Wolfe, Mary K., and Jeremy Mennis. “Does Vegetation Encourage or Suppress Urban Crime?
Evidence from Philadelphia, PA.” Landscape and Urban Planning 108, no. 2–4 (November
2012): 112–22. ​https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2012.08.006​.

This study found that vegetation in urban environments in Philadelphia has a negative
correlation to crime, and that the strongest negative association is with violent crimes.
Their results indicate that this relationship is not a mere by-product of the fact that
vegetation is usually concentrated in higher socioeconomic status neighborhoods, but
rather that vegetation has a negative correlation with crime that is independent of the
neighborhood's socioeconomic status. They suggest that this pattern can be explained
both by the "eyes in the street" theory and the psychological effects that nature has on
urban residents and their propensity to commit violent crimes.

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