buildings

Article
Predicting the Air Quality, Thermal Comfort and
Draught Risk for a Virtual Classroom with Desk-Type
Personalized Ventilation Systems
Eusébio Z. E. Conceição 1, * ID
, Cristina I. M. Santiago 1 , Mª. Manuela J. R. Lúcio 1
and Hazim B. Awbi 2
1 Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal;
cristina.im.santiago@gmail.com (C.I.M.S.); maria.manuela.lucio@gmail.com (Mª.M.J.R.L.)
2 School of Built Environment, University of Reading, Reading RG6 6AW, UK; h.b.awbi@reading.ac.uk
* Correspondence: econcei@ualg.pt; Tel.: +003-51-289800900

Received: 29 December 2017; Accepted: 13 February 2018; Published: 22 February 2018

Abstract: This paper concerns the prediction of indoor air quality (IAQ), thermal comfort (TC)
and draught risk (DR) for a virtual classroom with desk-type personalized ventilation system (PVS).
This numerical study considers a coupling of the computational fluid dynamics (CFD), human thermal
comfort (HTC) and building thermal behavior (BTB) numerical models. The following indexes are
used: the predicted percentage of dissatisfied people (PPD) index is used for the evaluation of the TC
level; the carbon dioxide (CO2 ) concentration in the breathing zone is used for the calculation of IAQ;
and the DR level around the occupants is used for the evaluation of the discomfort due to draught.
The air distribution index (ADI), based in the TC level, the IAQ level, the effectiveness for heat
removal and the effectiveness for contaminant removal, is used for evaluating the performance of the
personalized air distribution system. The numerical simulation is made for a virtual classroom with
six desks. Each desk is equipped with one PVS with two air terminal devices located overhead and
two air terminal devices located below the desktop. In one numerical simulation six occupants are
used, while in another simulation twelve occupants are considered. For each numerical simulation
an air supply temperature of 20 ◦ C and 24 ◦ C is applied. The results obtained show that the ADI
value is higher for twelve persons than for six persons in the classroom and it is higher for an inlet air
temperature of 20 ◦ C than for an inlet air temperature of 24 ◦ C. In future works, more combinations
of upper and lower air terminal devices located around the body area and more combinations of
occupants located in the desks will be analyzed.

Keywords: thermal comfort; indoor air quality; draught risk; air distribution index

1. Introduction
In recent years the concept of PVS has been introduced. This system is based on positioning one
air terminal device in the upper body area. In general, with only one air terminal device, with incidence
in the upper body area, the IAQ will be improved.
When using more than one air terminal device with incidence in the upper and lower body areas,
the IAQ as well as the TC and the DR can be improved. These topics, namely the IAQ, the TC and the
DR, will be analyzed in detail in the present work.
The conventional PVS is characterized by introducing clean, cold (or warm) dry air from
an outdoor supply, with low air velocity and low air turbulence intensity to the occupants’ breathing
area [1]. This conventional PVS can provide individual control of inlet air temperature, airflow rate
and direction.

Buildings 2018, 8, 35; doi:10.3390/buildings8020035 www.mdpi.com/journal/buildings

Buildings 2018, 8, 35 2 of 22

Different types of PVS with one air terminal device have been studied, e.g., [2–9]. In Cermark et al.
the measurements at the breathing zone with PVS were made [2], and in Melikov et al. the evaluation
of different types of PVS air terminal devices were analyzed [3]. The environment around human body
with PVS was studied using CFD [4], the human thermal response to PVS and mixing ventilation
system was applied in [5], the modeling the performance of PVS in several conditions in a room
was analyzed in [6] and the conjunction of PVS with mixing ventilation system and displacement
ventilation system was studied in [7]. In Niu et al. the study using experimental techniques on
a chair-based PVS was developed [8], and in Sun et al. the personalized dynamic ventilation was
analyzed [9].
More recent studies have introduced PVS with more than one air terminal device. In Melikov et al. five
air terminal devices for a PVS were developed, tested and compared [3]. It was possible to conclude
that, in general, this ventilation system helps improve occupants’ satisfaction with the IAQ level.
In Melikov et al. the performance of personalized ventilation using seat headrest-mounted air terminal
devices was analyzed [10]. The TC level and the IAQ level were studied. Pan et al. compared the PVS
with a central air-conditioning system [11]. They concluded that for the same TC the PVS consumed
less energy than the central air-conditioning system. In Muhic and Butala, using measurements and
simulations, it was possible to verify that the PVS is very efficient [12]. Conceição et al. studied two
configurations of the PVS implemented in classroom desks [13]: the first with only one air terminal
device (localized above the desk area) and the second with two air terminal devices (one placed
above and another placed below the desk area). The configurations with two air terminal devices
produced a more uniform air velocity distribution around the occupant. An evaluation of seated
occupant’s TC in desks equipped with PVS with two air terminal devices was carried out in [14].
With the implementation of the PVS, the TC was implemented and the IAQ level in the breathing area
was acceptable.
In this work, the predicted mean vote (PMV) and the PPD indexes, developed by Fanger [15],
and presented in ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55 and ISO 7730, [16,17], were used to predict the TC
level. The PMV and the PPD indexes are functions of the mean air temperature, mean air velocity,
mean relative humidity, mean radiant temperature (MRT), clothing level and activity level. In the
evaluation of the local thermal discomfort level the DR, described in ISO 7730 and developed by Fanger
et al. was used [17,18]. The DR is dependent on the mean air temperature, mean air velocity and mean
turbulence intensity. Finally, the CO2 concentration level, presented in ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62.1.
and Portuguese standards presented in DL 79/2006, was used for evaluating the IAQ, [19,20]. The ADI,
that was developed by Awbi [21], for uniform thermal environment, and includes the TC, the IAQ
and the ventilation effectiveness, namely the effectiveness for heat removal and the effectiveness for
contaminant removal.
The ADI is used, as example, to evaluate the ventilation system performance and for comparing
the performances of different ventilation systems. This index was used in Cho et al. for comparing the
performance of four ventilation systems [22], in Cho et al. for evaluating the performance of a mixing
ventilation system under different conditions in the environment [23], in Cho et al. for evaluating
a confluent jets ventilation system [24], and in Karimipanah et al. for studying the environment in
classrooms with two different floor air supply systems [25].
Originally, the ADI concept, developed by Awbi [21], was to be used for uniform environments.
However, in Conceição et al. it was adapted to be used for non-uniform environments of
multi-occupation, in order to study spaces equipped with mixing ventilation and with cold radiant floor
and occupied by two virtual manikins [26]. Also, Conceição et al. evaluated several ceiling-mounted
air distribution systems in a virtual classroom environment with six and twelve virtual manikins using
the ADI concept for non-uniform environment [27].
Other studies have also used the ADI concept. In a study of the ventilation energy efficiency
in buildings, Awbi reviewed and discussed several ventilation systems namely, natural ventilation,
mechanical ventilation and hybrid ventilation systems [28]. In this work a new ADI model was
Buildings 2018, 8, 35 3 of 22

introduced for non-uniform thermal environments. Almesri et al. presented a study for assessing the
TC and the IAQ levels in uniform and non-uniform thermal environments [29]. In this work the overall
TC level was based on a weighted average of the local TC level evaluated for the different human
body segments and an evaluation of the overall human thermal response using the original 2-node
Pierce model. The application was made in a test chamber equipped with mixing and displacement
ventilation with one manikin. Awbi studied the performance of different ventilation systems on the
basis of IAQ and energy efficiency [30]. In this work an overview of several types of mechanical
ventilation and air distribution systems used is buildings was presented. The ADI models used in
uniform and non-uniform environments were also presented.
Different models for the CFD numerical simulation of thermal virtual manikins have been
developed in the last few years. Some models used simplified virtual manikins, using joint blocks
(see [31–33]). An application of CFD models with occupants was analyzed in [31]. In this study
the virtual manikin was divided in one, three and four boxes. The CFD model also applied in
occupants divided in four boxes was analyzed in [32]. In this study of indoor environment in
classrooms, contaminant dispersion, heat transfer and airflow around the virtual manikin were
analyzed. The analysis of the effects of geometry approximation and grid simplification in the study
of the airflow around a virtual manikin is described in [33]. In this study, the virtual manikin was
divided in one, three and six blocks.
Conceição and Lúcio in a work about the TC level in spaces equipped with forced ventilation
and warm radiant floor, applied this numerical simulation of thermal virtual manikins applied in
the present work [34]. In this study a chamber, a desk, two seats, two hygro-thermal manikins,
a warm radiant floor, a solar radiation simulator and a water solar collector were used numerically
and experimentally. In this study, using a virtual manikin divided in 25 boxes, the obtained results
with k-epsilon turbulence model and the Re-Normalization Group (RNG) turbulence model were
compared with the experimental results. In the numerical validation local experimental values and
local numerical values, of the chamber surface temperature, the air velocity, the air temperature, the air
turbulent intensity and the DR were used in the validation of the numerical model. A good agreement
between numerical and experimental results are used. The agreement of the RNG turbulence model,
is better than when the k-epsilon turbulence model.
The main objectives of the paper, present in this work, is the evaluation of IAQ, TC, DR and ADI
for a virtual classroom with desk-type PVS. The classroom is equipped with six desks and each desk is
equipped with one PVS with two air terminal devices located overhead and two air terminal devices
located below the desktop. In one numerical simulation six occupants are used, while in another
simulation twelve occupants are considered. For each numerical simulation, an air supply temperature
of 20 ◦ C and 24 ◦ C is applied.
The application of this solution in real buildings, in accordance with the philosophy analyzed
and developed in this work, will be made in classroom spaces, or other in or spaces with uniform and
high occupation density. The implementation will be made with one inlet ventilation duct system,
located in the floor level, and with one or more exit ducts system, located in the ceiling level. The inlet
ventilation ducts system is connected with the PVS installed in the desks. The inlet ventilation ducts
system in news buildings can be implemented above the floor level, while in old buildings can be
implemented in low corners located between the floor and the lateral walls. The exit duct system can
be distributed along all ceiling, in order to guarantee, in all space, a uniform polluted air exit.

2. Methodologies
This work is a continuation of the previous work developed in [26,27], where the ADI was used
for non-uniform environment. In Conceição et al. this numerical model was used to evaluate the
environment in spaces equipped with mixing ventilation and cold radiant floor [26]; in Conceição et al.
the focus was on evaluating the influence of the descendent jets on the room occupants [27]; while in
this work these numerical models are used to evaluate the influence of PVS on the occupants.
Buildings 2018, 8, 35 4 of 22

2.1. CFD, HTC and BTB Numerical Models

In this work, a CFD model, a HTC model and a BTB model are used. The first and the second
ones are coupled for the purpose of simulation.
The CFD numerical model considers the three-dimensional turbulent airflows under steady-state
and non-isothermal conditions. The numerical model solves the partial differential equations (using the
finite volume method), namely, the mass continuity equation, moment equations (three-dimensional
air velocity), energy equation, turbulence kinetic energy equation and turbulence energy dissipation
rate equation (using the RNG turbulence model) and the CO2 concentration equation. This numerical
model is used to evaluate the airflow around the occupants (three-dimensional components of air
velocity; omnidirectional air velocity, air temperature, air pressure, turbulent kinetic energy, turbulent
energy dissipation rate, and CO2 concentration), the IAQ (using CO2 concentration level) and the DR
levels (using the air temperature, air velocity and air turbulence intensity). In the CFD numerical model
each virtual manikin is based on 25 boxes elements. For the purpose of this study, such manikins require
less intensive solutions than more complicated human shape manikins. However, this simplification
was found to have little impact on the results [29].
The HTC numerical model considers the clothed human body thermal response. In the human
body thermal response, considerations are given to the energy balance integral equations for the body
tissue and the blood and mass balance integral equations for the blood and transpired water; while in
the clothing thermal response, considerations are given to the energy balance integral equations
for the clothing and the mass balance integral equations for the transpired water. The resolution
of this system of equations is made using the Runge–Kutta–Fehlberg method with error control.
This numerical model is used to calculate the human parameters (body tissue temperature, blood
arterial and venous temperature and skin water vapor), the clothing parameters (layers’ temperature
and layers’ water vapor) and the human TC level. The TC level that each occupant is subjected to, is
calculated using a human thermal response approach based on the Fanger model under steady-state
conditions by considering the different heat exchanges between the body and the environment.
The HTC numerical model is based on 25 × 12 nodes elements (see more details about the HTC in [35]
and the thermoregulatory system on [36]). The model considers the human body divided into 25
cylindrical and spherical elements with each one divided in to 12 concentric layers, which can be
protected by several clothing concentric layers.
Each one of the CFD model boxes is represented as one HTC cylindrical and spherical elements.
The boxes, cylindrical and spherical elements are associated with the following: head, neck, chest,
upper abdomen, lower abdomen, right upper shoulder, right lower shoulder, right upper arm,
right lower arm, right hand, left upper shoulder, left lower shoulder, left upper arm, left lower arm,
left hand, right upper thigh, right lower thigh, right upper leg, right lower leg, right foot, left upper
thigh, left lower thigh, left upper leg, left lower leg and left foot.
The BTB numerical model considers the energy balance integral equations for the indoor spaces,
opaque bodies, transparent bodies (windows) and interior bodies. The resolution of this equation
system is also made using the Runge–Kutta–Fehlberg method with error control. This numerical model
(using internal ventilation and occupant heat load), is used to calculate the indoor, opaque bodies
(ceiling, floor and walls), transparent bodies (windows) and interior bodies’ (desk) temperatures.
The opaque bodies are divided into several layers, while for the other bodies one layer is considered.
In numerical simulation, the surrounding and interior surfaces temperatures are evaluated using
the BTB and the environmental parameters; and the comfort levels are calculated by an iterative
method using the HTC and CFD, as follows:

• The BTB numerical model calculates the surrounding and interior surfaces temperature.
The external and internal environment conditions, the renovation airflow and occupant numbers
are used for this purpose.
Buildings 2018, 8, 35 5 of 22

• The HTC numerical model calculates the body and clothing temperatures and the TC level.
The chamber surrounding temperatures which is used evaluate the MRT, is calculated using
the BTB, and the occupant surrounding environments variables is calculated by the CFD
numerical model.
• The CFD numerical model calculates the environmental parameters around the occupants, the DR
and the IAQ. The skin and clothing temperatures are calculated using the HTC, and chamber
temperatures are calculated using the BTB.
• An iterative solution coupling the HTC and the CFD is applied.

2.2. ADI Method

The ADI, which is a function of the thermal comfort number and the air quality number, see [21],
is evaluated using: q
2
ADI = NTC × NAQ (1)

where:
NTC —Thermal comfort number;
NAQ —Air quality number.
The thermal comfort number is the quotient of the effectiveness for heat removal and the PPD,
while the air quality number is calculated as the quotient between the effectiveness for contaminant
removal and the percentage of dissatisfied (PD) with the IAQ (see [21,26]).
For the effectiveness for heat removal, the mean air temperature around each occupant is
calculated using a weighted average of the local air temperature that each body segment is subjected
to; while in the effectiveness for contaminant removal the CO2 concentration in the respiration area (in
the breathing zone area) is used.
This method is used to obtain simultaneously the influence of TC, IAQ, effectiveness for heat
removal and effectiveness for contaminant removal. The ADI was presented in detail in [21] for
uniform environments and is analyzed in [26] for non-uniform environments.

2.3. Numerical Methodology

The evaluations are carried out for a virtual classroom with six desks equipped with six
personalized ventilation air supplies. Each desk is equipped with two air terminal devices located
overhead and two air terminal devices located above the desktop. In one test, six occupants and six
desks are used, while in another test twelve occupants and six desks are considered.
The supply airflow is provided by different air terminal devices, located in the desk, while the
extract air is through two openings in the central ceiling area of the classroom.
The HTC model consideration covered 144 surrounding surfaces compartment (see Figure 1).
Each surface is divided in 10 × 10 infinitesimal grids. The HTC also considers the human body
surfaces as 25 cylindrical and spherical elements (see Figure 1). The grid of each element is built with
8 × 8 infinitesimal elements. Figure 1 also presents the number of occupants considered in the two
numerical simulations.
The grids which are applied to the surrounding surfaces and the occupants’ elements, are used to
evaluate the heat exchange by radiation inside the room.
For the CFD numerical simulation, the calculated values were performed with a main
computational grid of 90 × 51 × 50 and 0.05 m elements in the X, Y and Z directions (see Figure 2).
Gid refinement is carried out at the inlet and outlet and near the surfaces of the occupants and
surrounding room surfaces (wall, ceiling, floor and desk). Thus, in the simulation, a non-uniform grid
of 248 × 146 × 97 is used when 6 occupants are considered and a non-uniform grid of 248 × 176 × 97
is used when 12 occupants are considered.
In the numerical simulation with six and twelve occupants, the inlet air temperature is 20 ◦ C and
◦
24 C, respectively. In summer conditions the occupants were clothed with typical summer clothing
Buildings 2018, 8, 35 6 of 22

(0.5 Clo) and in winter conditions the occupants were clothed with typical winter clothing (1 Clo).
In both conditions a typical activity level (1.2 Met) is used. For the numerical simulation the indoor
relative humidity was kept at 50%.
Buildings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 22
Figure 3 shows the scheme of the desk-equipped PVS with two upper and two lower air terminal
devices, position
Figure 3 and
shows flow
the direction.
scheme of theThe air terminal PVS
desk-equipped devices
withare
tworepresented
upper and two with grey
lower aircolor,
terminal with an
devices,
area of 10 × 10
position 2 andPEER
cm8, x, FOR
and flowREVIEW
the direction.
flow The air
direction terminal devices
is represented by anarearrow.
represented with grey color, with
Buildings 2018, 6 of 22
an area
The of 10
input × 10 cm2, and
conditions, usedtheinflow
the direction
CFD numericalis represented
model,by anbe
can arrow.
seen in Table 1. This table presents
the inlet CO The input
Figure conditions,
3 shows usedofinthe
the scheme the CFD numerical
desk-equipped model,
PVS with twocan
upperbe and
seentwo in lower
Tableair
1.terminal
This table
2 concentration, inlet air turbulence intensity, inlet air temperature, inlet air velocity and
devices,the
presents position
inlet CO and2 flow direction. The
concentration, inletairair
terminal devices
turbulence are represented
intensity, inlet airwith grey color,inlet
temperature, with air
number of occupants. 2
an areaand
velocity of 10 × 10 cmof, and
number the flow direction is represented by an arrow.
occupants.
The surrounding
The surfaces used
input conditions, temperatures,
in the CFD which are model,
numerical used in both seen
the CFD numerical model and
The surrounding surfaces temperatures, which are used in can
bothbethe CFD in numerical
Table 1. This
modeltableand
calculated by the
presents
calculated by
BTB
thethe
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numerical
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areair
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Figure4.4.This
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This
inlet airfigure
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presents
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presents the
the
inlet airsurfaces
surfaces
surrounding
velocitytemperatures
surrounding number ofused
andtemperatures inin
occupants.
used the
theCFD
CFDsimulation andcalculated
simulation and calculatedbyby thethe BTB.
BTB.
The surrounding surfaces temperatures, which are used in both the CFD numerical model and
calculated by the BTB numerical model, are presented in Figure 4. This figure presents the surfaces
1
surrounding temperatures used in the CFD simulation and calculated2 by the BTB.
3 5
4 6
1 27
1 9
10
2 3 3
8
6
5
4 11
4 1 5 7 12 9
10
2 3 8
6 5 12
11
4
6

(a) (b)
(a)integral human thermal comfort (HTC) model simulation
Figure 1. Grid used in the (b) for (a) 6 occupants
Figure 1. Grid used in the integral human thermal comfort (HTC) model simulation for (a) 6 occupants
and (b) 121.occupants.
Figure Grid used in the integral human thermal comfort (HTC) model simulation for (a) 6 occupants
and (b) 12 occupants.
and (b) 12 occupants.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)

Figure 2. Cont.
 Buildings 2018, 8, 35 7 of 22
Buildings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 22

(c)

(c)

(d) (d)

Figure 2. Scheme Figure in

used 2. Scheme
theused used in the
integral integral computational fluid dynamics(CFD)
(CFD) virtual classroom model model
Figure 2. Scheme in the computational fluidfluid
integral computational dynamics
dynamics (CFD)virtual classroom
virtual classroom model
simulation for (a) 6 and (b) 12 occupants and grid generation in a desk, personalized ventilation
simulation forsimulation
(a) system
6 and (b)
for (a) 6 12
andoccupants and
(b) 12 occupants grid
and gridgeneration
generation inin a desk,
a desk,
(PVS), occupant and desk details for (c) 6 and (d) 12 occupants.
personalized
personalized ventilation
ventilation system
system (PVS),(PVS), occupant
occupant andand desk
desk details for
details for (c)
(c)66and
and(d)(d)
12 occupants.
12 occupants.

Figure 3. Scheme of the desk equipped PVS with two upper and two lower air terminal devices (grey),
position and flow direction.

Table 1. Input conditions used in the CFD simulation.

Figure 3. Scheme of 3.the

Figure desk of
Scheme equipped PVS Variables
the desk equipped with two
PVS upper
with and and
two upper twoValues
lower
two airairterminal
lower devices
terminal devices (grey),
(grey),
Inlet CO2 concentration (mg/m3) 500 500 500 500
position and flow direction.
position and flow direction.
Inlet air turbulence intensity (%) 10 10 10 10
Inlet air temperature (°C) 20 20 24 24
Inlet air velocity
Table 1. Input conditions (m/s)in the CFD
used 3 3 3 3
simulation.
Number of occupants 6 12 6 12
Variables Values
Inlet CO2 concentration (mg/m3) 500 500 500 500
Inlet air turbulence intensity (%) 10 10 10 10
Inlet air temperature (°C) 20 20 24 24
Inlet air velocity (m/s) 3 3 3 3
Number of occupants 6 12 6 12
Buildings 2018, 8, 35 8 of 22

Table 1. Input conditions used in the CFD simulation.

Variables Values
Inlet CO2 concentration (mg/m3 ) 500 500 500 500
Inlet air turbulence intensity (%) 10 10 10 10
Inlet air temperature (◦ C) 20 20 24 24
Inlet air velocity (m/s) 3 3 3 3
Number of occupants 6 12 6 12
Buildings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 22
Buildings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 22
In Table 1, for the CO2 concentration
In Table 1, for the CO
at the inlet, typical values for outdoor environments are
2 concentration at the inlet, typical values for outdoor environments are
selected. For Inthe
Table
inlet1, air
for turbulence
the CO2 concentration
intensity, attypical
the inlet, typical
values values for outdoor
measured environments are
selected. For the inlet air turbulence intensity, typical values measuredatatthetheair
airterminal
terminaldevices
devices were
specifiedselected. For the inlet air turbulence intensity, typical values measured at the air terminal devices
were and typical
specified andwinter
typicaland summer
winter temperature
and summer valuesvalues
temperature were were
also used. The The
also used. inletinlet
air velocity,
air
were specified and typical winter and summer temperature values were also used. The inlet air
usedvelocity,
for eachused air terminal
for each air device, was
terminal calculated
device, from previous
was calculated numerical
from previous simulation,
numerical in order
simulation, in to
velocity, used for each air terminal device, was calculated from previous numerical simulation, in
order
guarantee to
order
guarantee
antoairflow
guarantee
an airflow
around
an airflow
around
the around the
seatedthe seated
occupant occupant
at a desk
seated occupant
at a desk
at aand
and avoids
deskavoids
and avoids
promoting
promoting
promotingany
any airflow
any airflow
airflow at the
back at
ofthe
the back
seated
at the of the
back seated
ofoccupants.
the occupants.
seated occupants.
30
30
6 Ocupants (20ºC) 12 Ocupants (20ºC) 6 Ocupants (24ºC) 12 Ocupants (24ºC)
6 Ocupants (20ºC) 12 Ocupants (20ºC) 6 Ocupants (24ºC) 12 Ocupants (24ºC)
29 29

28 28

27 27

26 26
T (ᵒC)
T (ᵒC)

25 25

24 24

23 23

22
22
21
21
20
20 Seat and desk (°C) West (°C) East (°C) South (°C) North (°C) Floor (°C) Ceiling (°C)
Seat and desk (°C) West (°C) East (°C) South (°C) North (°C) Floor (°C) Ceiling (°C)

Surrounding
Figure 4.Figure surfaces
4. Surrounding temperatures
surfaces usedused
temperatures in the
in CFD simulation
the CFD andand
simulation calculated byby
calculated thethe
building
Figure 4. Surrounding surfaces temperatures used in the CFD simulation and calculated by the
building thermal
thermal behavior (BTB). behavior (BTB).
building thermal behavior (BTB).
For six For six occupants,
occupants, eacheach
one one is subjectedtotoone
is subjected one upper
upper and
andoneonelower
lowerair terminal devices
air terminal locatedlocated
devices
toFor
to the left thesix
side left occupants,
ofside
the of
body
each area
the body one is subjected
area andand oneone upper
upper
to and
one one
and one
upper and one
lower
lowerairair
lower devices
terminal
terminal
air terminal devices
located
devices on thelocated
located right
on the right
to the
sideleft
of side of the(see
the body body area2a,c).
Figure and one
For upper
twelveand one lower
occupants, eachair terminal
one devices
is subjected located
to one upperonand
theone
right
side of the
side of body (see(see
theairbody Figure
Figure2a,c).
2a,c).For
For twelve occupants, eachoneone is subjected to one upper and one
lower terminal devices located at twelve
the frontoccupants,
body area each
(see Figureis2b,d).
subjected to one upper and one
lowerlower
air terminal
airThe
terminal devices
results devices located
located
of air velocity, at the front body
at the frontand
temperature body area
CO2area (see Figure
(see Figure
concentration 2b,d).
2b,d).
fields are presented in transversal,
TheYresults
The
coordinate,of air
results of
and velocity,
air temperature
velocity, temperature
longitudinal, and
X coordinate CO
and(see concentration
COFigure
22concentration
5): fields
fields areare presented
presented in transversal,
in transversal,
Y coordinate,
Y coordinate, andand longitudinal,
longitudinal, XX coordinate
coordinate(see(see Figure
Figure 5):5):
• Planes locations with 6 occupants for X = 1.791 m and Y = 0.63099 m;
• Planes locations withwith
6 occupants forfor
X = 1.791 m andYY= =0.4423
0.63099 m;
• •Planes
Plans locations
locations with 612 occupants
occupants for XX==1.791
1.791m
mand
and Y = 0.63099m.m;
• Plans
• locations
Plans with
locations 12 12
with occupants
occupantsfor
forXX== 1.791 mand
1.791 m andYY= =0.4423
0.4423
m.m.

(a)

(a)

Figure 5. Cont.
Buildings 2018, 8, 35 9 of 22
Buildings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 22

Buildings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 22

(b)
Figure 5. Three-dimensional arrangement for 6 occupants (a), X = 1.791 m (red plan) and Y = 0.63099
Figure 5. Three-dimensional arrangement for 6 occupants (a), X = 1.791 m (red plan) and Y = 0.63099 m
m (green plan) and 12 occupants (b), X = 1.791 m and Y = 0.4423 m.
(green plan) and 12 occupants (b), X = 1.791 m and Y = 0.4423 m.
3. Results and Discussion (b)
In
3. Results and this5.section
Discussion
Figure the resultsarrangement
Three-dimensional of airflow,forthe CO2 concentration
6 occupants field,
(a), X = 1.791 m (red the
plan)airflow
and Y = around
0.63099 the
occupants, theplan)
m (green DR and
level12and the ADI,
occupants (b),are
X =presented.
1.791 m and Y = 0.4423 m.
In this section the results of airflow, the CO2 concentration field, the airflow around the occupants,
3. Results
the DR level
3.1. andand
Airflow FieldDiscussion
the ADI, are presented.
In this 6section
Figures the results
and 7 show the airofvelocity
airflow, theinCO
field concentration
the2 virtual field,
classroom for the airflow
an inlet around the
air temperature
3.1. Airflow
of 20 Field
occupants, the6DR
°C, with andlevel and the ADI,
12 occupants, are presented.
respectively. The air velocity field in the virtual classroom, with an
inlet air
Figures temperature
6 and 7 showofthe24 air
°C, for 6 and 12
velocity occupants
field in the respectively, is similar
virtual classroom to an
for thatinlet
for 20 °C.temperature of
air
◦ C,
3.1. Airflow Field with the results obtained, it is possible to conclude that:
In accordance
20 with 6 and 12 occupants, respectively. The air velocity field in the virtual classroom, with an
Figures 6 and 7 show the air velocity field in the virtual classroom for an inlet air temperature
inlet air•temperature of 24 ◦ C,thefor
With 6 occupants, 6 andpromoted
airflow 12 occupants respectively,
by the air terminal is similar
devices is to that for 20
responsible
◦ C.
for the
of 20 °C, with 6 and 12 occupants, respectively. The air velocity field in the virtual classroom, with an
In accordance
ascendingwith thearound
airflow resultsthe obtained,
occupants’it back
is possible toareas;
and front conclude that:
inlet air temperature of 24 °C, for 6 and 12 occupants respectively, is similar to that for 20 °C.
• With 12 occupants, the airflow promoted with the lower air terminal devices is responsible for
• In accordance
With 6 occupants, with
the the results
airflow promotedobtained,byitthe
is possible
air terminalto conclude
devices that:
is responsible for the ascending
the ascending airflow around the occupants’ back areas, while the upper air terminal device is
airflowresponsible
around the foroccupants’
the ascending back andaround
airflow front areas;
• With 6 occupants, the airflow promoted bythetheoccupants’
air terminal frontdevices
areas; is responsible for the
• With
• 12 occupants,
The air velocity
ascending the
airflow airflow
is around
highestthe promoted
at the front ofwith
occupants’ the air
back the
and lower
terminal
front air terminal
device
areas; and at the devices is responsible
exit area near the for
ceiling;
the•ascending airflow around
With 12 occupants, the promoted
the airflow occupants’ withback areas,airwhile
the lower terminalthedevices
upperisair terminalfor
responsible device is
• The
responsible air
forvelocity
the ascending in thearound
the ascending
airflow occupants’
airflow left and right
around
the occupants’ backside
the is higher
occupants’
areas, whilefrontwith
the 6 occupants
areas;
upper thandevice
air terminal with 12is
occupants,
responsible because
for the the air terminal
ascending airflow device forthe
around 6 occupants
occupants’ is front
located at the left and right side to
areas;
• The airthe
velocity is highest at the front of the air terminal device and at the exit area near the ceiling;
• Theoccupants;
air velocity is highest at the front of the air terminal device and at the exit area near the
• The• airThe
velocity in the
air velocity
ceiling;
occupants’
in front left and isright
of the occupants higher sidewithis 12
higher withthan
occupants 6 occupants than with 12
with 6 occupants,
occupants,
• because
The airbecause
the air the
velocity in air
the terminal
terminal device fordevice
occupants’ 12 andfor
leftoccupants 6 is
right occupants
located
side is located
at the
is higher at the
front6ofoccupants
with the left
occupants;and
than right
with 12 side to
the•occupants;
No significant
occupants, differences
because the air in the airdevice
terminal velocity
forfields are verified
6 occupants whenatthe
is located theinlet air temperature
left and right side to
changes from 20 to 24 °C.
• The airthe occupants;
velocity in front of the occupants is higher with 12 occupants than with 6 occupants,
•
because The
theairairvelocity
terminal in front of the
device foroccupants
12 occupants
2.5 is higher with 12 at
is located occupants
the frontthan withoccupants;
of the 6 occupants,
because the air terminal device for 12 occupants is located at the front of the occupants;
• No•significant differences in the air velocity fields are verified when the inlet air temperature
No significant differences in the air velocity fields are verified when the inlet air temperature
2 3

24to◦ C.
2.8
changeschanges
from 20 fromto 20 24 °C. 2.6
2.4
2.2
1.5
2
Z (m)

2.5 1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
1
2 3
0.8
2.8
0.6
2.6
0.4
2.4
0.5 0.2
2.2
0
1.5
2
Z (m)

1.8
1.6
0 1.4
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 1.2
1

Y (m) 1
0.8

(a) 0.6
0.4
0.5 0.2
0

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

Y (m)
(a)

Figure 6. Cont.
Buildings 2018, 8, 35 10 of 22
Buildings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 22
Buildings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 22

3
2.5 3
2.5 2.8
2.8
2.6
2.6
2 2 2.4 2.4
2.2 2.2
2 2
1.5 1.5

Z (m)
1.8

Z (m)
1.8
1.6 1.6
1.4
1 1.4
1 1.2
1.2
1
1
0.5 0.8
0.5 0.8
0.6
0.4 0.6
0
0.2 0.4
0 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
0 0.2
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
X (m) 0
X (m)
(b)
(b)
Figure 6. Air velocity field in the virtual classroom with 6 occupants in the plans (a) X = 1.791 m and
Figure 6. Air velocity field in the virtual classroom with 6 occupants in the plans (a) X = 1.791 m and
Figure
(b)6.YAir velocity
= 0.63099 fieldan
m, with ininlet
the virtual classroom
air temperature of 20with
°C.
◦
6 occupants in the plans (a) X = 1.791 m and
(b) Y = 0.63099 m, with an inlet air temperature of 20 C.
(b) Y = 0.63099 m, with an inlet air temperature of 20 °C. 2.5

2.5

2 3
2.8
2.6
2.4
2 3
2.2
1.5 2.8
2
2.6
Z (m)

1.8
1.6 2.4
1.4 2.2
1.5
1
1.2 2
1
Z (m)

1.8
0.8 1.6
0.6
1.4
0.4
1.2
1 0.5 0.2
1
0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0
0.5 0.2
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
0
Y (m)

0
(a)
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
3
2.5
Y (m) 2.8
2.6
2 (a) 2.4
2.2
2
3
2.5
1.5 2.8
Z (m)

1.8
1.6 2.6
2 1.4 2.4
1
1.2 2.2
1
2
1.5 0.5 0.8
Z (m)

1.8
0.6
1.6
0.4
0 1.4
1 0.2
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
0
1.2

X (m) 1
0.5 0.8
(b) 0.6
0.4
0
Figure 7. Air velocity field
0
in the
0.5
virtual
1
classroom
1.5 2
with
2.5
12
3
occupants
3.5 4
at the
4.5
plans0.2(a) X = 1.791 m and
0
(b) Y = 0.4423 m, with an inlet air temperature X of(m)
20 °C.
(b)
Figures 8–11 show the air temperature fields in the virtual classroom with 6 and 12 occupants
for inlet
Figure
Figure 7.7.air
Airtemperatures
Air velocity fieldofin
velocity field in20
the
the°Cvirtual
and 24classroom
virtual °C. In Figures
classroom with 812and
with 12 9, 6 occupants
occupants
occupants at
at the are considered,
the plans
plans (a)
(a) X 1.791with
X == 1.791 m an
m and
and
inlet
(b) air temperature of 20 °C and 24 °C, respectively, and in Figures 10–12 occupants are considered,
(b) Y
Y == 0.4423
0.4423 m,m, with
with an
an inlet
inlet air
air temperature
temperature ofof 20
20 °C.
◦ C.
with an inlet air temperature of 20 °C and 24 °C, respectively.
From
Figures
Figures the results
8–11
8–11 show
show theobtained
the air it is possible fields
air temperature
temperature to conclude
fields in
in the
thethat:
virtual
virtual classroom
classroom with
with 66 and
and 1212 occupants
occupants
for
for inlet
inlet air
air temperatures
temperatures of of 20 ◦ C and
20 °C and 24 ◦ C. In
24 °C. In Figures
Figures 88 and
and 9,9, 66 occupants
occupants are
are considered,
considered, with
with an
an
• In general, the air◦ temperature ◦
field is highest with 12 occupants and when the inlet air
inlet
inlet air
air temperature
temperature of
of 20
20 °CCand
and 24
24 °C,C,respectively,
respectively, and
and in
inFigures
Figures 10–12
10–12occupants
occupants are
areconsidered,
considered,
temperature is 24 °C (summer condition), because for 12 occupants the thermal load is highest
with
with an
an inlet
inlet air temperature
air summer
temperature of 20
of 20the◦°C and
Cinlet
andair24 ◦ C, respectively.
°C,
24 temperature
respectively.
and for conditions and the compartment surrounding surfaces
From the results
Fromtemperatures obtained
the results obtained
are highest;it is possible to conclude
it is possible to conclude that: that:
• The air temperature around the occupants is higher in the upper body section areas than at the
•• In general,
In general, the because
the
lower parts, air temperature
air temperature field is
field
of the convection isheat
highest
highest with
from with 12 occupants
12
the lower occupants and
and
body section when
when
to the thebody
the
upper inlet air
inlet air
temperature ◦
is 24 °CC (summer
(summer condition),
condition), because
because for
for 12
12 occupants
occupants the
the thermal
thermal load
load is highest
temperature
section. is
summer conditions
and for summer conditions the
the inlet
inlet air
air temperature
temperature and
and the
the compartment
compartment surrounding
surrounding surfaces
surfaces
temperatures are highest;
• The air temperature around the occupants is higher in the upper body section areas than at the
lower parts, because of the convection heat from the lower body section to the upper body
section.
Buildings 2018, 8, 35 11 of 22

• The air temperature around the occupants is higher in the upper body section areas than at the
lower parts, because of the convection heat from the lower body section to the upper body section.
Buildings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 22

Buildings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2.5 11 of 22

2.5
35
2
34
33
32
35
2 31
34
1.5 30
33
29

Z (m) Z (m)
32
28
31
27
1.5 30
26
1 29
25
28
24
27
23
26
1 22
25
0.5 21
24
20
23
22
0.5 21

0 20
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

Y (m)
0
0 0.5 1
(a) 1.5 2 2.5

Y (m) 35
2.5
(a) 34
33
35
2.5 32
34
2
31
33
30
32
2
1.5 29
31
Z (m)Z (m)

28
30
1.5 27
29
1
26
28
25
27
1
0.5 24
26
23
25

0.5 22
24
0
21
23
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
20
22
0 X (m) 21
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
(b) 20
X (m)
(b)
Figure 8. Air temperature field in the virtual classroom with 6 occupants in the plans (a) X = 1.791 m
Figure 8. Air temperature field in the virtual classroom with 6 occupants in the plans (a) X = 1.791 m
and (b) Y = 0.63099 m, with an inlet air temperature of 20 °C.
and (b)Figure 8. Air temperature
Y = 0.63099 m, with anfield in air
inlet the temperature
virtual classroom with
of 20 6 occupants in the plans (a) X = 1.791 m
◦ C.
and (b) Y = 0.63099 m, with an inlet air temperature of 20 °C. 2.5

2.5
35
2
34
33
32
35
2 31
34
1.5 30
33
29
Z (m) Z (m)

32
28
31
27
1.5 30
26
1 29
25
28
24
27
23
26
1 22
25
0.5 21
24
20
23
22
0.5 21

0 20
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

Y (m)
0
0 0.5 1
(a) 1.5 2 2.5

Y (m) 35
2.5
(a) 34
33
35
2.5 32
2 34
31
33
30
32
2
1.5 29
Z (m)Z (m)

31
28
30
1.5 27
1 29
26
28
25
27
1 24
0.5 26
23
25
22
0.5 24
0
21
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 23
20
22
0 X (m) 21
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
(b) 20
X (m)
(b)
Figure 9. Air temperature field in the virtual classroom with 6 occupants in the plans (a) X = 1.791 m
and (b) Y = 0.63099 m, with an inlet air temperature of 24 °C.
Figure 9. Air temperature field in the virtual classroom with 6 occupants in the plans (a) X = 1.791 m
Figure 9. Air temperature field in the virtual classroom with 6 occupants in the plans (a) X = 1.791 m
and (b) Y = 0.63099 m, with an inlet air temperature of 24 °C.
and (b) Y = 0.63099 m, with an inlet air temperature of 24 ◦ C.
Buildings 2018, 8, 35 12 of 22
Buildings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 22

2.5

35
2
34
33
32
Buildings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 31 12 of 22
1.5 30
29

Z (m)
2.5
28
27
26
1
35 25
2
34 24
33 23
32
22
31
0.5 21
1.5 30
29 20

Z (m)
28
27
26
1
0 25
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 24
23
Y (m) 22
0.5 21

(a) 20

35
2.5 0 34
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
33
Y (m)
32
2 (a) 31
35
2.5
30
34
1.5 29
Z (m)

33
32 28
2
31 27
1 30 26
1.5 29
Z (m)

25
28
0.5 24
27
1 23
26
25 22
0 24
0.5 21
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
23
20

0 X (m) 22
21
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5

X (m)
(b) 20

Figure (b)
Figure 10.
10. Air
Air temperature field in
temperature field inthe
thevirtual
virtualclassroom
classroom with1212occupants
with occupants inin the
the plans
plans (a)(a)
X =X 1.791
= 1.791
m
m and (b) Y =
Figure 0.4423
10. m, with an
Air temperature inlet
field in air
the temperature of
virtual classroom
and (b) Y = 0.4423 m, with an inlet air temperature of 20 ◦ C. 20 °C.
with 12 occupants in the plans (a) X = 1.791
m and (b) Y = 0.4423 m, with an inlet air temperature of 20 °C.
2.5

2.5

35
2 35
2
34
34
33
33
32
32
31 31
1.5 1.5 30 30
29 29
Z (m)
Z (m)

28
28
27
27
26
1 26
1 25
24 25
23 24
22 23
0.5 21
22
20
0.5 21
20

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

0 Y (m)
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
(a)
Y (m)
35
2.5 (a) 34
33 35
32
2.5 2 34
31
33
30
1.5 29 32
2
Z (m)

28 31
27 30
1
26
1.5 29
Z (m)

25
28
0.5 24
23
27
1
22 26
0
21 25
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
20 24
0.5
X (m) 23
(b) 22
0
21
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
Figure 11. Air temperature field in the virtual classroom with 12 occupants in the plans
20 (a) X = 1.791
Figure 11. Air temperature field in the virtual classroom with 12 occupants in the plans (a) X = 1.791 m
X (m) of 24
m and (b) Y = 0.4423 m, with an inlet air temperature °C.
and (b) Y = 0.4423 m, with an inlet air temperature ◦
(b)of 24 C.
Figure 11. Air temperature field in the virtual classroom with 12 occupants in the plans (a) X = 1.791
m and (b) Y = 0.4423 m, with an inlet air temperature of 24 °C.
Buildings 2018, 8, 35 13 of 22

3.2. CO2 Concentration Field

Buildings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 22
Figures 12 and 13 show the CO2 concentration field in the virtual classroom, with13 an
Buildings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW
inlet air
of 22
3.2. CO
temperature 20 ◦ C whenField
of2 Concentration 6 and 12 occupants were present, respectively. The CO2 concentration field
3.2. CO
in the virtual Concentration
2classroom
Figures 13Field
12 and for an inlet
show air2 temperature
the CO of 24
concentration field in ◦the
C, with
virtual6classroom,
and 12 occupants respectively,
with an inlet air
temperature
is similar toFigures of
the earlier 20
12 and °C13 show the CO2 concentration field in therespectively.
when
results. 6 and 12 occupants were present, The CO
virtual classroom, 2 concentration
with an inlet air
field
From in results
the
temperature the virtual
of 20 °Cclassroom
obtained,
when it6 isfor
and anoccupants
possible
12 inlettoair temperature
conclude
were that:ofrespectively.
present, 24 °C, withThe6 and
CO2 12 occupants
concentration
respectively,
field in the is similar
virtual to the earlier
classroom for results.
an inlet air temperature of 24 °C, with 6 and 12 occupants
• From
In general, the results
theisCO
respectively, obtained, it
concentration
similar is possible
to the earlier is higher
results. to with
conclude that:
12 occupants than with 6 occupants and the CO
2 2
concentration
From thein the ceiling
results obtained, area
it isispossible
highertowith 12 occupants
conclude that: than with 6 occupants;
• In general, the CO2 concentration is higher with 12 occupants than with 6 occupants and the CO2
• The dispersion of thetheCO 2 concentration in the breathingthan area, is6 more influenced by the jet
• concentration
In general, thein ceiling area isishigher
CO2 concentration higherwith
with1212occupants
occupants thanwith
with 6 occupants;
occupants and the CO2
momentum
• The when
dispersionthe
of space
the CO is occupied by 12 persons than when it is occupied
concentration in the ceiling area is higher with 12 occupants than with 6 occupants; by the jet
2 concentration in the breathing area, is more influenced by 6 persons,
• momentum
because when the space is occupied by 12 persons than when it is occupied
The dispersion of the CO2 concentration in the breathing area, is more influenced by thewhile
with 12 occupants the air terminal devices are located in front to the by 6 persons,
occupants, jet with
because
6 occupants with
the air
momentum 12 occupants
terminal
when the
devices
the space air terminal devices
are located
is occupied are located
at the left
by 12 persons thanand in
when front
right to
it issidesthe
occupiedoccupants,
of the while
by 6occupants.
persons,
with 6 occupants
because the air terminal
with 12 occupants the airdevices aredevices
terminal locatedare
at the left and
located rightto
in front sides
the of the occupants.
occupants, while
with 6 occupants the air terminal devices are located at the left and right sides of the occupants.
2.5

2.5
2500
2
2400
2300
2200
2100
2500
2 2000
2400
1900
1.5 2300
1800
2200
1700
Z (m) Z (m)

2100
1600
2000
1500
1900
1.5 1400
1800
1300
1 1700
1200
1600
1100
1500
1000
1400
900
1300
1 800
1200
700
0.5 1100
600
1000
500
900
800
700
0.5
600
0 500
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

Y (m)
0
0 0.5 1
(a) 1.5 2 2.5

Y (m)
2500
2.5
(a) 2400
2300
2200
2500
2.5 2100
2400
2
2000
2300
1900
2200
2 1800
2100
1.5 1700
2000
Z (m)Z (m)

1600
1900
1500
1800
1.5 1400
1700
1
1300
1600
1200
1500
1 1100
1400
0.5 1000
1300
900
1200
800
1100
0.5 700
1000
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 600
900
500
800
0 X (m) 700
600
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
(b) 500
X (m)
(b)
Figure 12. CO2 concentration field in the virtual classroom with 6 occupants in the plans (a) X = 1.791
Figure 12. CO2 concentration
m and (b)
field in the virtual classroom with 6 occupants in the plans (a) X = 1.791 m
Y = 0.63099 m, with an inlet air temperature of 20 °C.
and (b) Figure 12. CO2 concentration field in the virtual classroom ◦with 6 occupants in the plans (a) X = 1.791
Y = 0.63099 m, with an inlet air temperature of 20 C.
m and (b) Y = 0.63099 m, with an inlet air temperature of 20 °C.
2.5

2.5

2500
2
2400
2300
2200
2500
2100
2
2400
2000
2300
1900
1.5
2200
1800
2100
1700
Z (m) Z (m)

2000
1600
1900
1500
1.5
1800
1400
1700
1300
1
1600
1200
1500
1100
1400
1000
1300
900
1
1200
800
1100
700
0.5 1000
600
900
500
800
700
0.5
600
500
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

0
Y (m)
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
(a)
Y (m)
(a)

Figure 13. Cont.

Buildings 2018, 8, 35 14 of 22
Buildings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 22

2500
2.5 2400
2300
2200
2 2100
2000
Buildings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 1900
14 of 22
1800
1.5 1700

Z (m)
2500 1600
2.5 2400 1500
2300 1400
1
2200 1300
2 2100
1200
2000
1100
0.5 1900
1800 1000
1.5 1700 900

Z (m)
1600 800
0 1500 700
0 1 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 1400 600
1300 500
X (m) 1200
1100
0.5 1000
(b) 900
800
0 700
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 600

Figure
Figure 13.
13. CO
CO22 concentration
concentration field
field in
in the
the virtual
virtualXclassroom
classroom
(m)
with
with 12
12 occupants in the
occupants in the plans
plans (a)
(a) X
X== 1.791
1.791
500

m and (b) Y = 0.4423 m, with an inlet air temperature

(b) of
m and (b) Y = 0.4423 m, with an inlet air temperature of 20 C.20 °C.
◦

Figure 13. CO2 concentration field in the virtual classroom with 12 occupants in the plans (a) X = 1.791
3.3. Airflow Around the Occupants
3.3. Airflow Around
m and (b) Y the Occupants
= 0.4423 m, with an inlet air temperature of 20 °C.
Figures 14 and 15 show the mean air velocity values around the 25 human body sections in the
Figures 14 Around
3.3.classroom,
Airflow and 15theshow the mean air velocity values around the 25 human body sections in
virtual with 6Occupants
and 12 occupants respectively. Figures 14a and 15a show the inlet air
the virtual classroom, with 6 and 12 occupants respectively. Figures 14a and 15a show the inlet air
temperature of 2014°C,
Figures andwhile Figures
15 show 14b air
the mean andvelocity
15b show
valuesshows thethe
around inlet air temperature
25 human of 24
body sections in°C.
the
temperature of 20 ◦ C, while Figures 14b and 15b show shows the inlet air temperature of 24 ◦ C.
virtualthe
From classroom, with 6 and
results obtained, 12possible
it is occupants to respectively.
conclude that:Figures 14a and 15a show the inlet air
From the results obtained, it is possible to conclude that:
temperature of 20 °C, while Figures 14b and 15b show shows the inlet air temperature of 24 °C.
• WithFrom the resultsthe
6 occupants obtained, it is possible
air velocity to conclude
is higher aroundthat:
the upper body members than around the
lower members and trunk;
• With 6 occupants the air velocity is higher around the upper body members than around the
•
• With 66 occupants
With occupants the body sections subjected to the highest air velocities are the shoulders, arms
lower membersthe and body
trunk; sections subjected to the highest air velocities are the shoulders,
and
• hands;
arms and 6hands;
With occupants the body sections subjected to the highest air velocities are the shoulders, arms
•
• With 12 occupants
Withand
12 occupants the
hands; the air
air velocity
velocity isis lower
lower around
around the
the upper
upper body
body members
members thanthan around
around the
the
lower
• members;
With
lower 12 occupants the air velocity is lower around the upper body members than around the
members;
•
• With 12
loweroccupants
members;the body sections subjected to the highest air velocities are the legs.
With 12 occupants the body sections subjected to the highest air velocities are the legs.
• With 12 occupants the body sections subjected to the highest air velocities are the legs.

(a)
(a)

(b)
Figure 14. Mean air velocity value around the 25(b)
human body sections of 6 occupants, for an inlet air
Figure 14. Mean air velocity value around the 25 human body sections of 6 occupants, for an inlet air
temperature of (a)◦20 °C and (b) 24 °C.
◦ C.
temperature
Figure of (a)
14. Mean air20velocity
C andvalue
(b) 24around the 25 human body sections of 6 occupants, for an inlet air
temperature of (a) 20 °C and (b) 24 °C.
Buildings 2018, 8, 35 15 of 22
Buildings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 22
Buildings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 22

(a)
(a)

(b)
Figure 15. Mean air velocity value around the 25(b)
human body sections of 12 occupants, for an inlet
Figure 15. Mean air velocity value around the 25 human body sections of 12 occupants, for an inlet air
air temperature of (a) 20 °C and (b) 24 °C.
Figure 15. Mean air velocity value around the 25 human body sections of 12 occupants, for an inlet
temperature of (a) 20 ◦ C and (b) 24 ◦ C.
air temperature of (a) 20 °C and (b) 24 °C.
Figures 16 and 17 show the mean air temperature values around the 25 human body sections in
Figures 16 and 17 show the mean air temperature values around the 25 human body sections
the virtual
Figuresclassroom,
16 and 17with
show6 the
andmean
12 occupants, respectively.
air temperature valuesFigures
around16a
theand 17a arebody
25 human associated with
sections in
in thethe
virtual classroom,
inlet air
with 6 20
temperature
and 12while
occupants, respectively. Figures 16a and 17a are associated
virtual classroom, withof
6 and °C, Figures
12◦ occupants, 16b andFigures
respectively. 17b are16a
associated with
and 17a are the inletwith
associated air
with temperature
the inlet air temperature of 20 C, while Figures 16b and 17b are associated with the inlet air
the inlet air of 24 °C.
temperature of 20 °C, while Figures 16b and 17b are associated with the inlet air
temperature ◦
of 24of 24
C. °C.
temperature

(a)
(a)

(b)
Figure 16. Mean air temperature value around the(b)
25 human body sections of 6 occupants, for an inlet
air temperature of (a) 20 °C and (b) 24 °C.
Figure 16. Mean air temperature value around the 25 human body sections of 6 occupants, for an inlet
Figure 16. Mean air temperature value around the 25 human body sections of 6 occupants, for an inlet
air temperature of (a) ◦20 °C and (b) 24◦ °C.
air temperature of (a) 20 C and (b) 24 C.

From the results obtained it is possible to conclude that:

Buildings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 22
Buildings 2018, 8, 35 16 of 22
From the results obtained it is possible to conclude that:
• The air temperature distribution around the occupants present are, in general, uniform,
• The air temperature distribution around the occupants present are, in general, uniform, however,
however, it is at slightly higher levels around the upper body sections than around the lower
it is at slightly higher levels around the upper body sections than around the lower body sections:
body sections:
• The air temperature around the body sections is higher with 12 occupants than with 6 occupants.
• The air temperature around the body sections is higher with 12 occupants than with 6 occupants.

(b)

(c)
Figure 17.
Figure 17. Mean
Meanair
airtemperature
temperaturevalue
value around
around thethe
25 25 human
human body
body sections
sections of 12ofoccupants,
12 occupants,
for anfor an
inlet
inlet air temperature of (a)
◦ 20 °C and (b)
air temperature of (a) 20 C and (b) 24 C.◦ 24 °C.

3.4. DR
3.4. DR Level
Level
Figures 18
Figures 18 and
and 19
19 show
show thethe DR DR mean
mean values,
values, based
based in
in ISO
ISO 7730,
7730, around
around the
the 25
25 human
human body
body
sections in
sections in the
the virtual
virtual classroom,
classroom, withwith 66 and
and 12
12 occupants,
occupants, respectively,
respectively, [17].
[17]. Figures
Figures 18a
18a and
and 19a
19a are
are
associated with the inlet air temperature of 20 ◦°C, while Figures 18b and 19b are associated
associated with the inlet air temperature of 20 C, while Figures 18b and 19b are associated with the with the
inlet air
inlet air temperature
temperature of of 24
24 ◦°C.
C.
From the
From the results
results obtained,
obtained, itit is
is possible
possible to
to conclude
conclude that:
that:
• The DR is higher when 6 occupants are present than when 12 occupants are present;
• The DR is higher when 6 occupants are present than when 12 occupants are present;
• The DR is higher for an inlet air temperature of 20 °C than for an inlet air temperature of 24 °C;
• The DR is higher for an inlet air temperature of 20 ◦ C than for an inlet air temperature of 24 ◦ C;
• When 6 occupants are considered, the shoulders and legs are subjected to highest DR values
• When 6 occupants
than other are considered, the shoulders and legs are subjected to highest DR values than
body segments;
• other body segments;
When 12 occupants are considered, the legs are subjected to the highest DR values than other
• When 12 occupants are considered, the legs are subjected to the highest DR values than other
body segments;
• body segments;
When an inlet air temperature of 24 °C is considered the DR level is acceptable in accordance
• When an Category
inlet air temperature of 24 ◦ C is considered the DR level is acceptable in accordance with
with the C of ISO 7730 [17].
the Category C of ISO 7730 [17].
Buildings 2018, 8, 35 17 of 22
Buildings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 22

Buildings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW

100 17 of 22
90 O5 O6
80 O3 O4
100
70 O1
O5 O2
O6
90
60
80 O3 O4
50
70 O1 O2

DR (%)DR (%)
40
60 Category C
30
50
20
40 Category B
10
30
Category C
Category A
200 Category B
10
Category A
0

Body section

(a)
Body section
100
O5 O6
90 (a) O3 O4
80
100 O1
O5 O2
O6
70
90
60 O3 O4
80
50 O1 O2
70
DR (%)DR (%)

40
60 Category C
30
50 Category B
20
40 Category A
Category C
10
30
Category B
200
Category A
10
0

Body section

(b)
Body section

Figure 18. Mean draught risk (DR) value around(b)

the 25 human body sections of 6 occupants, for an
Figure 18. Mean draught risk (DR) value around the 25 human body sections of 6 occupants, for an
inlet air18.
temperature of (a) 20 °C andvalue
(b) 24 °C. the 25 human body sections of 6 occupants, for an
inlet airFigure
temperature Mean draught
of (a) 20 risk (DR)
◦ C and (b) 24 around
◦ C.
inlet air temperature of50(a) 20 °C and (b) 24 °C.
O9 O10 O11 O12
O5 O6 O7 O8
40
50 O1 O2 O3 O4
O9 O10 O11 O12
O5 C
Category O6 O7 O8
30
40 O1 O2 O3 O4
O9 O10 O11 O12
DR (%)DR (%)

Category
Category B
20
30 C

Category
Category A
10
20 B

100 Category A

Body section

(a)
Body section
50
O9 O10 O11 O12
O5 O6 O7 O8
(a)
40
50 O1 O2 O3 O4
O9 O10 O11 O12
O5 C
Category O6 O7 O8
30
40 O1 O2 O3 O4
DR (%)DR (%)

Category
Category B
20
30 C

Category
Category A
10
20 B

100 Category A

Body section

(b)
Body section

(b) body sections of 12 occupants, for an inlet air

Figure 19. Mean DR value around the 25 human
temperature of (a) 20 °C and (b) 24 °C.
Figure 19. Mean DR value around the 25 human body sections of 12 occupants, for an inlet air
Figure 19. Mean DR value around the 25 human body sections of 12 occupants, for an inlet air
temperature of (a) 20 °C and (b) 24 °C.
temperature of (a) 20 ◦ C and (b) 24 ◦ C.

3.5. ADI
Tables 2 and 3 present the ADI results when 6 occupants are considered, with an inlet air
temperature of 20 ◦ C and 24 ◦ C, respectively. The tables include the effectiveness for heat removal,
Buildings 2018, 8, 35 18 of 22

the PPD, the thermal comfort number, the CO2 concentration in the breathing area, the effectiveness
for contaminant removal, the PD for IAQ, the air quality number and the ADI.

Table 2. Air distribution index (ADI) for an occupation of 6 persons with an inlet air temperature of
20 ◦ C.

Occupants 1 2 3 4 5 6 Mean Value

Effectiveness for Heat Removal (%) 51.5 51.4 50.6 50.6 53.2 53.5 51.4
PPD (%) 12.4 11.8 10.3 10.0 12.5 12.9 12.1
Thermal Comfort Number 4.1 4.4 4.9 5.0 4.3 4.2 4.3
CO2 in the Breathing Area (mg/m3 ) 1197.4 1188.4 1267.0 1215.1 1137.0 1080.3 1192.9
Effectiveness for Contaminant Removal (%) 7.5 7.6 6.9 7.4 8.3 9.1 7.6
PD for IAQ (%) 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.5
Air Quality Number 1.4 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.4
ADI 2.4 2.5 2.5 2.6 2.5 2.6 2.5

Table 3. ADI for an occupation of 6 persons with an inlet air temperature of 24 ◦ C.

Occupants 1 2 3 4 5 6 Mean Value

Effectiveness for Heat Removal (%) 68.8 68.7 66.8 67.1 67.4 68.0 67.7
PPD (%) 8.0 8.2 8.9 9.0 8.5 8.3 8.4
Thermal Comfort Number 8.6 8.3 7.5 7.4 8.0 8.2 8.1
CO2 in the Breathing Area (mg/m3 ) 1207.7 1196.9 1311.0 1249.8 1117.8 1075.6 1202.3
Effectiveness for Contaminant Removal (%) 8.8 8.9 7.7 8.3 10.1 10.8 8.9
PD for IAQ (%) 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.5
Air Quality Number 1.6 1.6 1.4 1.5 1.8 2.0 1.6
ADI 3.7 3.7 3.2 3.4 3.8 4.0 3.7

From the results presented in Tables 2 and 3, it is possible to conclude that:

• The effectiveness for heat removal is slightly lower for an inlet air temperature of 20 ◦ C than for
an inlet air temperature of 24 ◦ C.
• The PPD value is acceptable, according to the category C of the ISO 7730, for an inlet air
temperature of 20 ◦ C and is acceptable according to category B of this standard for an inlet
air temperature of 24 ◦ C, [17].
• The thermal comfort number is higher for an inlet air temperature of 24 ◦ C than for an inlet air
temperature of 20 ◦ C.
• The CO2 concentration, the PD for the IAQ and the air quality number represent nearly the
same values for an inlet air temperature of 24 ◦ C as that for an inlet air of 20 ◦ C; however,
the effectiveness for contaminant removal is slightly lower for an inlet air temperature of 20 ◦ C
than for an inlet air temperature of 24 ◦ C.
• The ADI number is lower for an inlet air of 20 ◦ C than for an inlet air temperature of 24 ◦ C.

Tables 4 and 5 present the ADI results when 12 occupants are considered, with an inlet air
temperature of 20 ◦ C and 24 ◦ C, respectively. The tables include the effectiveness for heat removal,
the PPD, the thermal comfort number, the CO2 concentration in the breathing area, the effectiveness
for contaminant removal, the PD for IAQ, the air quality number and the ADI.
Buildings 2018, 8, 35 19 of 22

Table 4. ADI for an occupation of 12 persons, with an inlet air temperature of 20 ◦ C.

Occupants 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Mean Value

Effectiveness for Heat Removal (%) 88.9 84.9 88.1 85.8 90.3 87.5 85.4 88.7 86.1 88.9 88.1 89.8 87.7
PPD (%) 5.0 6.0 5.2 5.5 5.1 5.7 6.0 5.5 5.3 5.4 5.4 5.2 5.4
Thermal Comfort Number 17.7 14.2 16.8 15.6 17.7 15.4 14.3 16.0 16.2 16.4 16.4 17.1 16.2
CO2 in the Breathing Area (mg/m3 ) 997.2 1140.8 1038.4 1162.0 1123.5 1205.5 1071.3 1157.3 1083.0 1141.2 1133.0 1145.7 1116.6
Effectiveness for Contaminant Removal (%) 34.4 26.7 31.8 25.9 27.5 24.3 30.0 26.1 29.4 26.7 27.1 26.5 28.0
PD for IAQ (%) 10.8 10.8 10.8 10.8 10.8 10.8 10.8 10.8 10.8 10.8 10.8 10.8 10.8
Air Quality Number 3.2 2.5 3.0 2.4 2.5 2.3 2.8 2.4 2.7 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.6
ADI 7.5 5.9 7.0 6.1 6.7 5.9 6.3 6.2 6.6 6.4 6.4 6.5 6.5

Table 5. ADI for an occupation of 12 persons, with an inlet air temperature of 24 ◦ C.

Occupants 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Mean Value

Effectiveness for Heat Removal (%) 92.0 88.9 91.2 89.5 93.2 91.2 89.3 91.8 89.8 91.8 91.6 92.8 91.1
PPD (%) 15.1 18.5 16.4 17.3 15.8 17.8 18.5 17.5 16.7 17.1 16.9 16.5 17.0
Thermal Comfort Number 6.1 4.8 5.6 5.2 5.9 5.1 4.8 5.3 5.4 5.4 5.4 5.6 5.4
CO2 in the Breathing Area (mg/m3 ) 998.5 1142.6 1040.4 1164.7 1127.2 1209.2 1072.8 1158.1 1085.3 1142.1 1136.5 1148.7 1118.8
Effectiveness for Contaminant Removal (%) 34.9 27.0 32.2 26.1 27.7 24.5 30.3 26.4 29.7 27.1 27.3 26.8 28.3
PD for IAQ (%) 10.8 10.8 10.8 10.8 10.8 10.8 10.8 10.8 10.8 10.8 10.8 10.8 10.8
Air Quality Number 3.2 2.5 3.0 2.4 2.6 2.3 2.8 2.5 2.8 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.6
ADI 4.4 3.5 4.1 3.5 3.9 3.4 3.7 3.6 3.8 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.8
Buildings 2018, 8, 35 20 of 22

From the results given in Tables 4 and 5, it is possible to conclude that:

• The effectiveness for heat removal is slightly lower for an inlet air temperature of 20 ◦ C than for
an inlet air temperature of 24 ◦ C.
• The PPD value is acceptable for an inlet air temperature of 20 ◦ C, according to category B of the
ISO 7730, and is not acceptable for an inlet air temperature of 24 ◦ C, [17]. However, the TC levels
are near acceptable conditions.
• The thermal comfort number is lower for an inlet air temperature of 24 ◦ C than for an inlet air
temperature of 20 ◦ C.
• The CO2 concentration, the effectiveness for contaminant removal, the PD for the IAQ and the air
quality number present similar values for an inlet air temperature of 24 ◦ C as those for an inlet air
of 20 ◦ C. Thus, the inlet air temperatures do not appear to influence the IAQ that the occupants
are subjected to.
• The ADI number is higher for an inlet air of 20 ◦ C than for an inlet air temperature of 24 ◦ C.

4. Conclusions
In this study one virtual school classroom, with 6 and 12 virtual occupants, is used to evaluate
the TC level, effectiveness for heat removal, thermal comfort number, IAQ level, effectiveness for
contaminant removal, air quality number, ADI and DR level associated to a PVS. The virtual classroom
consists of 6 virtual desks, equipped with a PVS, with upper and lower air terminal devices. A coupling
of a HTC numerical model with a CFD numerical model using the RNG turbulence model, lead to the
generation of the ADI index which is used for comparing ventilation system performance.
From the results obtained it is concluded that the effectiveness for heat removal is lower for a
classroom of 6 persons than for a classroom of 12 persons. The PPD value is acceptable for 6 persons
in a classroom, however for 12 persons in a classroom, the PPD value is acceptable for an inlet air
temperature of 20 ◦ C and is unacceptable for an inlet air temperature of 24 ◦ C. The thermal comfort
number is lower for a classroom of 6 persons than for a classroom of 12 persons.
The CO2 concentration in the breathing area is not strongly influenced by the number of occupants
nor the inlet air temperature. This finding is due to the inlet air terminal devices for 12 persons located
in front of the occupants, while the for 6 persons these are located at the left and right side of the
occupants. The effectiveness for contaminant removal, the PD for IAQ and the air quality number are
higher for 12 persons than for 6 persons in a classroom.
The ADI, in general, is higher for 12 persons than for 6 persons in the classroom and is higher for
an inlet air temperature of 20 ◦ C than for an inlet air temperature of 24 ◦ C.
Thus, according to the ADI values obtained, one upper and one lower air terminal devices located
in front of the body area produced better values than those for one upper and one lower air terminal
devices located to the left side of the body and one upper and one lower air terminal devices located
on the right side body.
Based on the results obtained, for future work, more combinations of upper and lower air terminal
devices located around the body area and more combinations of a number of occupants at the desk
will be analyzed.

Acknowledgments: The authors grateful the 2017–2018 ASHRAE Undergraduate Senior Project Grant Program.
Author Contributions: All authors contributed equally in the preparation of this manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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