Excel Year 12 Modern History Online Resource 2019

YEAR 12
MODERN
History
Ron Ringer
Free-to-download sample pages with answers
e r 1 Core StudY
pt
Cha r A ND d e r n
Po w e h eM o
it y I n t 6
th o r 919 -19 4
Au world 1
Introduction of years. By Western standards, Japan could hardly be
called a democratic state when Tojo came to power.
›› The Core Study will introduce students of Modern History Agreement on collective security and the avoidance of
in Year 12 to the rise of fascist, totalitarian and militarist future conflict might have been more assured had the
movements that emerged after the end of the First World United States joined the League of Nations. Unfortunately
War. Students will consider what drew people to these this was not to be as a mood of isolationism from the Old
movements, the nature of regimes that emerged in this World and its problems took hold in America. Had the US
period, and how they posed a threat to European peace been a key player, would a second (and infinitely more
and stability. The efforts made by various international destructive) world war have been avoided? Perhaps.
bodies and players to achieve collective security will also
be covered.
The world in 1946 was a far cry from the world of 1919, S U RV E Y
yet both dates fall immediately within the shadow
of catastrophic wars which shaped the decades that AN OVERVIEW OF THE PEACE TREATIES
followed. The collapse of the power and authority WHICH ENDED WORLD WAR I AND
exercised by monarchical rulers (autocrats) in Germany THEIR CONSEQUENCES
and Russia created a vacuum filled by forms of
government that were truly dictatorial and oppressive, Steps towards an end to the fighting
especially to dissenting groups and minorities.
29 September 1918: With its forces in full retreat on the
ÎÎ
The expressions ‘power’ and ‘authority’ are open to
Western Front, the German Supreme Army Command
interpretation. Power in the hands of either democrats or
informed Kaiser Wilhelm II and the Imperial Chancellor,
demagogues? And authority over whom and what? Does
the exercise of power and authority always end the same
Count Georg von Hertling, that the military situation was
way—in war and destruction? Clearly a distinction needs hopeless. At the same time, Erich Ludendorff, the Army’s
to be made between power and authority exercised by Quartermaster general, announced that he could no
politicians who upheld democratic values, and those longer guarantee to hold the front. He demanded to be
exercised or imposed by leaders who used the democratic allowed to request the Entente Powers (the Allies) for an
process as a stepping stone towards absolute power. immediate ceasefire on the basis of US President Woodrow
Adolf Hitler achieved power through the ballot box but Wilson’s Fourteen Points. Prior to serving as a politician,
his true intention was to claim leadership over Germany Wilson had enjoyed a distinguished record as a professor
and the German people. In fact his claims went far beyond of history at Princeton University.
Germany’s borders. General Franco achieved power through 3 October 1918: The liberal, Prince Maximilian of Baden
ÎÎ
the military defeat of the Spanish Republican movement;
(aka Max von Baden), was appointed Chancellor of
he then set about creating a fascist state. Benito Mussolini
Germany, replacing Georg von Hertling as someone more
took power, mostly without bloodshed, styling himself
(like Hitler in Germany) as the saviour of his country, Italy. acceptable to the Allies to lead armistice negotiations.
He, too, set about constructing a fascist state with all the Two days later, a message was sent to Wilson accepting
© Pascal Press ISBN 978 1 74125 663 5
instruments and paraphernalia of power. Joseph Stalin the Fourteen Points as a precondition for negotiations to
assumed the mantle of power upon the death of Vladimir end the fighting. The Allies refused to enter talks until a
Lenin in 1924. By degrees, and through his consummate democratic government replaced Kaiser Wilhelm II.
skill as a bureaucrat, Stalin consolidated personal power Late October 1918: Ludendorff changed his mind and
ÎÎ
through terror and oppression, yet his policies rapidly rejected the Fourteen Points. He demanded to resume
modernised Russia, enabling the fledgling Soviet state to
the war, which was now impossible due to desertions.
resist German aggression in the invasions of June 1941.
The German Imperial Government replaced him with
The rise and rule of Hideki Tojo of Japan was perhaps Wilhelm Groener.
nothing more than the continuation of dictatorial rule by
elite groups experienced by Japan over many hundreds
4 YEAR 12 MODERN HISTORY

Ever since the era of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck in the
ÎÎ The Versailles Conference
1870s and 1880s,
The German two significant political parties in the
Revolution 7 Belgium, the whole world will agree, must be
ÎÎ On 18 January 1919, representatives of 32 Allied nations
Imperial
During the night ofthe
Reichstag, 29SPD
to 30and Catholic
October Centre
1918, Party,
sailors in the evacuated and restored …
met near Paris in the Great Hall of the Palace of Versailles
had enjoyed an uneasy relationship with the Kaiser’s
naval port of Wilhelmshaven refused to take orders. Within to8decide
All French territory
upon peace should
terms be defeated
for the freed andpowers.
the invaded
government, which
hadfelt able across
to ignore
thethem.
wholeGermany
days the revolt spread country, A Council of Ten was formed, which included France by
portions restored, and the wrong done to
was a democracy in name only. Prussia in 1871
marking the beginning of a socialist revolution in Germany. representatives from in thethe matter
British of Alsace-Lorraine,
Empire.
which has unsettled the peace of the world for nearly
Terms of the Armistice ÎÎ A number of commissions were… established to deal with
50 years should be righted
ÎÎÎInÎ 5 November
signing 1918: the Allies
the Armistice, agreed to
the German take up negotiations
delegation agreed particular matters. Plenary sessions soon bogged down in
9 A readjustment of the frontiers of Italy should be
for athe
to end truce, but with
fighting basedtheonadded demand
Wilson’s that Germany
Fourteen Points. attempts to come to terms with the immediate problems
effected along clearly recognisable lines of neutrality.
Butagree
whentothe
reparation
Allies metpayments. Theitnext
at Versailles soonday, a delegation
became of food relief, blockade, civil wars and revolution. The
10 The peoples of Austria-Hungary, whose place
led bythat
evident theFrance
Catholicin Centre Party
particular politician,
would Matthias
settle for nothing domestic politics of each of the victors obliged all of the
lessErzberger, departed humiliation
than the complete for France. of Germany and primeamong the nations
ministers, at somewe wishtotoreturn
stage, see safeguarded
home. and
assured, should be accorded the freest opportunity of
Îrestoration
Î 9 Novemberof its1918:
damaged economic
the Kaiser heartland
abdicated in
the throne and a ÎÎ Earlyautonomous
talks were dominated by discussion of the Draft
development.
northeast Francewas
new republic andproclaimed.
neighbouring MaxBelgium.
von Baden resigned, Covenant of the League and the future of the German
11 Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro should be
handing over the office of Chancellor to Friedrich Ebert, colonies. William ‘Billy’ Hughes, the Australian Prime
evacuated; occupied territories restored …
Summary
leaderofofthe
theterms
Socialof the TreatyParty
Democratic of Versailles
(SDP). Minister, was at odds with the Council over the
12 The Turkish portion of the present Ottoman Empire
• Evacuation of all occupied territory supervision of confiscated colonies (known as ‘mandates’).
Woodrow should be assured a secure sovereignty, but the other
• RepatriationWilson’s Fourteen
of all prisoners of war Points The Australian delegation wanted each mandatory
nationalities which are under Turkish
nation to apply its own laws in the captured territory. rule should
• Immediate handover of 5000 heavy guns and 30 000
be assured an undoubted security of life and an
medium guns This was accepted.
The Fourteen Points, January 1918 absolutely unmolested opportunity of autonomous
• Evacuation of the left bank of the Rhine ÎÎ As soon as the Draftand
development, hadthe
been discussed,should
Dardanelles Wilson beleft for
1 Open covenants of peace, openly arrived at, after
• No transfer of population from evacuated territory
which there shall be no private international
the United
permanently opened as a free passage to the ships to
States to face his Senate critics. He returned
• No destruction of road or rail communications Parisand
on 14 March. By
commerce of this time, the
all nations President
under was
international
understandings of any kind but diplomacy shall seriously ill.
• Restoration
proceedofalways
coal and iron ore
frankly andmines
in theand water
public supplies
view. guarantees.
• Immediate handover of 5000 locomotives and 1500
2 Absolute freedom of navigation upon the seas, The 13
‘BigAnFour’
independent Polish state should be erected
wagons which should include thethe
territories
outside territorial waters, alike in peace and in war, ÎÎ It soon became apparent that Councilinhabited
of Ten wasby
• Allies to have
except as rights to requisition
the seas may be closed property in occupied
in whole or in indisputably Polish populations,
unwieldy: in practice the work was done by the which should
leaders of
territory be assured a free and secure access to the sea,and the
part by international action for the enforcement of the so-called Big Four (France, Italy, Great Britain
• Germany to surrender
international its naval fleet
covenants. USA)and whowhose
were political
accompanied and economic independence
by their foreign ministers
• Germany
3 to restoreasstolen
The removal, far asproperty
possible, of all economic and territorial integrity should be guaranteed
and advisers. Each leader tried to reconcile contradictory by
• Germany to accept reparations,
barriers and the establishment which ofwere to be decided
an equality of international covenant.
attitudes towards the treatment of postwar Germany. The
trade conditions among all the nations consenting 14 A general
settlement, association
a product of nations
of these mustwas
differences, be formed
a
Germany in denial? under specific covenants for the purpose of affording
to the peace and associating themselves for its compromise and was deeply flawed.
ÎÎGermany had unrealistic expectations as to how it would
maintenance. mutual guarantees of political independence and
be4 treated in theguarantees
aftermathgiven of war. The country’s Table 1.1territorial
The main Allied
integritypowers and their
to great leaders
and small states alike.
Adequate and taken that national
politicians and people never conceded
armaments will be reduced to the lowest that its point
armies had Wartime Allied Leader who represented national
been consistent
defeated—returning soldiers
with domestic safety. were greeted with power interests
cheers. At the Brandenburg Gate, Ebert announced at a Significance of the Armistice with Germany,
5 A free, open-minded and absolutely impartial November 1918
USA President Woodrow Wilson
march past by German troops:
adjustment of all colonial claims, based upon a strict
Noobservance
foe has overcome you … you
of the principle thatareinreturning
determining all Great
ÎÎ With Berlin in the
Britain throes
Prime of revolution,
Minister and
David Lloyd the rest of
George
undefeated from aof
such questions glorious combat
sovereignty the… you have
interests of the France
the country descending into chaos, the deputies were
President Georges Clemenceau—
protected
populationsthe homeland
concerned from
mustenemy invasion.
have equal weight with obliged to agreereferred
to the terms of anTiger’
to as ‘The armistice,
for his which they
the Friedrich
Source: equitable claims
Ebert, quotedofinthe government
G Martel (ed), Originswhose title is
of the Second signed on 11 November 1918.
combative style
World War Reconsidered, Routledge, London, 1986 On the same day—at the eleventh hour, of the eleventh
to be determined. ÎÎ
Italy Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando, who

ÎÎEbert’s
6 The statement
evacuation merely
of allreinforced Germanand
Russian territory self-delusion
such day, of the eleventh
was month—the
also PresidentAllied
of the powers and
Conference
abouta the outcome of the war and the Dolchstoßlegende
settlement of all questions affecting Russia as Germany put an end to the fighting. The armistice would
(‘stabwill
in the back’)
secure themyth
bestperpetuated by the German
and freest cooperation of Army. Russia Excluded
apply until the signing ofdue to thetreaty,
a peace November
which1917would
For them, German armies were undefeated in battle, but formally conclude Revolution which had brought Vladimir
hostilities.
other nations of the world in obtaining for her an Lenin and the Bolsheviks to power.
had been stabbed in the back by Jews,
unhampered and unembarrassed opportunity for socialists and ÎÎ With the military and the Imperial Government refusing
pacifists. Since President
the independent Friedrich Ebert
determination of herneeded the
own political to take responsibility, the politicians sitting in the
support of the German Army, he never countered what France
development and national policy and assure her of country’s parliament (the lower house, or Reichstag) were
was, essentially, a lie. Surprisingly, nor did
a sincere welcome into the society of free nations the Allies. ÎÎ Theleft
premier of the French
to negotiate peace. As republic, Georges
a result, the new Clemenceau,
Weimar
Between
under November
institutions1918 of and May choosing
her own 1919 many ... Germans wasRepublic
determined to make a harsh peace in order to extract
lacked legitimacy in the eyes of the militarists
accepted the myth that Germany had not lost the war. guarantees of security. He
and right-wing supporters. demanded that Germany:
6 YEAR 12CHAPTER
MODERN1:
HISTORY
POWER AND AUTHORITY IN THE MODERN WORLD 1919–1946 5
ÎÎ The Versailles Conference
1870s and 1880s, two significant political parties in the
On 18 January 1919, representatives of 32 Allied nations
ÎÎ
Imperial Reichstag, the SPD and Catholic Centre Party,
to decide upon peace terms for the defeated powers.
government, which felt able to ignore them. Germany
A Council of Ten was formed, which included
was a democracy in name only.
representatives from the British Empire.
Terms of the Armistice A number of commissions were established to deal with
ÎÎ
ÎÎ In signing the Armistice, the German delegation agreed particular matters. Plenary sessions soon bogged down in
to end the fighting based on Wilson’s Fourteen Points. attempts to come to terms with the immediate problems
But when the Allies met at Versailles it soon became of food relief, blockade, civil wars and revolution. The
evident that France in particular would settle for nothing domestic politics of each of the victors obliged all of the
less than the complete humiliation of Germany and prime ministers, at some stage, to return home.
restoration of its damaged economic heartland in Early talks were dominated by discussion of the Draft
ÎÎ
northeast France and neighbouring Belgium. Covenant of the League and the future of the German
colonies. William ‘Billy’ Hughes, the Australian Prime
Summary of the terms of the Treaty of Versailles Minister, was at odds with the Council over the
• Repatriation of all prisoners of war The Australian delegation wanted each mandatory
• Immediate handover of 5000 heavy guns and 30 000 nation to apply its own laws in the captured territory.
• Evacuation of the left bank of the Rhine As soon as the Draft had been discussed, Wilson left for
ÎÎ
• No transfer of population from evacuated territory the United States to face his Senate critics. He returned to
• No destruction of road or rail communications Paris on 14 March. By this time, the President was
• Restoration of coal and iron ore mines and water supplies seriously ill.
• Immediate handover of 5000 locomotives and 1500 The ‘Big Four’
wagons
ÎÎ It soon became apparent that the Council of Ten was
• Allies to have rights to requisition property in occupied
unwieldy: in practice the work was done by the leaders of
territory
the so-called Big Four (France, Italy, Great Britain and the
• Germany to surrender its naval fleet
USA) who were accompanied by their foreign ministers
• Germany to restore stolen property
and advisers. Each leader tried to reconcile contradictory
• Germany to accept reparations, which were to be decided attitudes towards the treatment of postwar Germany. The
settlement, a product of these differences, was a
Germany in denial?
compromise and was deeply flawed.
be treated in the aftermath of war. The country’s Table 1.1 The main Allied powers and their leaders
politicians and people never conceded that its armies had Wartime Allied Leader who represented national
been defeated—returning soldiers were greeted with power interests
cheers. At the Brandenburg Gate, Ebert announced at a
No foe has overcome you … you are returning Great Britain Prime Minister David Lloyd George
undefeated from a glorious combat … you have France President Georges Clemenceau—
protected the homeland from enemy invasion. referred to as ‘The Tiger’ for his
Source: Friedrich Ebert, quoted in G Martel (ed), Origins of the Second combative style
World War Reconsidered, Routledge, London, 1986

Ebert’s statement merely reinforced German self-delusion
ÎÎ was also President of the Conference
about the outcome of the war and the Dolchstoßlegende
(‘stab in the back’) myth perpetuated by the German Army. Russia Excluded due to the November 1917
For them, German armies were undefeated in battle, but Revolution which had brought Vladimir
Lenin and the Bolsheviks to power.
had been stabbed in the back by Jews, socialists and
pacifists. Since President Friedrich Ebert needed the
was, essentially, a lie. Surprisingly, nor did the Allies. ÎÎ The premier of the French republic, Georges Clemenceau,
Between November 1918 and May 1919 many Germans was determined to make a harsh peace in order to extract
accepted the myth that Germany had not lost the war. guarantees of security. He demanded that Germany:

ÎÎ • since
Ever disarmthe era of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck in the USA
The Versailles Conference
• restore
1870s the territory
and 1880s, of Alsace–Lorraine,
two significant annexed
political parties in the During the war therepresentatives
US had made of huge
ÎÎÎOn Î 18 January 1919, 32 loans
Alliedtonations
the Allies
following
Imperial the Franco-Prussian
Reichstag, the SPD and Catholic War in 1871 Party,
Centre and to a much lesser extent the Central Powers. By 1918
had• enjoyed
pay reparations
an uneasy relationship with the Kaiser’s it had emerged as the world’s creditor nation. It was
• accept the
government, creation
which of atoseparate
felt able buffer Germany
ignore them. state to the reasonable to assume that the US would continue to play
was a west of the Rhine.
democracy in name only. a role in European affairs.
ÎÎ Wilson and Lloyd George strongly objected to these
Terms of the Armistice ÎÎÎAÎ Wilson was
number determined were
of commissions to gain acceptance
established to of hiswith
deal League
punitive claims, obliging Clemenceau to revise them. proposals, which he believed would be able to maintain
A compromise was reached by 15 April 1919, which peace between European powers and beyond. His critics
softened excessive French demands for reparations. dismissed him as an idealist; support was far from
ÎÎ Clemenceau was bitterly at odds with General Foch and unanimous
domestic at home
politics of eachandof abroad. Besides,
the victors obliged theallAmerican
of the
evident that France in particular would settle for nothing
French nationalists, who condemned him as too liberal. people were strongly isolationist and
prime ministers, at some stage, to return home. in no mood to
less than the complete humiliation of Germany and
Feelings were running high; there was even an assassination continue their intervention in the affairs of the ‘Old World’.
restoration of its damaged economic heartland in ÎÎ Early talks were dominated by discussion of the Draft
attempt on his life. Wilson’s Fourteen Points were a sore In the congressional elections of November 1918 the
point with the French leader, whose contempt for the US Republican Party gained control of the House and Senate.
President made headlines in French newspapers, which Senate support would be needed to ratify any treaty.
constantly hounded Wilson. He was once quoted as When the time came, it refused and for the next 20 years
• Evacuation of all occupied
saying, ‘Wilson bores meterritory
with his Fourteen Points.
supervision of confiscated colonies (known as ‘mandates’).
America had little or no diplomatic engagement with
• Repatriation of all prisoners The Australian delegation wanted each mandatory
Why, God Almighty onlyof war
has ten.’ European affairs.
• ÎImmediate handover of 5000 heavy guns and 30 000 nation to apply its own laws in the captured territory.
ÎOn 14 April Clemenceau agreed to drop his attacks in the ThisLeague
was accepted.
medium guns
press. On the same day, France was given guarantees of
The of Nations
• Evacuation of the left bank of the Rhine
military support in the event of a future German attack.
ÎÎ As
ÎÎ soon as
Wilson neverthe Draft had been
provided discussed,
working Wilson
plans for left for
a League. The
• NoIt transfer of
seems likelypopulation
there may from
haveevacuated territory
been some form of private
theBritish
UnitedCabinet,
States tomeeting
face his inSenate critics. He returned
December 1918 and attended to
• Noagreement
destruction of road or rail communications Paris on 14 March. By this time, the President
by Dominion leaders, prepared a more detailed scheme. was
with Britain, France and the USA.
• Restoration of coal and iron ore mines and water supplies seriously ill. proposals Wilson presented the Plenary
Using these
• Great Britain
Immediate handover of 5000 locomotives and 1500 Session of the Council of Ten with a Draft Covenant on
The ‘Big Four’
In December 1918 Lloyd George had gone to the country
Îwagons
Î 14 February 1919. The Covenant provided the rules of
ÎÎ It soon became forapparent thatand
theWilson
Councilinsisted
of Ten they
was be
• in a to
Allies general election,
have rights the ‘khakiproperty
to requisition elections’ in. occupied
For the first operation
unwieldy: in
the League
practice the work was done by the leaders of
time, women over the age of 30 were allowed the vote.
territory included in each of the separate peace treaties.
• Germany
With thetosupport
surrender ofits
Conservative
naval fleet Party coalition ÎÎ The League Commission reworked the Draft and made
partners, he was returned to power. Throughout the certain recommendations in late March. It was finally
campaign popular newspapers
• Germany to accept reparations, which printed
wereinflammatory
to be decided adopted on 25 April 1919. Accordingly, the League was
attitudes towards the treatment of postwar Germany. The
headlines demanding revenge. In one speech during the settled first and then written into the Versailles Treaty.
Germany
electionin campaign
denial? of 1918, British politician Sir Eric Defeated powers were not allowed to join the League for
ÎÎGermany hadGeddes
Campbell said:expectations
unrealistic ‘We shall squeeze
as to how the German
it would some years.
lemon until the pips squeak!’ This
be treated in the aftermath of war. The country’s became a major Table 1.1 The main Allied powers and their leaders
rallying and
call during Italy
politicians people thenever coalition’s
conceded campaign.
that its armies had Wartime Allied Leader who represented national
been
Î ÎBydefeated—returning
nature, Lloyd Georgesoldiers was a moderate
were greetedman.with He believed ÎÎ
powerAs a condition for support of the Entente powers (Britain
interests
that aAtspeedy
cheers. recovery of Gate,
the Brandenburg GermanyEbertand the resumption
announced at a of and France), Italy signed the secret Treaty of London in
USA 1915, in which promises
President of
Woodrow Wilsonhad been made.
future lands
tradepast
march werebyvital if Europe’s
German troops:economic prosperity was to be
restored.
No foe hasHe believedyou
overcome that…reparations should not exceed
you are returning GreatOrlando
Britain attended the Minister
Prime Versailles talksLloyd
David to claim Italia
George
the sum of £2 billion sterling. Imposing harsh Irredenta— neighbouring areas inhabited by a majority
undefeated from a glorious combat … you haveterms of France President
of Italian-speaking Georges
peoples. Clemenceau—
The other leaders saw his
peace would only disadvantage Britain.
protected the homeland from enemy invasion. referred
demands as greedy and to
heas ‘Theaway
came Tiger’with
for his
very little. By
ÎÎ The country’s
Source: negotiating
Friedrich Ebert, quoted inposition wasOrigins
G Martel (ed), strengthened
of the Second when combative style
the Treaty of St Germain-en-Laye in September 1919,
concessions
World were won
War Reconsidered, from the
Routledge, USA1986
London, and France, including:
Italy Austria-Hungary was Minister
forced toVittorio
grant Orlando,
irredentist lands to
• the right to include Empire governments at the Prime who

ÎÎEbert’s statement merely reinforced German self-delusion Italy. Italian claims
wasdragged on until
also President 1925
of the but even then
Conference
conference
about the outcome of the war and the Dolchstoßlegende were not fully satisfied.
• in
(‘stab antheagreement fromperpetuated
back’) myth France thatbyPalestine
the German would Army. Russia Excluded due to the November 1917
become British
The end of negotiations
had• been
Mosul and itsinoil
stabbed thereserves
back bywould be transferred
Jews, socialists and to Lenin and the Bolsheviks to power.
Britain
pacifists. Since President Friedrich Ebert needed the ÎÎ On 18 April 1919 Germany was invited to send
• theofsuppression
support the GermanofArmy, the German
he never naval fleet and
countered its
what Francerepresentatives to the conference. On 7 May the Draft
internment by the British
was, essentially, a lie. Surprisingly, nor did the Allies. ÎÎ Thetreaty wasof
premier shown to Count
the French Brockdorff-Rantzau,
republic, the
Georges Clemenceau,
• an end
Between to German
November 1918colonies
and Mayand 1919theirmanyseizure
Germansby German Foreign Minister, who lamented:
was determined to make a harsh peace in order to extract
Britain.
6 YEAR 12CHAPTER
MODERN1:
HISTORY
We know the force of the hatred which confronts us Territorial changes in Europe after World War I
here, and we have heard the passionate demand that Finland
the victors should both make us pay as vanquished and Norway
punish us as guilty. We are required to admit that we
alone are war guilty; such an admission on my lips Sweden Estonia
would be a lie. North Sea
K
Latvia
AR
Source: Count Brockdorff-Rantzau’s Speech, cited in Lloyd George,
a
NM
Se
The Truth About the Peace Treaties, Vol II, p. 984, Gollancz, London, 1938
DE
l Lithuania
tic
Ba
Clemenceau gave the German delegates 15 days to reply
ÎÎ Soviet
East
and later extended it by one week. The Germans objected Prussia Union
nds
strongly to the Polish settlements and the ban on a union
la
her
Poland
Net
with Austria. From 1 to 2 June the British Imperial Be
lgi Germany
Cabinet met in Paris to discuss the German response. um
Czec
Luxembourg
German reaction hosl
ovak
ia
France
ÎÎGerman nationalists staged violent demonstrations across
the country. On 16 June 1919 the Allies made a number Switzerland Austria Hungary
of minor concessions, but still the German delegates and Romania
their government delayed the signing. They were given Yug
a
ck Se
o sla
five days to accept, extended by yet another week. via
Bla
Throughout, they were kept under virtual house arrest. Bulgaria
Ita
Only when the Allies threatened to resume hostilities and
ly
Albania
invade Germany were the terms accepted. The German
Cabinet was in crisis and Chancellor Scheidemann resigned. Greece Turkey
ÎÎThe signing ceremony took place on 28 June 1919 in the
Boundaries of German, Austro-Hungarian
Hall of Mirrors, the same room where the German M
ed and Russian Empires in 1914
it e
Empire had been proclaimed in 1871. This was a rr a
nea
Areas lost by Germany
n Sea
reminder to Germany of its total defeat and a complete Areas lost by Russia
reversal of the crushing terms imposed on France after 0 300 ml Areas lost by Bulgaria
the Franco-Prussian War. In a further humiliation, the 0 300 km

Areas lost by Austria and Hungary
German delegation was made to stand in the presence of
the victors throughout the ceremony. Figure 1.1 Postwar Europe, November 1920
Overview of the Treaty of Versailles

Table 1.2 Main points of the Treaty of Versailles and their eventual outcomes
Issue Terms Outcome
Alsace and Lorraine This territory was returned to France. Overall, Germany lost about 10% of its
territory and about 6.5 million people.
Eupen, Malmedy & Moresnet The border towns were given to Belgium. The loss of German lands to
Upper Silesia A plebiscite was held in this industrial and mineral resource neighbouring states hurt German
area in March 1921; it was ceded to Czechoslovakia and pride and created refugees out of
Poland. those who did not wish to live under
non-German rule.
Northern Schleswig A plebiscite restored territory to Denmark.
West Prussia Posen was incorporated into the new state of Poland.
East Prussia It was separated from Germany by a strip of land referred to

as the Polish Corridor.
East Prussian districts of Plebiscites were held in July 1920 allowing inhabitants to
Marienwerder and Allenstein decide on their preferred nationality.
City of Danzig Danzig became a free city administered by the League of

Nations under the mandate.
Port of Memel It was given to the Allies who allowed the new state of
Lithuania to incorporate it within its borders.
Rhineland It was occupied by the Allies and demilitarised for an initial

period of 15 years.

ÎÎ Ever 1.2
Table since the era of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck in the
continued The Versailles Conference
1870s
Issue and 1880s, two significant
Terms political parties in the Outcome
Saarland It was occupied by the Allies for a period of met
15 near
years Paris in the Great Hall of the Palace of Versailles
after
which the future was to be decided by plebiscite. to decide
Franceupon peace terms for the defeated powers.
controlled the coalmines. A Council of Ten was formed, which included
Austria Following the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian representatives
Empire in from theAustrians
Many British Empire.
wanted to join with
Terms of the Armistice 1918, the successor state of Austria was toÎ beÎ A number of commissions were
an independent Germany established
following to deal withof
the dismemberment
ÎÎ state. Article 80 forbade
In signing the Armistice, the German delegation agreed Germany to form a union with the Austro-Hungarian
particular matters. Plenary sessions soon bogged Empire. Article
down 80 in
Austria, whose independence was to be respected. caused particular resentment.
attempts to come to terms with the immediate problems
to end the fighting based on Wilson’s Fourteen Points.
But whenArmy
German the Allies met atItVersailles
was limiteditto
soon became
100 000 men and conscription ofwas
foodabolished.
relief, blockade, civiltrained
The army wars and revolution.
all ranks The a
to perform
evident that France in particular
Volunteerswould
weresettle for nothing
to enlist domestic
for 12 years to prevent trainingpolitics
of ofnumber
each ofofthe victors
tasks and itobliged
remained all aof the
reserves. No
less than the complete humiliation heavy artillery
of Germany and or tanks permitted. prime ministers, atpotentially
some stage, to return
powerful home.
fighting force.
restoration
German Navy of its damagedThe economic
Navy was heartland
limited toinsix battleships with
ÎÎ Early
an uppertalks were dominated
limit On June 21, bytwo
discussion of the
days before theDraft
signing at
northeast France and neighbouring Belgium. Covenant
of 10 180 tonnes (pocket battleships), six light cruisers, 12 of the League and the future of the
Versailles, the Germans sank their German
destroyers, 12 torpedo boats and no submarines. colonies.
The William
naval ‘Billy’
warshipsHughes,
ratherthe
than Australian
turn themPrime
over to the
Summary of the terms of the baseTreaty of Versailles
at Heligoland and Baltic fortifications wasMinister, was at odds
dismantled. with the Council over the
Allies.
• Luftwaffe
Evacuation of all occupied
(German Air territory
The Luftwaffe was banned.
Germany’s air force trained in secrecy in
• Force)
Repatriation of all prisoners of war The Australian delegation wanted
Russia during theeach
1920s.mandatory
Disarmament Disarmament was supervised by an Inter-Allied ThisCommission.
was accepted.
medium guns
German General Staff was abolished. The manufacture of
• Evacuation of the left bankmunitions
of the Rhine ÎÎ
was restricted and the use of poison As soon as the Draft had been discussed, Wilson left for
gas banned.
• Merchant marine fleet All merchant vessels over 1630 tonnes and 50%
No destruction of road or rail communications
and trade 1630 and 1020 tonnes were to be handed over
Paris
to
between
on 14 March.Loss
the Allies.
of 90%
By this time,of mercantile
the President fleetwas
• Overseas
Immediate colonies andof 5000
handover German West Africa,
locomotives German East Africa, the Cameroons,
and 1500 The ‘Big Four’
Loss of colonies deprived it of an
overseas
wagons investments Togoland, the northern Pacific islands of the Marianas, the important area of investment, assets and
ÎÎ
Carolines, the Marshall Islands and German It
Newsoon became apparent
Guinea that the Council of Ten was
future income.
were confiscated and placed under Allied mandate.
territory
Supervising countries included New Zealand, theAustralia,
so-called Big Four (France, Italy, Great Britain and the
• Germany to surrender its naval
Britainfleet
and Japan. USA) who were accompanied by their foreign ministers
and12%advisers.
Agriculture Germany stripped of 15% of its arable land and of all EachGermany’s
leader tried to reconcile
agricultural contradictory
production was
• Germany to accept reparations, which were to be decided
livestock. attitudes towards the treatment
severely of postwar
restricted Germany.
and caused The
extreme
hardship.
Germany in denial?
ÎÎ Resourceshad unrealistic expectations
Germany Germany was as stripped
to howofitvital
wouldresources: 48% of iron ore, Germany lost 19% of its iron and steel
15.7% of coal, 63% of
be treated in the aftermath of war. The country’s zinc ore and 24% of lead mines. making
Table 1.1 The main Allied powers capacity, and
and their 40% of blast furnace
leaders
equipment for the production of steel.
politicians and people never conceded that its armies had Wartime Allied Leader who represented
Confiscation of Germany’snational
coal-producing
territories was a disaster and limited
cheers. At the Brandenburg Gate, Ebert announced at a power generation toWilson
the heavily populated
USA President Woodrow
march past by German troops: industrial country.
No foe IIhas Great Britain Prime Minister David Lloyd George
Wilhelm andovercome
other you … you
Article 227are returning
charged the Kaiser with the ‘supreme offence Demands for the trial of 12 war criminals
undefeated from a glorious
leaders combat
against … you have
international Francerefused to
morality’. The Netherlands President
also cameGeorges Clemenceau—
to nothing.
protected the homelandagree fromto enemy invasion.and the Kaiser remained in his place
his extradition referred to as ‘The Tiger’ for his
Source: Friedrich Ebert, quotedofinexile until
G Martel hisOrigins
(ed), deathofin
the1941.
Second combative style
Reparations Clause 231 blamed Germany for the war asItaly

a justification for Prime Minister
France occupiedVittorio Orlando,
the Ruhr who
on 11 January
ÎÎ was also
1923 in anPresident
attempt ofto the
claimConference
full
Allied claims for reparation. No amount was agreed at the
about the outcome of the war timeand the Dolchstoßlegende
of signing. The Reparations Commission was established reparations. It failed, and hastened the
(‘stab in the back’) myth perpetuated
to determine bythe
theexact
German Army.
amount Russia
to be repaid and submits Excludedofdue
collapse thetoGerman
the November
currency. 1917
Unable
For them, German armiesconclusion
were undefeated
by 1 Mayin1921.
battle, but Revolution
to which hadinbrought
make reparations Vladimir
cash, Germany
Lenin and thenotes,
Bolsheviks to power.
had been stabbed in the back by Jews,the
Meanwhile, socialists and Germany to pay an equivalent printed
treaty required bank devalued its currency
pacifists. Since President Friedrich Ebert
of 20 billion goldneeded thebillion) in gold, commodities,
marks ($5 and suffered runaway inflation.
support of the German Army, ships,he
securities or other forms.
never countered what The money France
would help to In 1918, there were seven German Marks to
pay for Allied occupation
was, essentially, a lie. Surprisingly, nor did the Allies. costs and buy food
ÎÎ and raw
The premier of the the United
French States Dollar
republic, Georges but this had risen to
Clemenceau,
materials for Germany. was determined to make a harsh peace in order Germany
4 210 500 000 000 marks in 1923. to extract
Between November 1918 and May 1919 many Germans
also borrowed heavily from others to repay
the debts, which were abandoned in 1932.
6 YEAR 12CHAPTER
MODERN1:
HISTORY
Other peace treaties
Table 1.3 Other peace treaties from World War I hostilities and their outcomes
Treaty Outcome
Treaty of Sèvres This treaty was with Turkey, who had fought alongside Germany.
Turkey lost land to Greece.
Turkey lost their empire (the Ottoman Empire) in the Middle East and North Africa to Britain and France.
The Turkish army was reduced to 50 000 men.
The Allies intended to set reparations but following a revolution, the new government renounced the Treaty.
Instead, the government negotiated the Treaty of Lausanne (1923), which permitted Turkey to have an army
with no limit on its size, reparations were cancelled and Greece did not receive land.
Treaty of Neuilly This treaty was with Bulgaria, who had fought alongside Germany
Bulgaria lost land to Greece.
The Hungarian army was reduced to 20 000 men.
The reparations were set at USD$90 million.
Treaty of St This was the treaty with Austria (rump of Austria-Hungary), who had fought alongside Germany.
Germain-en-Laye Austria lost land to Poland, Italy and Czechoslovakia.
The Austrian army was reduced to 30 000 men.
Austria declared themselves bankrupt before reparations could be paid.
Treaty of Trianon This was the treaty with successor state of Hungary (rump of Austria-Hungary).
Hungary lost land to Romania and Yugoslavia.
The Hungarian army was reduced to 35 000 men.
Hungary declared themselves bankrupt before reparations could be paid.
Consequences Despite the terms Germany still enjoyed a dominant

ÎÎ
European position. By 1925 steel production was twice
US disengagement from European affairs that of Great Britain and by 1928 it was experiencing a
ÎÎ Well before his departure from Paris, Woodrow Wilson new era of prosperity. Reparations did not work. Germany
was disillusioned. Frustrated with the atmosphere of could not pay and borrowed heavily from the USA to
hatred towards Germany, he believed that the League was repay its debts. They were finally abandoned in 1932.
the only viable solution to resolve international problems.
ÎÎ Congressional opposition towards the Treaty of Versailles War guilt and humiliation
was intense. Wilson failed to rally support, suffered a ÎÎThe war guilt clause, reparations and the harsh peace
health collapse and ended his term of office a broken man. provoked lasting German enmity towards the Allied
He died in 1924. The Senate refused to ratify the treaty powers. The German people felt cheated and claimed
and the US withdrew from its European commitment. that the settlement was quite different from the Fourteen
ÎÎ US military guarantees of European security were Points proposed by Wilson as a basis for peace
withdrawn. Britain alone would not support France. negotiations. Nationalists and the old ruling elite joined
There began a desperate ‘search for security’ by forces to discredit the new Weimar Republic and
successive French governments. especially the former socialist members of the German
ÎÎ Wilson originally intended the League to revise and adjust Reichstag.
the treaties. It was now used to enforce the provisions
Germany isolated from the European postwar
upon Germany. German politicians worked to change
order
what they regarded as oppressive terms.
ÎÎ At first Germany was refused admission to the League.

A peace too weak or too harsh? It was a mistake to leave it out of the new international
ÎÎ Many Allied leaders considered the terms of the Treaty of order. Likewise Russia was forbidden to join. The
Versailles were not harsh enough. Others saw it as an emergence of Soviet Russia as a political and military
example of French vindictiveness. It was referred to as force altered the balance of power substantially. Western
‘Clemenceau’s peace’. JM Keynes, the renowned British fears of communism made Soviet Russia into an
economist, and a member of the British delegation international outcast for the next decade.
resigned in protest at the terms. He left to complete his
book, The Economic Consequences of the Peace, in which
he attacked reparations as a potential disaster. His views
gained widespread support.

Unstable successor
Ever since the
ÎÎ states Otto von Bismarck in the
era of Chancellor The
ÎÎ Versailles
However, theConference
Allies had promised Japan control of
1870s
ÎÎ and 1880s, two significant
The newly independent countries political partiesstates)
(successor in theof Germany’s holdings in Shandong Province. When news
Imperial Reichstag, the SPD and Catholic Centre
Eastern Europe struggled to establish themselves Party,
as became public, student protests broke out in China and
haddemocracies.
enjoyed an uneasy relationship with the Kaiser’s
Conservative forces asserted control and Paris. China dismissed Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen
government,
government which felt able
fell into to ignore
the hands them. Germany
of minority elites such as Points as hypocritical and moralistic. The delegation
wasthe
a democracy in name
church and landowners. only. from Beijing’s warlord government bowed to public
opinion back home and refused to sign the peace treaty.
Terms
ÎÎ of the
Ethnic Armistice
Germans in Poland and Czechoslovakia felt that ÎÎ A number
The sense of of
commissions were established
betrayal triggered the May 4th to deal with
Movement.
ÎÎ In signing the Armistice,national
they had been denied self-determination.
the German Poland
delegation agreed particular matters. Plenary sessions soon bogged down in
included one million Germans, six million White
to end the fighting based on Wilson’s Fourteen Points. Japan
attempts to come to terms with the immediate problems
ButRussians
when the(opponents
Allies metofat the Bolsheviks
Versailles who
it soon fled Russia
became ÎofÎfood
Japanrelief, blockade,
had made civildeal
a secret wars andGreat
with revolution.
BritainTheto join
following the Bolshevik Revolution and the
evident that France in particular would settle for Civil War)
nothing domestic
the warpolitics of each
in exchange forofthe
theGerman
victors obliged all ofinthe
possessions China
and three million Jews.
less than the complete humiliation of Germany and prime
onceministers,
the war was at some stage,It to
finished. return and
attacked home.seized German
Î ÎAustria collapsed
restoration into social
of its damaged and economic
economic heartlandchaos,
in ÎÎ possessions
Early talks wereindominated
China. by discussion of the Draft
unable France
northeast to recoverandfrom the loss ofBelgium.
neighbouring most of her territory, Covenant
ÎÎ The US veto of Japan’sand
of the League the future
request of the equality
for a ‘racial Germanclause’
population and industry. A union with Germany would colonies. William ‘Billy’ Hughes, the
in the formative League of Nations or any of the Australian Prime
treaties
have lessened
Summary the effects
of the terms of theof these of
Treaty losses and the resulting
Versailles Minister, was at odds with the Council over
(Versailles, Trianon, Neuilly, St Germain or Sèvres) was a the
misery.
• Evacuation of all occupied territory supervision of confiscated
deep, personal insult. Sincecolonies (known
the defeat ofas ‘mandates’).
Spain in the
• Disarmament
Repatriation of all prisoners of war TheSpanish-American
Australian delegation wanted each mandatory
War of 1898, and the seizure of Spain’s
• ÎImmediate handover of 5000 heavy guns and 30 000 nation to
formerapply its own
colonies in thelaws in the captured
Philippines, Japan territory.
regarded this as
ÎAll signatories to the League Covenant agreed to disarm This was accepted.
medium guns a serious encroachment on its own sphere of influence.
themselves, although Great Britain and the US made
some concessions. Germany was the only nation to be
ÎÎ As soon as the Draft had been discussed, Wilson left for
Korea
• No transferdisarmed,
forcibly of population from evacuated
although very muchterritory
against its will,
the United States to face his Senate critics. He returned to
• No destruction Î ÎKoreans
Paris on 14 yearned
March. By to this
be free
time,of the
Japan’s oppressive
President was rule.
and they wereofstill
roadnot
or permitted
rail communications
entry to the League of
• Restoration of coal andlater.
iron The
ore mines andGeneral
water supplies
Despiteill.Wilson’s talk of a just settlement to the war they
seriously
Nations until years German Staff made
felt betrayed when the conference refused to allow
• secret preparations
Immediate handover of for5000
rearmament and
locomotives andtraining.
1500 The The ‘Big Four’
Koreans to plead their case. At the beginning of the talks
wagons
Treaty of Rapallo, concluded with Russia in 1924, allowed
ÎÎ the Koreans
It soon became had planned
apparent thata the
peaceful
Council demonstration
of Ten was in
• Allies
German pilots
to have to to
rights train with Soviet
requisition forces.
property in occupied
their nation’s
unwieldy: capital
in practice thetowork
be accompanied
was done byby thea public
leaders of
territory
thepledge of support
Big Fourfor KoreanItaly,independence, butand
these
• Racial equality and itscolonialism
so-called (France, Great Britain the
Germany to surrender naval fleet
USA)were suppressed
who with great violence.
were accompanied Troopsministers
by their foreign fired into the
At the Versailles talks Japan
Î Î had tried to include a clause
anddemonstrators.
advisers. EachJapanese
leader tried forces attacked and
to reconcile burnt
contradictory
on racial equality but the Allied
• Germany to accept reparations, which leaders
were refused this
to be decided Christian
attitudes churches.
towards 6670 Koreans
the treatment died, 14
of postwar 611 wereThe
Germany.
request. Colonialism and the notion of superiority of the
woundeda and
settlement, 52 770
product of arrested.
these differences, was a
Germany in denial?
white race went hand in hand, but rather than end
Îcompromise
ÎAcross Korea, and outrage
was deeply flawed.
against the Japanese intensified,
ÎÎ imperialism the Allies expectations
Germany had unrealistic continued to as support
to howit.it would
• and rebellion took the Japanese months to control. Many
be treated in the aftermath of war. The country’sover to the
Germany’s African colonies were handed Table 1.1 The main Allied powers and their leaders
League ofpeople
Nationsnever
without consulting thearmies
nationalities Koreans—some armed—fled into Manchuria and into
politicians and conceded that its had Wartime Allied Leader who represented national
concerned. Korea’s mountains.
• Britain
cheers. At thegained control Gate,
Brandenburg of German
Ebert East Africa and
announced at a a Middle East
part of the German Cameroon. USA President Woodrow Wilson
march past by German troops: Arabic speaking peoples fighting with the Allied powers
• France gained control over Togoland. ÎÎ
Greatagainst
Britain rule by the
Prime MinisterTurks
Davidfelt
Lloyd Georgewhen the
No foe hasAfrica
• South overcome
gained youcontrol
… youoverare returning
German South West Ottoman betrayed
undefeated
Africa. from a glorious combat … you have Francepromised independence
Presidentfailed to Clemenceau—
Georges materialise. The Arabs
protected
• Japan, the Newhomeland
Zealand and fromAustralia
enemy invasion.
gained control over had no representation
referredattoVersailles where
as ‘The Tiger’ forthe
his Allies
Source: Friedrich Ebert, quoted in G Martel (ed), Origins of the Second
Germany’s holdings in the Pacific. decided that Britain wouldstyle
combative administer Palestine and
Mesopotamia (modern Iraq), and France would

Japan,
ÎÎ China and
Ebert’s statement Korea
merely alienated
reinforced German self-delusion administer Syriawasandalso
Lebanon under
President mandates
of the of the
Conference
about the outcome of the war and the Dolchstoßlegende League of Nations.
China Russia Excluded due to the November 1917
(‘stab in the back’) myth perpetuated by the German Army.
ÎForÎThe Chinese
them, Germanviewed thewere
armies peaceundefeated
treaty as ain
betrayal. In
battle, but Revolution which had brought Vladimir
had been stabbed in the back by Jews, socialists and side
1917 China had joined the fighting in WW1 on the
of the Allies
pacifists. and sent about
Since President 100 000
Friedrich labourers
Ebert needed totheEurope
as their contribution to the Allied war effort.
support of the German Army, he never countered what In return it France
was, essentially, a lie. Surprisingly, nor did the Allies.China.
hoped to win control over Germany’s holdings in ÎÎ The premier of the French republic, Georges Clemenceau,
6 YEAR 12CHAPTER
MODERN1:
HISTORY
FO C U S O F ST U DY Individual A dictator decides which rights and liberties
liberties are to be given to the individual, who must
THE RISE OF DICTATORSHIPS AFTER restricted unquestioningly obey laws. Freedom of
WORLD WAR I speech, to meet in groups and to publish and
read is severely restricted. Schools, colleges,
1 The conditions that enabled radio, newspapers and films are controlled by
the state and used to promote propaganda.
dictators to rise to power in the
interwar period The nation
glorified
Dictators are intensely nationalistic and use all
means to whip up patriotic emotions and a
sense of national superiority—and sense of
Totalitarianism destiny in history. The state sees itself as the
march of God on earth.
The term ‘totalitarian’ was coined in Italy as early as May
ÎÎ
1923 and used as an anti-fascist form of abuse. Mussolini War glorified Dictators glorify war, which they regard as
adopted the term and spoke positively of the ‘fierce healthy and likely to enhance the nation’s (and
totalitarian will’ of his own movement. The Nazi usage their own) prestige and power among its own
spoke of ‘total war’ and ‘total mobilisation’, with their people and other nations. Dictators adopt
revolutionary implications. aggressive and adventurous foreign policies
and use force in their attempt to achieve
Totalitarianism can describe attributes of the political
ÎÎ national greatness.
systems and dictatorships in Nazi Germany, Italy, Soviet
Russia and Spain in the 1920s and 1930s. However, each of Dictatorship Dictatorships create a totalitarian state which
meant a controls each and every aspect of human
these countries developed a unique political system that
totalitarian personality, and takes into its fold all human
cannot, and should not, be explained by reference to a state activities in the social, economic, political,
single term. Models attempting to explain totalitarianism educational, religious and cultural spheres.
focus on systems and techniques of rule that include a Thinking and expressing opposing views are
single monopoly party, an official ideology, and the a crime.
leadership principle.
Racism Implicit in the program of many dictators is a
The rise of dictators in the interwar period can be
ÎÎ fanatical belief in the nation’s racial superiority
attributed to a variety of causes. Some of these are and the inferiority of those who do not belong
specific to each country and its predicament in the to the majority ethnic culture.
post-1918 world. In all cases the malaise, problems and
issues of the times combined made possible the
emergence of dictators.
In general terms, the following is a useful guide to
ÎÎ
understanding the background conditions that help to
explain the rise of Italy’s Benito Mussolini and his fascist
movement; Germany’s Adolf Hitler and the Nazis; Spain’s
General Francisco Franco and the Falangists; and the
Soviet Union’s Joseph Stalin and the Communist Party.
Table 1.4 The common features of dictatorships
A single Dictatorships allow only the political party of
political the dictator to exist. All other parties,
party associations and organisations are banned,
and opposition is ruthlessly suppressed.
A single Dictatorship by a single man has been Figure 1.2 Benito Mussolini
leader characteristic of all dictatorships throughout

recorded history. The leader represents Italy and Benito Mussolini
national unity and the nation, and ÎÎ Benito Mussolini built a political movement called
concentrates power into his hands. The fascism—a system whereby the government rules through
dictator is the final authority in every matter. terror and by appealing to racism and nationalism.
His followers, the ‘Blackshirts’, were instrumental in helping
A single A single political program of the dictator’s own
program party is imposed on the nation.
him to achieve and maintain power after Mussolini
became prime minister in 1922. He won over nationalists
by promising to turn Italy into a new Roman Empire.
In 1935 his fascist troops invaded Ethiopia in Africa.

Italy’s
ÎÎ dissatisfaction
Ever since with theOtto
the era of Chancellor Treaty
von of Versailles
Bismarck in the The
ÎÎ Versailles
The Blackshirts Conference
were also the implacable enemies of the
1870s
ÎÎ and 1880s, two significant political parties in
The Allies persuaded Italy to enter the war on their sidethe Socialists and were originally the paramilitary wing of
Imperial Reichstag,
by promising the SPD and
it significant Catholic
territorial Centre
gains Party,
at the expense the National Fascist Party. After 1923 it became an
hadofenjoyed an uneasy relationship with the Kaiser’s
the Austro-Hungarian Empire. This included lands along all-volunteer militia of the Kingdom of Italy.
government, which felt able to ignoreislands
them.in Germany Members
its border with Austria-Hungary, the Adriatic, Î Î
A Council ofswore
Ten was an formed,
oath of loyalty
which to Mussolini, the Duce
included
wasportions
a democracy in name only.
of Albania and territory in the Ottoman Empire representatives from the British Empire. March on Rome
(leader) of Fascism. By the time of his
(27–29 October 1922), they numbered about 200 000. As
Terms
ÎÎ of the Armistice
However, the Allies took a dim view of Italy’s poor ÎÎ A number of commissions were established to deal with
performance in the warthe
and duringdelegation
treaty negotiations Mussolini’s power grew, the Blackshirts’ methods became
ÎÎ In signing the Armistice, German agreed particular matters. Plenary sessions soon bogged down in
backtracked on the agreed rewards that Italy would more and more violent against opponents. By 1926 he
to end the fighting based on Wilson’s Fourteen Points.receive. attempts to come to terms with the immediate problems
had become the undisputed totalitarian dictator of Italy.
ButAngry
whenatthe
hisAllies
country’s treatment,
met at Premier
Versailles it soonVittorio
becameOrlando of food relief, blockade, civil wars and revolution. The
stormed out of the conference for a time, returned,
evident that France in particular would settle for nothing and domestic politics
Collapse of each of the
of the European victors obliged all of the
Order
then ultimately accepted what was being
less than the complete humiliation of Germany and offered. prime ministers, at some stage, to returninhome.
ÎÎ The collapse of the tsarist autocracy Russia during
Î ÎThe Treaty
restoration of Versailles
of its granted Italy
damaged economic a seat on
heartland in the League ÎÎ Early
early 1917 and the Bolshevik seizure ofof
talks were dominated by discussion the Draft
power in
of Nations,
northeast a share
France in German warBelgium.
and neighbouring reparations and Covenant
November 1917 destabilised the European German
of the League and the future of the order. The
control of the Tyrol region of the Austro-Hungarian colonies. William
abdication ‘Billy’Wilhelm
of Kaiser Hughes,IIthe AustralianinPrime
of Germany November
Empire.
Summary of The terms of
the terms of the
the Treaty
treaty fuelled anti-British,
of Versailles Minister, was at odds with the Council
1918 and the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian over the Empire
anti-French and anti-American
• Evacuation of all occupied territory sentiment. supervision of confiscated
created political coloniesturmoil.
and economic (known as ‘mandates’).
• Italy’s
Repatriation of alluncertainty
prisoners of war The Australian delegation wanted each mandatory
economic Germany anditsAdolf Hitler
• ÎImmediate handover of 5000 heavy guns and 30 000 nation to apply own laws in the captured territory.
Economic uncertainty following the war led many to
Î This was accepted.
The following are factors explaining the rise of Adolf Hitler
medium guns
believe that parliamentary democracy was a failure. and the establishment of his dictatorship
• Evacuation of the left bank of the Rhine ÎÎ As soon as the Draft had been discussed,andWilsonthe Nazi state.
left for
A command economy, i.e. state-run, was thought to be a
• Noprogressive
transfer of and
population from
scientific evacuated
method territory
of social organisation.
The myth of Dolchstoßlegende
Î ÎThe
seriously German
ill. military leaders promoted the myth that the
• Stalemate inofpolitical
Restoration lifeore
coal and iron andmines
the and
desire forsupplies
water strong
German Army had been ‘stabbed in the back’ by socialist
• leadership
Immediate handover of 5000 locomotives and 1500 The ‘Big Four’ who signed the Treaty of Versailles—and
politicians
ÎThere was widespread unrest towards Italy’s postwar
Îwagons thereby accepted the terms dictated by the Allied
ÎÎ It soon became apparent that the Council of Ten waspowers.
• government.
Allies to have rightsThe tointroduction of proportional
requisition property in occupied
unwieldy: in German
practice the work was done by the leaders of
representation caused stagnation in government: the
territory Î ÎAn angry public looked for scapegoats—Jews,
thecommunists,
so-called Bigsocialists,
Four (France, Italy, Great
Democrats, Britain and the
Republicans—which
• Germany
inabilitytotosurrender
form decisive governments
its naval fleet who could rely on
USA) whowaswere accompanied
Hitler able to exploit. by their foreign ministers
a majority, although a weak coalition was established in
February 1922. If many Italians believed
• Germany to accept reparations, which were to be decided that democracy The Weimar Republic and itsoffragile
attitudes towards the treatment postwardemocracy
Germany. The
was weak and ineffectual, they also regarded the Italian
Îsettlement,
Î a product
The punitive termsof ofthese differences,
the Versailles was(see
Treaty a previous
Germany
monarchy in denial?
as an oppressive and unresponsive system.
compromise and was
section, ‘Peace deeply
treaties andflawed.
their consequences’) earned
ÎÎÎ ÎThis anger,
Germany as well as Italy’s
had unrealistic perceived
expectations as mistreatment,
to how it would was the fledgling democracy of the Weimar Republic
be atreated
factor inin the
the aftermath
rise to power of Benito
of war. Mussolini. It was
The country’s Table 1.1 The main Allied powers and their leaders
undeserved disrespect. Politically motivated violence
also one and
politicians of the reasons
people he cited
never for Italy’s
conceded that entry into World
its armies had Wartime
fromAllied
right-wingLeader who represented
paramilitary groups and national
individuals far
War
been II, fighting on Germany’s
defeated—returning soldiersside.
wereWith democracy
greeted with power outweighed violence interests
by those on the left of politics.
widely
cheers. Atregarded as havingGate,
the Brandenburg failed—a
EbertEurope-wide
announced at a
phenomenon
march past by Germanat this time—fascism
troops: had considerable appeal. Economic factors
It combined
No the futuristic
foe has overcome you … and
youpopulist elements of
are returning Great
ÎÎ Britain
The Prime
Republic was alsoMinister David Lloyd
under threat due toGeorge
economic
undefeated from a glorious combat … youofhave
communist ideology with a strong sense nationalism instability, e.g. hyperinflation
France (1921–24)
President Georges and the collapse
Clemenceau—
that had created the modern European nation-states in of the New Yorkreferred
Stock Exchange
protected the homeland from enemy invasion. to as ‘The in 1929.
Tiger’ forBoth
his the
the late 19th century.
Source: Friedrich Ebert, quoted in G Martel (ed), Origins of the Second working classes combative
and middle classes were badly affected by
style
World War Reconsidered, Routledge, London, 1986 hyperinflation, wiping out middle-class prosperity and
A fascist political organisation

ÎÎ savings, and reducing millions to a state of penury.
Thethe
riseoutcome
of violent, right-wing was also President of the Conference
Î Î
about of the war andparamilitary organisations
the Dolchstoßlegende ÎÎ The Great Depression after 1929 delivered a mortal blow
was another factor that enabled Benito Mussolini to Russia Excluded due
(‘stab in the back’) myth perpetuated by the German Army. to the Weimar Republic. Withtoalmost
the November 1917people
six million
establish his dictatorship. Established in
For them, German armies were undefeated in battle, but 1919, the Revolution which had brought Vladimir
unemployed, the German people felt betrayed by
hadBlackshirts
been stabbedwereinidentified
the back byby Jews,
their socialists
black uniforms
and Lenin and the Bolsheviks to power.
democracy and were ready to support radical political
modelled on those of the Arditi, Italy’s
pacifists. Since President Friedrich Ebert needed elite troops
the of ideas.
World War I. The founders of such groups
support of the German Army, he never countered what were France
was,nationalist intellectuals,
essentially, former nor
a lie. Surprisingly, armydidofficers and young
the Allies. ÎÎ The premier of the French republic, Georges Clemenceau,
landowners who opposed the trade
Between November 1918 and May 1919 many Germans unions representing was determined to make a harsh peace in order to extract
peasants
accepted theand
myth agricultural
that Germany day labourers.
had not lost the war. guarantees of security. He demanded that Germany:
6 YEAR 12CHAPTER
MODERN1:
HISTORY
Hitler gains support from conservative groups This chart illustrates voting patterns in the election of the
ÎÎ
Hitler was quick to embrace the support of nationalist
ÎÎ Weimar Assembly and the nine subsequent elections of
and deeply conservative groups within German society. the Reichstag from 1919 to 1933. The number of seats in
the Reichstag varied with the size of the popular vote.
In October 1931 he agreed to align the Nazi Party with a
The estimates are based on the election reports in the
broad front of nationalists, thereby creating the Harzburg
Deutscher Geschichtekalendar. Note how the representation
Front. The following January he secured the continuing
for both the Communist and Nazi parties increases
support of powerful German industrialists who did not
following the 1929 Depression.
regard Hitler as a threat, but rather a politician aligned to
their interests, i.e. restoring prosperity and stability. 185 75 88 73
Jan. 1919 421
The Nazi Party June 1920

2 193 45 89 137
466
The well-organised and funded Nazi Party became the
ÎÎ 62 100 28 91 159 32
vehicle that carried Hitler and his expertly crafted May 1924 472
45 130 32 104 164 14
message of hope, a German revival and the return to Dec. 1924 489
greatness through repudiation of the hated Treaty of 54 153 25 78 169 12
Versailles. May 1928 491

77 143 20 87 143 107
Hitler’s personal appeal Sep. 1930

89 133 4 97 58 230
577
A significant factor in the establishment of a dictatorship

ÎÎ July 1932 611
in Germany was the personal appeal of Hitler, whose 100 121 2 90 75 196
Nov. 1932 584
public persona was cleverly cultivated and manipulated 81 121 5 92 61 288
by his senior party colleagues. The most important of Mar. 1933 648
these was Dr Joseph Goebbels. Depending on his 2 659

Nov. 1933 661
audience, Hitler could appeal to adoring females and
impressionable young people, brutal Nazi stormtroopers Communists
Catholic parties (Centre
and Bavarian Parties)
and his personal bodyguard, the military leadership, Socialists (Social Democrats Conservatives (Nationalists, Peoples’, Economic
other conservative politicians, industrialists, German and Independent Socialists)
Liberals (Democrats
Party and miscellaneous small groups)
workers, the landed aristocracy, and agricultural workers and State Party)
Nazis and allied groups
and farmers. Figure 1.3 German Parliamentary elections

Source: PW Slosson, Europe Since 1870, Houghton Mifflin, London, 1935
Dictatorship made possible through the ballot box
Ultimately Hitler came to power and quickly established
ÎÎ Spain and General Franco
a dictatorship because the Nazi Party became the largest
single party to win elections. However, the Nazi Party
was still dependent on a coalition arrangement when
Hitler was appointed Chancellor in January 1933. Within
months he had sidelined his coalition partners.
In September 1930 he contested elections for the Reichstag,
ÎÎ
but failed to gain a majority. In March 1932 the Nazi Party
ran Hitler as presidential candidate against President Paul
von Hindenburg, but this bid at leadership also failed.
In the Reichstag election of July 1932 the Nazi Party
ÎÎ
increased its representation, reaching a high point in
public support. In the November elections the popularity Figure 1.4 General Franco
of Nazis declined significantly with the loss of 2 million The Spanish Civil War was a struggle involving two
ÎÎ
votes. Despite being offered the Chancellorship, Hitler opposite political forces—dictatorship and democracy,
refused due to terms which he found unacceptable. i.e. a conflict between the leftist republican parties and a
Finally, on 30 January 1933, President Hindenburg
ÎÎ broad coalition of nationalists led by Franco. From 1937 to
appointed Hitler, knowing that he could no longer exclude 1948 the Franco regime brought together two conflicting,
the Nazis from government. Since he was not prepared to yet similar, political groupings in Spain—the strongly
appoint a coalition of socialists, the far-right parties were national-syndicalist Falange (‘Phalanx’, a fascist Spanish
the last hope of maintaining a semblance of democracy. political party founded by the 3rd Marqués de Estella), and
the Carlist monarchist parties. Out of these two right-wing
organisations, the Falange ruled until Franco’s death in 1975.

ÎÎ The
Everfollowing
since theareerafactors that enabled
of Chancellor Otto Franco to establish
von Bismarck in the The Versailles
A tradition of Conference
institutional militarism
himself
1870s andas a1880s,
dictator.
two significant political parties in the Î ÎThe Japanese1919,
military strongly influenced society from
ÎÎOn 18 January representatives of 32 Allied nations
Imperial Reichstag, the SPD and Catholic Centre Party, the Meiji Restoration. Most leaders, whether in the
Anti-republicanism met near Paris in the Great Hall of the Palace of Versailles
had enjoyed an uneasyand the conservative
relationship cause
with the Kaiser’s military, politics orterms
business
In 1931 thewhichSpanish to decide upon peace for were former powers.
the defeated samurai, or
Î Î
government, feltmonarchy was them.
able to ignore abolished and a
Germany
A Council of Ten was formed, which included value system
their descendants, and shared a militaristic
wasrepublic established.
a democracy in name only. and outlook.from the British Empire.
representatives
ÎÎ In the February 1936 elections, the conservative Spanish
TermsConfederation
of the Armistice of Autonomous Right-wing Groups lost ÎÎA number of commissions
Militarisation of society werethroughestablished to deal
universal with
military
ÎÎ In signing the Armistice,
by a narrow margin. Athe German
leftist delegation
coalition agreed
government— particular matters. Plenary sessions soon bogged down in
conscription
to end the fighting
Popular Front—came based to onpower.
Wilson’s Fourteen Points. attempts to come to terms with the immediate problems
ÎÎ Universal military conscription was progressively
introduced (1873 and 1882). This allowed Japan’s military
Franco’s abilities
evident that Franceas in aparticular
militarywould
leadersettle for nothing domestic politics of each of the victors obliged all of the
to indoctrinate thousands of men from various social
Î ÎFrancisco
less Franco (1892–1975)
than the complete humiliationspent his earlyand
of Germany military prime ministers, at some stage, to return home.
backgrounds with military patriotic values and the
career inof
restoration Spanish Morocco,
its damaged where heartland
economic he successfully
in Early talks were dominated by discussion
ÎÎ concept of unquestioning loyalty to theof the Draft
Emperor as the
defeatedFrance
northeast freedomandfighters. In 1927Belgium.
neighbouring he was promoted to Covenant of the League and the future of the German
basis of the Japanese state (kokutai).
general and made head of the Saragossa military colonies. William ‘Billy’ Hughes, the Australian Prime
academy.
Summary Byterms
of the 1936 he of was Chief ofofStaff
the Treaty of Spain’s military.
Versailles Political
Minister, parties
was at odds andwith
patriotic secretover
the Council societies
the
ÎWhile Franco
• ÎEvacuation of allavoided
occupiedpolitical
territoryinvolvement, in 1934 he supervision
ÎÎ The rise of political parties in the late Meiji‘mandates’).
of confiscated colonies (known as period was
• Repatriation of all prisonersaofmajor
was ordered to suppress war coalminer strike in the Thecoupled
Australian
withdelegation
the rise of wanted
secret and each mandatorypatriotic
semi-secret
Asturias, which was threatening
• Immediate handover of 5000 heavy guns to trigger the spread of
and 30 000 nation to apply
societies, suchitsasown
thelaws in the (1881)
Genyusha captured territory.
and Kokuryukai
socialism
medium guns throughout Spain. In brutally smashing the This was accepted.
(1901). Political activities supported paramilitary
strike and restoring peace to the region, Franco became
• Evacuation of the left bank of the Rhine ÎÎAs activities
soon as the andDraft
military
had intelligence,
been discussed, as well as overseas
Wilson left for
known as a ruthless leader who was prepared to act theexpansion as a to
solution
face histoSenate
Japan’scritics.
domestic issues. to
• Nodecisively
transfer of population from evacuated territory
against left-wing politics in Spain.
United States He returned
Foreign
seriouslypolicy
ill. and the need to secure vital raw
• A Restoration
military revolt
of coal and iron ore mines and water supplies materials
• ÎImmediate
ÎUnhappy handover
with the outcome of the 1936and
of 5000 locomotives elections,
1500 senior The
Î‘Big
Î Four’
Japan’s home islands lacked raw resources such as iron,
army officers began to plot a military coup to prevent the
wagons
ÎÎ oil and
It soon coal, which
became hadthat
apparent to be
theimported.
Council ofJapan’s military
Ten was
• left-wing
Allies to havegovernment sparkingproperty
rights to requisition a communist revolution.
in occupied
looked towards
unwieldy: Manchuria’s
in practice irondone
the work was and coal,
by theIndochina’s
leaders of
As a conservative and a monarchist, he decided to join
territory
therubber andBig
so-called China’s vast resources.
Four (France, The acquisition
Italy, Great Britain and of
the
• the coup.
Germany to On 17 Julyits1936
surrender Nationalist
naval fleet forces seized
USA)Taiwan
who (1895) and Korea (1910)
were accompanied brought
by their Japan
foreign ministers
• Morocco before heading to
Germany to restore stolen property the mainland. This marked
the start of the Spanish Civil War. andagricultural colonies.
advisers. Each leader tried to reconcile contradictory
Help from The Versailles PeaceofConference
in Nazi Germany settlement, a product these differences, was a
Germany denial? Î See page 6.
ÎÎ During the Spanish Civil War Franco gained military compromise and was deeply flawed.
Î
support from various regimes and groups, especially Nazi Imperial
Table ambitions
1.1 The main and the
Allied powers andquest for respect
their leaders
be treated in the aftermath of war. The country’s
Germany and Fascist Italy. Surprisingly, the Soviet Union
politicians and people never conceded that its armies had ÎÎ Japan
Wartime joined theLeader
Allied imperialist powers following
who represented its victory
national
also contributed arms and supplies. With foreign backing
been defeated—returning soldiers were greeted with powerover China in the First Sino-Japanese War and over
interests
Franco’s forces defeated the republican armies.
cheers. At the Brandenburg Gate, Ebert announced at a Russia in the Russo-Japanese War. Only through a strong
march pastmilitary
Superior by Germanandtroops:
political coordination military could Japan earn the respect of Western nations
With
No
ÎÎ foethe
hasdeath of theyou
overcome other
… generals, Franco quickly
you are returning Greatand the revisionPrime
Britain of theMinister
unequal treaties.
David Lloyd George
became hisfrom
undefeated faction’s only leader
a glorious and…established
combat you have a France President Georgesmilitary
Clemenceau—
coordinating junta basedfrom
at Burgos
No civilian control over Japan’s
protected the homeland enemyininvasion.
July 1936. referred to as ‘The Tiger’ for his
Source: Friedrich Ebert, quoted in G Martel (ed), Origins of the Second ÎÎ Japan’s military combative
was completely
style independent of any
Japan and
World War Emperor
Reconsidered, Hirohito
Routledge, London, 1986 civilian oversight or control. The army and navy could more
Î ÎThe rise of Japan as both an imperial and military power Italy or less dictate the
Prime Minister(and
formation Vittorio Orlando,
survival) of awho
civilian
ÎÎEbert’s statement merely reinforced German self-delusion was also President of the Conference
set the context for the policies of successive
about the outcome of the war and the Dolchstoßlegende governments government. There was always a veiled threat when the
under
(‘stab Emperor
in the Hirohito
back’) myth (1901–89),
perpetuated who
by the ruled from
German Army. military made any
Russia demands
Excluded due on theNovember
to the civilian leadership.
1917
1926 until his death.
Economic problems Lenin and the Bolsheviks to power.
had been stabbed
Building a stronginJapan
the back
to by Jews, socialists
counter foreignandthreats
pacifists. Since President Friedrich Ebert needed the ÎÎ The Great Kanto Earthquake flattened much of Tokyo in
ÎÎ From the late 1860s the early Meiji government believed
support of the German Army, he never countered what France1923, ushering in a dark era made worse by the global
Japan was threatened by Western imperialism due to the
was, essentially, a lie. Surprisingly, nor did the Allies. ÎÎ Thedepression
premier ofinthe
1929. Trade
French barriers
republic, imposed
Georges by Western
Clemenceau,
country’s state of backwardness. It set about strengthening nations in retaliation for Japan’s military aggression towards
Japan’s economic and industrial foundations so that a China gave impetus to anti-democratic political groups.
strong military could be built to defend itself.
6 YEAR 12CHAPTER
MODERN1:
HISTORY
Democratic rule followed by rise of ultranationalism Stalin’s control over the Communist Party
For a brief period following the end of the war in 1918, Japan
ÎÎ In 1922 Stalin was appointed to the newly created office
ÎÎ
enjoyed democracy (the Taisho democracy) and the flowing of General Secretary of the Communist Party. Over time
of modern culture, but this soon gave way to increasing this post became highly significant because it allowed
internal divisions. These were mainly caused by him to control the appointment of party members to
disagreements about the acceptance of unfavourable terms important positions and gradually build a power base.
of the Treaty of Versailles, which prompted anger from Ultimately nearly every member of the Politburo (the
ÎÎ
Japanese parliamentary hawks at the country’s negotiators. government) and the Central Committee (the Communist
Attempts were made to encourage peace, e.g. the
ÎÎ Party) owed their position to Stalin. By the time anyone
Washington Naval Treaty and participation in the League realised what he had done it was too late. Lenin was
of Nations. Japanese politics became increasingly radical, gravely ill and helpless to regain control from Stalin.
including terrorist violence, an assassination attempt on
The death of Lenin in 1924
the Emperor in 1932 and a number of attempted coups
d’état by ultranationalist secret societies. The Japanese Lenin died as the result of complications from wounds he
ÎÎ
system of party government finally met its demise with sustained during an assassination attempt several years
the May 15 Incident in 1932, when a group of junior earlier. He did not nominate a successor, which left the
naval officers and army cadets assassinated Prime way open for a power struggle within the highest levels of
Minister Inukai Tsuyoshi. the Communist Party. Lenin warned against Stalin before
he died. It is entirely possible that Stalin found ways to
The Soviet Union and Joseph Stalin hasten Lenin’s death. Stalin assumed total control of Lenin’s
funeral arrangements and positioned himself as a grieving
Party comrade and the natural successor to Lenin.
The struggle for power

A struggle for power developed between Stalin and Trotsky
ÎÎ
(the Commissar for War) who was Lenin’s presumed
successor. Trotsky led an opposition that aimed to
preserve the traditions of 1917. He believed in encouraging
world revolution; Stalin was committed to ‘Communism
in One Country’, insisting that communist rule in Russia
would need to be firmly established before there was any
attempt to spread revolution.
Figure 1.5 A young Joseph Stalin Stalin’s destruction of the old party leadership
With the support of his allies within the Communist Party
ÎÎ After Lenin’s death Stalin set out to take total control
ÎÎ
Stalin established a dictatorship in the Soviet Union. but first he needed to destroy the old party leadership.
Stalin’s dictatorship reimposed a form of class rule over a He removed opponents from power, initially through
society that had rejected the tsarist autocracy in the dismissal from their posts and denunciations. Many were
Russian Revolution. The rise of Stalin’s regime represented exiled abroad to Europe and the Americas, including
the victory of an ideology of an elite political class. The Leon Trotsky. Stalin’s agents murdered Trotsky in Mexico
following helps to explain how Stalin managed to secure in August 1940, where he was living in exile.
control over the Communist Party and effectively
establish himself as the country’s dictator. As in the case Dictatorship under a single party
of Adolf Hitler and Nazi Germany it took time for Stalin In the desperate conditions of the 1920s and 1930s, the
ÎÎ
to consolidate power into his own hands. Bolshevik Party destroyed the revolution through increasingly
authoritarian measures. These were regarded as a
The destruction of the Civil War temporary necessity to prevent counter-revolution. A
Soon after the Bolshevik seizure of power in November

ÎÎ distinct form of dictatorship established itself—Stalinism.
1917 the country was plunged into a civil war, which was Stalin and his followers used the rhetoric of socialism and
catastrophic in terms of loss of life and mass starvation. Marxism to justify an exploitative system run by a
The cost of the victory against the forces of the ‘Whites’ minority who remained in control until his death in 1953.
(aligned with the former monarchy) was enormous.
Stalin’s use of terror
Russia’s economy suffered the worst decline ever known
in world history by some estimates. Out of the In 1934 Sergei Kirov (a popular Communist Party leader)
ÎÎ
circumstances of war and economic chaos, a group of was murdered, most probably on the orders of Stalin.
state bureaucrats came together around Stalin and began Claiming that enemies were trying to destroy the
to put its hold on power before everything else. communist revolution, he unleashed a vast reign of terror.

ÎÎ This
Ever extended
since the erabeyond the elimination
of Chancellor Otto von of supposed
Bismarck in the The
ÎÎ Versailles
Stalin believedConference
that collectivism would accelerate food
enemies
1870s and soon
and 1880s, twocame to include
significant Party-approved
political parties in the control production but the peasants resented losing their land
ÎÎOn 18 January 1919, representatives of 32 Allied nations
of everyday
Imperial life, politics,
Reichstag, the SPDart, andculture
CatholicandCentre
music.Party,
The and working for the state. Millions were killed in forced
hadarrest of political
enjoyed an uneasy opponents
relationshiptookwith
placethe(usually
Kaiser’sduring labour or starved during the ensuing famine.
the night) which
government, and ‘show trials’tostaged.
felt able ignorePotential
them. Germanyrivals were
A Council
Stalin’s of Ten
policy ofwas formed,
rapid which included
industrialisation
wasaccused of aligning
a democracy withonly.
in name capitalist nations, convicted of
being enemies of the people and summarily executed. ÎÎ Rapid industrialisation under Stalin’s five-year plans
TermsMass
of the Armistice A number
purges followed, extending from the Party elite to ÎÎ achievedofinitial
commissions
successeswere established
but over to deal
time cost withof
millions
ÎÎ In signing the Armistice,
local officials suspectedthe German delegation agreed
of counter-revolutionary activities, particular matters. Plenary sessions soon bogged down in
lives, was wasteful of resources and did immense damage
to end theas
as well fighting
anyonebased on Wilson’s
who might Fourteen
be remotely Points. a
considered attempts to come to terms with the immediate problems
to the environment. Mass arrests fed the growing gulag
Butthreat.
when Killings,
the Alliestorture
met atand
Versailles it soon became
being worked to death in the of food relief, blockade, civil wars and revolution. The
(slave and work camp) network where exiles were worked
evident that France
vast network in particular
of slave camps could would besettle for nothing
expected. domestic politics of each of the victors obliged all of the
to death or executed.
Stalin’s destruction
restoration of the
of its damaged Russianheartland
economic peasantry in through ÎÎEarly talks were dominated by discussion of the Draft
collectivisation
northeast France and neighbouring Belgium. Î K e y ofQthe

Covenant U E STI O Nand the future of the German
League
ÎÎ In the late 1920s and early 1930s, Stalin reversed the colonies. William ‘Billy’ Hughes, the Australian Prime
1 Give an overview of three factors in the interwar
Bolshevik
Summary of theagrarian
terms of policy by seizing
the Treaty land given earlier to
of Versailles Minister, was at odds with the Council over the
the peasants and organising
• Evacuation of all occupied territory collective farms. This reduced period of
supervision that allowed dictators
confiscated to emerge
colonies (known in Italy and
as ‘mandates’).
the peasants to their previous
• Repatriation of all prisoners of war status as serfs under the Germany. delegation wanted each mandatory
The Australian
• Immediate handover of 5000 heavy guns and 30markets
tsarist monarchy. Grain was sold on world 000 to nation to apply its own laws in the captured territory.
Answer p. 44
earn foreign
medium guns currency needed to buy imported machinery This was accepted.
to drive industrialisation.
• Evacuation of the left bank ofItthe was also a political weapon
Rhine ÎÎAs soon as the Draft had been discussed, Wilson left for
used by Stalin to subjugate the richer peasants (kulaks)
and starve them into submission. Paris on 14 March. By this time, the President was
• No destruction of road or rail communications
• 2 seriously ill.
An overview of the features of the dictatorships
Restoration of coal and iron ore mines and water supplies
that emerged in Russia, Italy and Japan
wagons
• Russia
Allies to have rights to requisition property in occupied
territory
• ÎGermany
ÎDetailedtocoverage
surrenderofitsthe features
naval fleet and characteristics of Stalin’s dictatorship is covered in Chapter 2. The following table
provides a general overview for the purpose of this section of the syllabus.
• Table
Germany to accept reparations, which were to be decided
1.5 An overview of Stalin’s dictatorship attitudes towards the treatment of postwar Germany. The
Germany
Rapid in denial? In 1928 Stalin openly advocated ending the partial return to capitalism (The New Economic Policy, or NEP).
ÎÎ industrialisation
Germany In its
had unrealistic place he introduced
expectations as to howwhat became a series of five-year plans for rapidly industrialising the largely rural
it would
Soviet Union. This would help to accelerateTable
the development
1.1 The maintowards communism,
Allied powers and theirovercome
leaders the country’s
backwardness and enable it to face the challenges posed by internal and external enemies of communism.
politicians and people never conceded that its armies had Wartime
Despite impossibly high production quotas rapid Allied growthLeader
economic who represented
was achieved, especiallynational
in coal and iron
been defeated—returning soldiers
output. Harshwere greeted with
totalitarian power Most of the huge
measures were introduced. interests
industrial complexes constructed for
cheers. At the Brandenburg Gate, Ebert
the five-year planannounced
were built byatslave
a labourers who had mostly been sentenced on trumped-up charges.
Stalin was pragmatic: to hasten industrialisation in the first plan he created joint venture contracts with
No foe has overcome major
you …American private enterprises, such as Great
you are returning Ford Motor
BritainCompany.Prime
UnderMinister
state supervision
David Lloydforeign
George
corporations helped develop the Soviet economy in the late 1920s to 1930s. Once US firms had completed
undefeated from a glorious combat
their tasks, … state
Soviet you have
enterprises took over.France President Georges Clemenceau—
Building a national
Source: Friedrich Stalin’s
Ebert, quoted dictatorship
in G Martel andofpropaganda
(ed), Origins the Second campaigns exercised tight control over the
combative stylegeneral populace, yet many
sense
Worldof
Warpride peasants
Reconsidered, Routledge, and workers
London, 1986 took pride in the achievements of the Soviet state and the drive to modernise.
Ebert’s statement merelyGradually

ÎÎ reinforcedsocial conditions
German did improve underItaly
self-delusion
Prime
Stalin. Full employment wasMinister
achieved Vittorio Orlando,
and public who
health was
was also President of the Conference
improved dramatically. All of this came at a cost, however, as there was no freedom at all in Soviet society.
(‘stab in the
The cult of back’) myth The
perpetuated by the
Soviet state German
cultivated extreme cult ofRussia
anArmy. Excluded
personality around Stalin. due toofthe
Pictures theNovember 1917 at
dictator appeared
For them, German
personality in armies were
every undefeated
street corner andin in
battle,
everybut
building, including people’s homes. Revolution which had
School children brought
ended Vladimir
the pledge of
leadership Lenin and theforBolsheviks
this happytolife.’
power.
had been stabbed in theallegiance at thesocialists
back by Jews, beginning of each day by saying ‘...and thank Comrade
and Stalin
pacifists. Since PresidentFear
Friedrich Ebert needed the line’ meant that creative people such as artists, musicians, actors, poets and
whatanxious toFrance
Cultural conformity of not following the ‘Party
support of the German writers
Army, he never countered
self-censored. They were produce works that depicted everyday life in the worker state—
was, essentially, a lie. Surprisingly, nor did thenot
Socialist Realism—and Allies. ÎÎ
incur Stalin’s wrath.TheAs apremier of theand
result, social French republic,
cultural Georges
life suffered Clemenceau,
during this period.
Between November 1918 and Mayof
Thousands 1919 many
people purged (murdered, was
Germans
were determined
imprisoned to makefor
or banished) a harsh peace
work that wasinconsidered
order to extract
anti-Soviethad
accepted the myth that Germany andnot
subversive
lost theofwar. guarantees of security. He demanded that Germany:
the Stalinist ideal.
6 YEAR 12CHAPTER
MODERN1:
HISTORY
Table 1.5 continued
Policy of terror Stalin became increasingly paranoid and suspicious throughout the period of collectivisation and the
five-year plan. He turned against important members of the party he had once called supporters and
engaged in ruthless purges of the party membership. Most of them were original party members and
colleagues of Lenin, known as the Old Bolsheviks.
During the ‘Great Terror’ of 1936–37, Stalin is supposed to have personally signed 40 000 death warrants. The
NKVD, the Soviet secret police, hunted down citizens suspected of counter-revolutionary or subversive crimes.
About 3.7 million people were sentenced for counter-revolutionary crimes, approximately 600 000 were put
to death, 700 000 were expatriated and 2.7 million were sent to forced labour camps called gulags, often itself
a death sentence.
Show trials Through a series of show trials, the defendants were sentenced to death and to forced labour in the gulag.
Often after using torture to extract signed confessions and agreeing on lenient sentences for a confession of
false charges in the court, Stalin would go back on his word and have the defendants executed. Zinoviev and
Kamenev, Stalin’s old allies, both met this fate.
Caution in foreign Stalin’s foreign policy was cautious, the emphasis being on economic development at home and the
policy consolidation of his own power at the expense of the Communist Party and the Soviet people. Foreign
communist parties were made subordinate to the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.
Socialism in One Socialism in One Country meant developing the economic strength of the Soviet Union and ensuring its own
Country survival. Stalin was acutely aware that Trotsky’s view that Russia should ‘export’ revolution would result in
foreign conflicts and the possible end of the fragile Soviet state. He declared that Socialism in One Country
was the priority, although he supported attempts by the Communist International to coordinate
governments abroad.
Collectivisation of Industrialisation was accompanied by mass collectivisation of agriculture and rapid urbanisation, which
agriculture converted many small villages into industrial cities.
Most peasants actively opposed collectivisation. In the Ukraine they slaughtered their livestock rather than
give it to the authorities, which so angered Stalin that he allowed a famine to develop that led to the deaths
of millions of innocent people. Agricultural output collapsed and it was only by 1940 that output levels of
1923 were attained, thereafter rising only marginally in the following years.
Stalin punished the richer peasant farmers (kulaks) by deporting them to forced labour camps in Siberia.
Broadly, anyone critical of collectivisation was deemed a kulak and summarily deported. At least 2.5 million
peasants (in addition to a similar number of industrial workers) were deported, though the true number is
believed to be much greater.
Autonomous Soviet Stalin wanted to create a ‘Soviet’ citizen, intending to eradicate national identities, such as the Russians,
republics and ethnic Ukrainians or Belarussians. The Soviet Constitution gave equal rights to all ethnic groups, unlike the tsars
minorities who favoured the Russians. He forced speakers of every language in the USSR to convert to the Cyrillic
alphabet. He punished any resistance to Soviet control by mass deportations.
Class conflict Stalinism promoted the escalation of class conflict and used state violence to forcibly purge society of
claimed supporters of the bourgeoisie. For him, remnants of the bourgeois from tsarist days were a threat to
the communist revolution. The result was political violence and persecution of such people on a huge scale,
perpetrated against bourgeois and working-class people accused of counter-revolutionary sympathies.
Religious Atheism was the official policy of the state. Priests were arrested and either shipped to the gulag or executed.
persecution By about 1939 less than 1000 churches remained out of at least 20 000.
Italy After the murder of the liberal socialist politician,

ÎÎ
Giacomo Matteotti (which angered many Italians),
Mussolini was never able to assert his authority and
ÎÎ
Mussolini’s power almost collapsed. This demonstrates
dictatorial powers to the extent achieved by Hitler. In fact
that he was not yet a true dictator. His government

his road to dictatorship took much longer than that of
contained a mixture of men with different political
Adolf Hitler. Mussolini achieved a semblance of power
beliefs—similar to Hitler’s position in January 1933.
after his march on Rome in 1922, after which he was
appointed Prime Minister of Italy.
Table 1.6 An overview of Mussolini’s dictatorship
Support from the Roman Despite his bluster and bombastic speeches, Mussolini worked hard to secure loyalty in Italy. He recognised
Catholic Church papal authority over the Vatican and declared Catholicism the official religion of all of Italy, ending
hundreds of years of estrangement. Religious education was made compulsory in all primary schools.
The Lateran Treaty (of Accords of 1929) guaranteed the loyalty of those Catholics who may not have
automatically supported a fascist state in Italy.

Table 1.6 continued
ÎÎ Ever since the era of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck in the The Versailles Conference
1870s
Supportandfrom
1880s, two significant political
Mussolini securedparties in the
support from industrial bosses who regarded him as a bulwark against the threat of
industrialists ÎÎ OnAn18enquiry
January 1919, representatives of 32 Allied nations
Imperial Reichstag, the SPDcommunism
and Catholic andCentre
disruption to the economy.
Party, into the profits made by the industrialists during
the First World War was dropped. met near Paris in the Great Hall of the Palace of Versailles
government,
Support fromwhich
the felt ableMussolini
to ignorepromised
them. Germany
workers an eight-hour A Council
day. He encouraged couples to have as many children as
of Ten was formed, which included
was a democracy
working class in name only.
possible, and at the same time organised large-scale expansion in the agricultural sector to feed them.
Terms of the
Support fromArmistice
the middle Death duties on inheritances by the richÎwere Î reduced,ofwith
A number more wealth
commissions ableestablished
were to be passed toon to their
deal with
and upper classes families and not the government. particular matters. Plenary sessions soon bogged down in
ÎÎ In signing the Armistice, the German delegation agreed
to end the fighting
Militarisation and based onA Wilson’s Fourteen
driving ambition of Points.
Mussolini was to restore attempts to come of
the hegemony tothe
terms withEmpire
Roman the immediate
in a modernproblems
Italy. His
But when
foreign the Allies met at Versailles
conquests regime began it soon became
to prepare the country for war. of food relief, blockade, civil wars and revolution. The
evident that France in particular for territorial rightsdomestic
would settle for nothing
Corfu (1923)—demands continued, politics of each
including of on
claims thethe
victors
Greekobliged allCorfu.
island of of the
less than the complete humiliation
Ethiopiaof Germany and army invadedprime
(1935)—Mussolini’s Ethiopiaministers, at some Eritrea.
from Italian-held stage, toAtreturn home.
first this was a disaster.
He underestimated
restoration of its damaged economic heartlandresistance
in by the King
ÎÎ of Ethiopia,
Early Hailledominated
talks were Selassie, who byspoke eloquently
discussion of theatDraft
the
League of
northeast France and neighbouring Belgium. Nations about the plight of his people. Eventually the poorly armed Ethiopians were defeated
Covenant of the League and the future of the German
largely thanks to Mussolini’s terror tactics, e.g. poison gas and terror bombings.
Albania (1939)—Italy invaded and captured Albania, making it part of the Italian Empire as a separate
Summary of the terms of thekingdom Treaty of Versailles
in personal union with the ItalianMinister,
crown. was at odds with the Council over the
Foreign allies Germany—Mussolini became a close ally ofThe Hitler and in 1939
Australian signed the
delegation ‘Pact of
wanted Steel’,
each creating a formal
mandatory
• Repatriation of all prisonersalliance
of war
between Italy and Nazi Germany tonation to control the masses in newspapers, posters, radio and movie
• Immediate handover of 5000cinemas. heavy guns and 30 000 apply its own laws in the captured territory.
Spain—Mussolini supported General Franco’s forces during the Spanish Civil War by sending arms and aid.
• Evacuation of the left bank of the Rhine ÎÎ As soon as the Draft had been discussed, Wilson left for
• Japan
No transfer of population from evacuated territory ÎtheÎ United being
Despite States overshadowed
to face his Senate critics.
by the He returned
military, civilian torule
• No destruction of road or rail communications Paris on 14 March. By this time, the President
continued in Japan, although a decisive coup in 1936 was
• Restoration of coal and iron ore mines and water supplies seriously
brought ill.the country one step closer to a full military
• Immediate handover of 5000 locomotives and 1500 dictatorship. The ever-growing power of the military
The ‘Big Four’
wagons showed itself in numerous ways.
• Allies to have rights to requisition property in occupied unwieldy: in practice the work was done by the leaders of
territory
• Germany to surrender its naval fleet USA) who were accompanied by their foreign ministers
• Germany to restore stolen property and advisers. Each leader tried to reconcile contradictory
Germany
Figure 1.6 in denial?
General Hideki Tojo, on trial for war crimes
ÎÎ Germany
Table 1.7 Anhad unrealistic
overview expectations
of Japan’s as to how it would
military dictatorship
Attempted and
politicians coups
people neverByconceded
the late 1930s Japanese
that its armiesmilitarists
had had achieved near-full control of government decisions.
Wartime Allied Leader who represented national
been defeated—returning soldiersOctoberwere1931—the
greetedOctober
with Incident waspowera failed attempt to seize power launched by the Sakurakai
interests
secret society within the Imperial Japanese Army, aided by civilian ultranationalist groups.
May 1932—a group of junior naval officers USA
assassinated Prime Minister PresidentTsuyoshi
Woodrow Wilson
Inukai
February 1936—civilian leaders were murdered by military officers with the goal of purging the
No foe has overcome yougovernment
… you are returning Great
and military leadership of their Britain rivals andPrime
factional Minister
ideological David Lloyd
opponents. George
While those who
plotted
undefeated from a glorious the …
combat coups
youwere
haveexecuted, military leaders
France increasingly took over ministerial positions.
President Georges Clemenceau—
Despite
protected the homeland from public
enemy dismay and numerous military figures being discredited,
invasion. referred toJapan’s
as ‘Thecivilian leadership
Tiger’ for his was
forced
Source: Friedrich Ebert, quoted in to (ed),
G Martel accept theofarmy’s
Origins demands, hoping to end domestic combative
the Second violence. style
Japan as a militaristic Except for a brief period in the 1920s, Japan
Italyhad always been aPrime
state Minister
where the military played who
the upper
Vittorio Orlando,
Ebert’s
ÎÎstate statement merely reinforced Germanover
hand. Its control self-delusion
civilian government fostered internal andwas external aggression,
also President i.e. Conference
of the military
about the outcome of the war Dolchstoßlegende
and theoverseas,
conquest and violence and repression at home.
Defence budgets
(‘stab in the back’) myth perpetuated were increased
by the German Russiaas well as for naval
Army. for the army Excluded due to the
construction. November
Japan 1917
also announced it
For them, German armies were wouldundefeated
no longer accede to disarmament
in battle, but treaties. It commenced patriotic indoctrination
Revolution which had brought as the country
Vladimir
was put on a wartime footing. Lenin and the Bolsheviks to power.
pacifists. SinceofPresident
Appointment General Friedrich
EmperorEbert needed
Hirohito thethat he might be able to control extreme opinions in the army by using the
thought
support of the
Hideki Tojo German Army,
as Prime he neverand
charismatic countered what
influential France
General Tojo. In October 1940 after a lengthy period of political turmoil, the
Minister Emperor appointed Tojo
was, essentially, a lie. Surprisingly, nor did the Allies.as prime minister
ÎÎ (Tojopremier
The also held
ofthe
thepost of Army
French Minister
republic, from October
Georges 1941 to
Clemenceau,
June 1944). Tojo
Between November 1918 and May 1919 many Germans was hanged as a war criminal in 1948 and obliged to take the blame for decisions
was determined to make a harsh peace in order to extract made
by Emperor Hirohito, who the US occupation administration needed to maintain as a figurehead for the
defeated Japanese people.
6 YEAR 12CHAPTER
MODERN1:
HISTORY
Table 1.7 continued
Suppression of All democratic elements disappeared in Japan during Japanese militarism. There was no freedom of
democracy speech, and there was strict censorship of the media.
Under Prime Minister Konoe Fumimaro, the Japanese government was streamlined to meet wartime
conditions. Under the National Mobilisation Law the military was given absolute power over the nation’s
assets. In 1940 all political parties were ordered to dissolve into the Imperial Rule Assistance Association,
forming a one-party state based on totalitarian values.
Suppression of However, government bureaucrats opposed the influence and heavy hand of the military. In the 1942
democracy (continued) general election for the Japanese Diet, the military was still unable to do away with the last vestiges of
party politics. This was partly due to the fact that the military itself was not a monolithic structure, but
was deeply divided with its own political factions. Even Japan’s wartime Prime Minister, Hideki Tojo, had
difficulty controlling portions of his own military.
Anti-communism Japan’s military used violence and terror against communists and liberal opponents. In November 1936,
the Anti-Comintern Pact, an agreement to exchange information and collaborate in preventing
communist activities, was signed by Japan and Germany.
Territorial ambitions and Japan’s expanding ambitions in China led to disputes with Britain and the US, as well as the League of
foreign invasion Nations, which in turn drove Japan towards Germany and Italy.
Manchuria (1931)—the attack on Manchuria in September 1931 set the stage for a military takeover of all
of Manchuria.
Shanghai (January 1932)—Japanese forces attacked Shanghai in the First Shanghai Incident, waging a
three-month undeclared war there before a truce was reached. The civilian government in Tokyo was
powerless to prevent these military adventures, and instead of being condemned, Japan’s army in China
enjoyed considerable popular support.
China (1937)—Japan captured Beijing in 1937 and eventually gained control of large parts of China.
To maintain supplies of natural resources, access to which had been cut off by the US, Japan invaded
large areas of the Asia-Pacific region, from Burma to Guam. That led to war in the Pacific with the US and
the Allied powers.
On 24 February 1920 at the first mass meeting of 2000

ÎÎ
FO C U S O F ST U DY people held in a beer hall in Munich, Hitler announced
THE NAZI REGIME TO 1939 the name of a new organisation, the National Socialist
German Workers’ Party (Nationalsozialistische Deutsche
1 The rise of the Nazi Party and Hitler Arbeiter Partei, or Nazi Party).
in Germany and the collapse of • The 25-point program of the Nazi Party was a confused
the Weimar Republic mix of the concepts of nationalism, socialism and
racism.
Background to 1920
Adolf Hitler enlisted in Munich and fought in a Bavarian
ÎÎ The main ideas of the Nazi Party
infantry unit during World War I. Posted to the Western • Greater Germany (Gross Deutsche), union of all
Front, he proved a brave soldier, twice winning the Iron German people, and return of all former German
Cross for heroism. Corporal Hitler was blinded in a gas colonies
attack in October 1918 and spent the next few months • reversal of the Treaty of Versailles
recovering in hospital. He returned to Munich with his • confiscation of war profits and unearned income
regiment and was appointed to the Press and Propaganda made by German citizens
Department of Group Command IV of the German Army.
• a guaranteed living wage for all citizens
In September 1919 Hitler was sent to investigate a small
ÎÎ • nationalisation of major industries
group calling themselves the German Workers’ Party (DAP). • assistance to small businesses
Founded by a Munich locksmith called Anton Drexler • reform of farming and agriculture
(1884–1942), the DAP was a small club of about 20
• self-sufficiency (autarky) in economic life
anti-communist, anti-monarchist, anti-Weimar, and
anti-Semitic members. Meetings were held in the back
• expansionist foreign policy to provide Germany with
‘living space’ in the east
room of a beer cellar, and on one occasion Hitler spoke
publicly. This so impressed the group that he was asked • exclusion of all Jews and immigrants from German
to join. Taking control of propaganda, he at once began society
to organise larger meetings. By early December 1919 the
DAP was attracting audiences of more than 200 people in
the country towns of Bavaria.

ÎÎ The since
Ever Munichthe eraPutsch, 1923 Otto von Bismarck in the
of Chancellor Why
The did the Conference
Versailles Weimar Republic fail?
Hitler Reichstag,
drew conclusions On Immediately
18 January 1919, priorrepresentatives
to the Wall Street crash
of 32 the nations
Allied highly
the SPDfrom
and his failed Centre
coup attempt
Party, in
Î Î ÎÎÎ Î
Imperial Catholic
the Bavarian capital of Munich (the Munich Putsch) metrespected
near Paris former
in theForeign
Great Hall Minister,
of the Gustav
Palace of Stresemann,
Versailles
in 1923 and his imprisonment in Landsberg fortress. died. His
to decide upondeath peaceon terms
3 October
for the1929 robbedpowers.
defeated the Republic
He believed that: of stability
A Council and was
of Ten led to the fallwhich
formed, of Hermann
included Müller’s
• the German people had a deep historical aversion to (1876–1931)from
representatives coalition government.
the British Empire. Stresemann was an
Terms ofrevolution
the Armistice ÎÎ internationally respected
A number of commissions were establishedstatesman whosetopolitical
deal withskills
ÎÎ • a direct
In signing theattack on thethe
Armistice, Weimar
German Republic would
delegation fail.
agreed were unrivalled in Germany.
particular matters. Plenary sessions soon bogged down in
to endPower would based
the fighting have toonbeWilson’s
achieved throughPoints.
Fourteen electoral Î ÎWithintothree
attempts comeyears of thewith
to terms 1929 thecrash, the Weimar
immediate problems
But when the Allies met at Versailles it soon became
success. Republic
of food relief,had been abandoned
blockade, civil wars as andanrevolution.
experimentThe in
evident
ÎÎ that France
For his part in theinplot,
particular would authorities
the Bavarian settle for nothing
banned democracy.
domestic politicsCollapse
of eachwas progressive
of the from early
victors obliged all of1930
the
lessHitler
than the
from speaking in public for two years. and
complete humiliation of Germany He was through
prime January
ministers, 1933 and
at some factors
stage, included:
to return home.
restoration
released of its damaged
from prison in economic
Decemberheartland
1924 and indespite the ÎÎ • outbreaks
Early talks were of violence and
dominated armed revolt
by discussion (1920
of the and
Draft
northeast France and neighbouring Belgium.
impatience of radicals within the Nazi movement, Hitler 1923)ofwhich
Covenant the Leaguethe weakand and unpopular
the future of therepublican
German
proceeded with caution. Fearing deportation to Austria government
colonies. suppressed
William ‘Billy’ Hughes,usingthethe GermanPrime
Australian Army and
Summary of thepublic
he limited termsappearances.
of the Treaty of campaign
His Versaillesshifted to the paramilitary
Minister, was at odds with Freikorps
the Council over the
• Evacuation
people in of
theallProtestant towns and countryside north of
occupied territory • lack ofofpopular
supervision support
confiscated for the
colonies Republic.
(known German
as ‘mandates’).
• Repatriation
Munich who were
of all drawn of
prisoners towar
his ideas. workers were
The Australian dividedwanted
delegation between eachthose who wanted
mandatory
reform
nation to apply and itsthose who in
own laws wanted a revolution,
the captured and split
territory.
along party lines for either the SPD or the KPD
Loyal followers
• the retention of the former Imperial bureaucracy
• ÎEvacuation
ÎThe early of the left
years bank ofwere
of growth the Rhine
dominated by the need to ÎÎ As soon as the Draft had been discussed, Wilson left for
and judges who were opposed to a liberal socialist
• Nobuild
transfer of population from
up followers. He surroundedevacuated territory
himself with intelligent the United States to face his Senate critics. He returned to
democracy
• Noand influential
destruction of men including
road or Dietrich Eckart, Alfred
rail communications Paris on 14 March. By this time, the President was
• anti-democratic ideas expressed by philosophers and
seriously ill.
• Restoration
Rosenberg,ofRudolph
coal and Hess, Hermann
iron ore Göring
mines and water (1893–1946),
supplies writers during the 1920s. As a mass movement National
• Immediate
Heinrich Himmler
handover(1900–45), Joseph Goebbels
of 5000 locomotives and 1500 (1897–1945) The ‘BigSocialism
Four’ profited from the hostility to the Republic
and Julius Streicher (1885–1946).
wagons created byapparent
certain intellectuals
ÎÎ It soon became that the Council of Ten was
• ÎAllies
ÎHitlerto was
havealso
rights to requisition
a clever property
propagandist andin occupied
introduced an • economic problems
unwieldy: in practice the work including
was donethe period
by theof leaders of
territory
impressive range of Nazi symbols such as the swastika hyperinflation, the effects of the Great Depression,
• flag, uniforms
Germany and the
to surrender Hitlerfleet
its naval salute (arm raised to USA)and whounemployment
were accompanied and social
by their collapse.
foreign ministers
• eye-leveltowith
Germany downward-facing
restore stolen property palm). Joseph Goebbels’s
and advisers. Each leader
Table 1.8 Unemployment in tried to reconcile
Germany, 1928–39 contradictory
• propaganda
Germany campaign
to accept was highly
reparations, whicheffective: none
were to be of the
decided attitudes towards the treatment of postwar Germany. The
other parties achieved the same level of saturation. Year Number of unemployed
Germany in denial?
compromise
1928 and was 1deeply flawed.
862 000
ÎÎWall Street,
Germany Octoberexpectations
had unrealistic 1929 as to how it would
be treated in the aftermath of war. The country’s Table1929 2 850 000
1.1 The main Allied powers and their leaders
ÎÎ The collapse of share prices on the Wall Street Stock
politicians and people never conceded that
Exchange in October 1929 had an immediate its armies
and had Wartime
1930 Allied Leader
3 218who
000 represented national
been defeated—returning soldiers were greeted
disastrous effect on the German economy. Economic with power interests
cheers. At the brought
Brandenburg Gate, Ebert announced at a 1931 4 887 000
depression the Weimar Republic to its knees USA President Woodrow Wilson
with the collapse of what was termed the Grand Coalition. 1932 6 042 000
With
No foethehaslower middle
overcome class
you (shopkeepers,
… you are returning professional Great Britain Prime Minister David Lloyd George
1933 6 014 000
people) reduced
undefeated from atoglorious
povertycombat
and angry … youat their
haveplight, they France President Georges Clemenceau—
were drawn
protected thetohomeland
political groups on theinvasion.
from enemy left and right which 1934 3 773 000
referred to as ‘The Tiger’ for his
offered
Source: hope.Ebert, quoted in G Martel (ed), Origins of the Second
Friedrich combative style
World War Reconsidered, Routledge, London, 1986 1935 2 974 000
ÎÎ The crash resulted in:

ÎÎ • anstatement
Ebert’s immediate merely reinforced
banking German the
crisis following self-delusion
recall of 1936 was2 also
520 000
President of the Conference
aboutloans
the outcome of the war and the Dolchstoßlegende
by US banks 1937 1 853 000
• in
(‘stab the back’) for
bankruptcy myth perpetuated
thousands by the German Army.
of businesses Russia Excluded due to the November 1917
For•them, Germanofarmies Revolution
1 052 000which had brought Vladimir
the collapse entire were undefeated
industries causedina battle,
dramatic butfall 1938
in exports 1939 302 000
• massSince
pacifists. President Friedrich
unemployment, Ebert
which rose needed
from the
two million in
France
support of the
early 1929German
to four Army, he never
and a half millioncountered
in 1931 whatand more Source: Bruno Gebhardt, Handbuch der Deutschen Geschichte, 8th ed.,
ÎÎedited by Herbertof
The premier Grundmann, Volrepublic,
the French 4: Die Zeit der Weltkriege,
Georges Union Verlag,
Clemenceau,
was, essentially, a lie. Surprisingly,
than six million in 1932 nor did the Allies.
Stuttgart, 1959
• collapse
Between November
of the 1918 and May 1919
unemployment many Germans
insurance system. was determined to make a harsh peace in order to extract
6 YEAR 12CHAPTER
MODERN1:
HISTORY
The appeal of Nazism
2 The initial consolidation of Nazi
One of the most significant factors in the failure of the
ÎÎ power 1933–1934
Weimar Republic was the wide appeal of the Nazi
movement. For example:
The first three months
• Junkers (landed gentry) supported Hitler because they
despised democracy and believed that autocracy was Following his appointment as Reich Chancellor, Hitler
ÎÎ
preferable. announced new elections. Meanwhile the Reichstag fire
• Industrialists offered financial support because they of 27 February 1933 gave him the opportunity to suspend
believed Nazism would resist the forces promoting basic rights by an emergency decree. He arrested
communism and socialism. opponents and thousands of communists, and closed
• Militarists favoured Hitler’s doctrine of power and down their offices and newspapers.
nationalism as it created the need for a strong army. The elections of 5 March 1933 failed to deliver an
ÎÎ
• The working classes believed the SPD had failed them absolute majority and he could govern only in coalition
politically and preferred Nazism to Bolshevism. with the German National People’s Party.
• The middle classes were desperate for strong conservative
leadership, having been twice impoverished by On 23 March the Reichstag authorised him to enact laws
ÎÎ
economic collapse. in his own right through the Enabling Act, which was
passed with support from members of all parties except
Agricultural peasantry believed the Nazis would redistribute
ÎÎ the SPD and KPD, who had either been arrested or had
land, end the slavery to debt repayments, and protect fled the country.
them from foreign competition. They were flattered by
Hitler’s idea of ‘Blood and Soil’, describing them as the He moved quickly on former opponents of the Nazi
ÎÎ
backbone of the German race. Party, writers, journalists, artists, Jews, civil servants
loyal to the Weimar Constitution and the trade unions.
Many young people found Nazism exciting and radical.
ÎÎ
He banned all political parties except the Nazi Party,
In the election of September 1930, the 18–30 age group
thereby establishing a Nazi dictatorship.
provided the largest percentage of voters. It was this
election that established the Nazi Party as a national The Nazi Party was supported by an impressive
ÎÎ
party of the first order. bureaucracy whose efficiency smoothed Hitler’s control
over government institutions after 1933. Within weeks
Table 1.9 Occupational statistics of Nazi Party members in 1930 of gaining office, emergency legislation allowed Hitler to
and 1933 abolish the traditional states and their system of
Occupation Percentage of Percentage of government (Länder), replacing them with regional
Nazi Party Nazi Party Gaue, governed by a Nazi Gauleiter.
members, 1930 members, 1933
Manual workers 26.3 32.5 Takeover of the police
White collar workers 24.4 20.6 Hitler’s destruction of the rule of law was accompanied
ÎÎ
(employees) by a takeover of the police. Police raids on opponents
were assisted by ‘auxiliaries’ from the SA and SS who first
Self-employed 18.9 17.3 targeted communists.
Public servants 7.7 6.5 The police apparatus was purged of unreliable elements.
ÎÎ
(including teachers) In April 1933 a special agency was established in Prussia
Peasants 13.2 12.5 under Prussian Minister-President Hermann Göring—
the Secret State police (Gestapo). This police agency,
Other occupations 3.4 3.7 when fused with the SS under Himmler, was not bound
Pensioners 1.9 1.6 by any norms because it claimed to execute the will of the
Führer, protect the state and guarantee internal security.
Housewives 3.6 4.1
The Gestapo persecuted anyone who they regarded a

Students 1.0 1.2 threat to the state.
Source: Wolfgang Schäfer, NSDAP, Hanover and Frankfurt, 1956, p. 17 Göring promoted Himmler to Inspector of concentration
ÎÎ
Reprinted in Walther Hofer, Der Nationsozialismus Dokumente 1933–1945, camps in 1934, then Deputy Chief of the Prussian Gestapo.
Frankfurt, 1957, Fischer Bücherei, p. 23
Himmler eventually centralised all police activities under
his leadership. Within a few years he had merged the
K e y Q U E STI O N
Î

state police with the SS and the SD, thereby creating the
foundations of the ‘SS state’.
2 Describe the rise of the Nazi Party.
Answer p. 44

ÎÎ The since
Ever Führerthe principle
era of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck in the Attitudes
The Versailles to day-to-day
Conferencegovernment business
1870s and 1880s, two significant political parties in the Hitler was not particularly engaged
ÎÎ Hitler was immensely charismatic and believed he had a ÎÎÎOn Î 18 January 1919, representatives ofwith the actual
32 Allied nations
Imperial Reichstag, the SPD and Catholic Centre Party, day-to-day running of government affairs. In Versailles
fact he was
divine and personal mission to fulfil. Today many would met near Paris in the Great Hall of the Palace of
had enjoyed an uneasy relationship with the Kaiser’s largely upon
disinterested and left
regard this as conviction politics laced with symptoms of to decide peace terms for the
the running
defeated to subordinates.
powers.
mental disturbance and paranoia. A Council of Ten was formed, which included paperwork
He often delayed making decisions, disliked
was a democracy in name only. and was frequently absent from Berlin. He permitted few
ÎÎ Following a Nazi Party conference in May 1926 he representatives from the British Empire.
ministers to discuss the affairs of state for more than 10
Termsestablished
of the Armistice
the ‘leadership principle’ as the first law of the A number
ÎÎ minutesof at commissions
a time. After 1938, were established
governmenttoby deal with
Cabinet
ÎÎ Nazi Party.
In signing the This demanded
Armistice, blind obedience
the German delegation from Nazi
agreed particular matters. Plenary sessions soon
effectively ceased. Eventually, central government became bogged down in
followers
to end as wellbased
the fighting as theonGerman people.
Wilson’s He alone
Fourteen would
Points. attempts to come to terms with the immediate
a tangle of competing and uncoordinated ministries, problems
But‘shape’
when the collective
Allies metwill against individual
at Versailles interests,
it soon became of food
partyrelief,
officesblockade,
and special civilagencies
wars and allrevolution.
claiming toThe interpret
whichthat
evident would conveniently
France relieve
in particular Germans
would of nothing
settle for the need to domestic politics of each of the victors
the will of the Führer. The gradual breakdown obliged allofof the
lessact of their
than own freehumiliation
the complete will. of Germany and prime ministers,
formalised at some
central stage, to return
government, together home.
with Hitler’s
Îrestoration
Î of its damaged
Hitler evolved the Führer economic
principleheartland
because he in rejected ÎÎ Early talks were dominated by discussion
personal style of rule, where few decisions of the
wereDraft
formally
northeast France and
any restrictions on neighbouring Belgium.
his political power. This suited his Covenant
recorded, of the
has League
left a hugeandgap theinfuture of the German
the records.
temperament, ideology and way of life. His authority was Îcolonies.
ÎDisputes William
between ‘Billy’ Hughes,
rivals the Australian
were only resolved when Prime the
Summary of the
therefore termsundefined,
abstract, of the Treaty of Versailles
arbitrary and unpredictable. Minister, was at odds with the Council over
stronger party emerged. This was often the case with the the
• Evacuation of all occupied territory
He also believed that only dictatorship and absolute supervision
powerful of confiscated
regional colonies
governors (known aswho
(gauleiters), ‘mandates’).
guarded
leadership could save the German
• Repatriation of all prisoners of war people after the turmoil Thetheir
authority against encroachments by Reich ministers
of the Weimar Republic. Hitler was the
• Immediate handover of 5000 heavy guns and 30 000 man of the hour. nation to apply itsHitler’s
of the interior. own laws in the of
mistrust captured
the public territory.
service also
suited his plans to ‘nazify’ the bureaucracy through the SS.
• Evacuation of the left bank of the Rhine ÎÎ As By 1933
soon as the SS hadhad
Draft the been
administrative
discussed,structures
Wilson left to for
replace
• No transfer of population from evacuated territory thedepartments
United Statesdeemed to face to hisbe incapable
Senate critics.of He
‘political
returned tasks’
to.
• No destruction of road or rail communications ÎParis
Î on 14the
Despite March.
vastness By this time, the archival
of surviving Presidentrelicswas of the
Third Reich, documentation about Hitler himself and his
• role in government is patchy, although the opening of
Immediate handover of 5000 locomotives and 1500 The ‘Big Four’
wagons former Soviet archives after the collapse of communism
ÎÎ It soon became
has seen greatapparent
advancesthat theunderstanding.
in our Council of Ten was
territory
Hitler’s personality
USA) who thewere accompanied
Î ÎDuring 1970s numerousbybiographies
their foreign ministers
of Adolf Hitler
andtried
advisers. EachHitler’s
to explain leader personality,
tried to reconcilealthough contradictory
this approach
• Germany to accept reparations, which were to be decided attitudes towardscomplex
often reduces the treatment
issuesof topostwar
questions Germany.
of Hitler’s The
Figure 1.7 Adolf Hitler
settlement,
personality a product of theseSome
and ideology. differences,
went sowas far asa to explain
Germany in denial?
Nazi Party the war and
compromise andthewas extermination
deeply flawed. of the Jews through
ÎÎGermany had organisation
unrealistic expectations as to how it would Hitler’s neurotic temperament, his Oedipal complex,
ÎbeÎtreated
The Nazi inParty
the aftermath of war. The
and all regional, localcountry’s
and associated Table 1.1 The main
disturbed Allied powers
adolescence and and their leaders
psychic traumas. Hitler was
politicians and people
organisations never conceded
were organised accordingthat toitsthe
armies had
leadership essentially
Wartime Allied a private Leaderperson
whoand the more national
represented power he gained,
been defeated—returning
principle. At the head ofsoldiers
the Nazi were
Partygreeted
was the with
Führer, power the more he retreated into a self-imposed isolation.
interests
cheers. At the and
his deputy Brandenburg
the national Gate, Ebert announced
leadership. at a
The ‘Reichsleiter’ Questions remain: how could such a person become the
march past bythe
controlled German troops:departments and Germany
nation-wide ruler of Germany; and how could his paranoia come to
wasfoe
No divided into regional
has overcome you … Gaue,
you similar to the federal
are returning Greatbe implementedPrime
Britain as government
Minister David policy by George
Lloyd non-paranoids
undefeated from a glorious combat … youby
electoral districts. A Gauleiter appointed Hitler
have and non-psychopaths in a modern bureaucratic state?
France President Georges Clemenceau—
supervised the County (Kreis), local
protected the homeland from enemy invasion. districts Clearly there was something
referred systematic,
to as ‘The Tiger’ for planned
his and
(Orstgruppe),
Source: cellsquoted
Friedrich Ebert, (Zelle)in and local
G Martel blocs
(ed), (Blöcke).
Origins of the Second rational about the genocidal
combative style policies of the Nazi regime.
Hitler’s role in merely

government Italy Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando, who
Ebert’s
ÎÎ statement reinforced German self-delusion 3 The naturewasofalso
Nazi ideology
President of the Conference
about
ÎÎ the outcome of the
The role of Hitler within war
theand Dolchstoßlegende
thesystem
Nazi was not
(‘stab
straightforward. In a relatively shortthe
in the back’) myth perpetuated by timeGerman Army.
he progressed Russia Excluded due to the November 1917
Intellectual influences on Nazism
Revolution which had brought Vladimir
Forfrom
them, German armies were undefeated in battle,
being absolutely non-answerable to being absolutely but
Lenin and the Bolsheviks
Hitler was familiar with the ideas of Germanto power.
writers and
hadirreplaceable.
been stabbedWas in the back by Jews, socialists and
he, in part, the instrument and not the ÎÎ
pacifists.
creatorSince President
of forces? Friedrich
Historians Ebert
disagree: USneeded theNorman
historian philosophers, although for the most part his reading was
support Francerestricted to cheap racist tracts. As a cafe critic he
Rich believes that Hitler was master in the Thirdwhat
of the German Army, he never countered Reich,
was, essentially,
whereas a lie. Surprisingly,
the German nor did
historian Hans the Allies.
Mommsen argued ÎÎ Theoversimplified
premier of thecomplex issues and
French republic, was typical
Georges of the
Clemenceau,
Between November
that Hitler 1918 andinfluenced
was indecisive, May 1919 many
by his Germans
entourage, wasresentful,
determinedsmall-town
to make bourgeois obsessed
a harsh peace withtothe
in order belief
extract
accepted
and, in some respects, a weak dictator. lost the war.
the myth that Germany had not that conspiracy and corruption were part
guarantees of security. He demanded that Germany:of normal
political life.
6 YEAR 12CHAPTER
MODERN1:
HISTORY
Untangling the intellectual roots of Nazism is difficult,
ÎÎ •
complete faith in the leader through the leadership
but Table 1.12 lists writers and philosophers who principle (Führerprinzip)
contributed to the mainstream of Nazi ideas. • the unconditional surrender of the individual to the
community
Mein Kampf • the defence of the farmer, who represented ‘Blood and
ÎÎHitler expressed his views on race and anti-Semitism in Soil’
his book Mein Kampf (‘My Struggle’), written in 1923. • the expansion of Germany towards the east at the
Mein Kampf is a tedious book full of racial bigotry but as expense of the Slavic peoples.
a political testament it should not be overlooked in that it Unlike most politicians, Hitler kept to his word.
ÎÎ
clearly set out his political program.
ÎÎHitler called for: The Nazis and big business
• the affirmation of the German people as a nation race From the 1960s to the end of the Cold War there were
ÎÎ
(das Volk)
intense debates among historians about the extent to
• the strengthening of Aryans as a master race (Herrenvolk) which the Nazi regime was dominated by big business
and the annihilation of the Jews. In particular he believed
from the mid-1920s. Marxist interpretations from East
that Jews, gypsies and foreign capitalists were responsible
Germany said that Hitler was more or less a puppet in the
for Germany’s collapse in World War I; as ‘subhumans’
hands of the forces of big capital.
they must be eliminated from German society
Table 1.10 A summary of writers and philosophers who contributed to Nazi ideas
Philosopher/writer Main ideas
Houston Stewart British-born sociologist and author of Foundations of the nineteenth century, a racist interpretation of
Chamberlain (1855–1927) world history
Gottfried Feder (1883–1941) Early member of the DAP
Count de Gobineau Writer who examined the ideas of race and culture
(1816–82)
Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831) Hegel believed that humanity had reached maturity in the German race.
Johann Gottfried Herder Herder developed the concept of the organic ‘folk’ state of people (Volk): the Volk was not simply an
(1744–1803) association of citizens, but rather a tribal and emotional community.
Paul Lagarde (1827–91) A virulent anti-Semite, he was the first philosopher to express the claim of the control of one people over
others (hegemony). Lagarde believed that German people were superior because they were Aryans
Karl Lueger (1844–1910) Austrian politician and mayor of Vienna who built a mass party based upon anti-Semitism
Arthur Möller van den His book, The Third Reich (1923), was influential in conservative circles. The Third Reich was originally
Bruck (1876–1925) titled The Third Path and provided the name for Hitler’s Nazi state. Möller van den Bruck was not
strictly racist and was never a member of the NSDAP, although he detested the KPD and SPD. He
rejected both capitalist exploitation of people and liberal parliamentary democracy, and argued that
the impulses uniting people into a nation were intellectual and cultural rather than biological. For him
the true form of nationhood was the ‘will’ of the leader, which held together the ‘State of the People’.
Friedrich Nietzsche Writer and philosopher, who praised the ‘will to power’ and the necessity of war. He spoke of rearing
(1844–1900) and training a race of supermen, and of slave and master races. Ironically Nietzsche was contemptuous
of racism, particularly anti-Semitism.
Alfred Rosenberg His book, The Myth of the Twentieth Century (1930), laid the foundation of the Aryan–German concept.
Alfred Ploetz (1860–1940) Ploetz held ideas of Social Darwinism on evolution and struggle.
Friedrich von Schelling Von Schelling believed the individual only gained significance as a member of the wider folk nation
(1775–1854) and that Germany should therefore expel all decadent foreign elements and influences.
Karl Friedrich Schlegel Schlegel extended Herder’s concept of the Volk to include the idea of ‘blood ties’ which bind the Volk
(1772–1829) together. Blood ties became one of the main themes in Nazi ideology.
Georg von Schoenerer Racist, Pan-German nationalist
(1842–1921)
Richard Wagner (1813–83) Composer and father-in-law of Houston Stewart Chamberlain, Wagner impressed the Nazi movement
with his bold music celebrating German themes.
L Woltmann (1871–1907) Writer who believed the German race had a mission to dominate and exploit the treasures of the earth,
nature and humankind

ÎÎ Ever since the era of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck in the The Versailles Conference
4 The
1870s and role
1880s,oftwoprominent individuals
significant political parties in thein the Nazi state
Table 1.11 Prominent individuals of the Nazi state and their roles met near Paris in the Great Hall of the Palace of Versailles
government,
Hermann Göring which feltGerman
able to politician,
ignore them.headGermany
of the Luftwaffe (from 1935) and a leading member of the Nazi Party, Göring was a
was a democracy in name only.ace fighter pilot of World War I. He became the second-most powerful man in Germany and founded
veteran
the Gestapo in 1933. In 1940 he became one of the representatives from the
ministers in charge British
of the Empire.
Four-Year Plan.
Terms of the Armistice ÎÎ
Hitler promoted him to the rank of Reichsmarschall, A number
a rankof commissions
senior to all otherwere established
Wehrmacht to deal with
commanders. In
ÎÎ In signing the Armistice, 1941theHitler
Germandesignated him as
delegation his successor andparticular
agreed deputy. Informed
matters.on 22 Aprilsessions
Plenary 1945 that Hitler
soon intended
bogged downto in
to end the fighting based commit suicide,Fourteen
on Wilson’s Göring sent a telegram to Hitlerattempts
Points. asking totoassume
come to control
termsofwith
the Reich. Hitler removed
the immediate Göring
problems
from all his positions, expelled him from the Nazi Party and ordered his arrest.
of food relief, blockade, civil wars and revolution. The
But when the Allies met at Versailles it soon became
restoration of its damaged economic heartland in Î ÎEarly talks were dominated by discussion of the Draft
Joseph Goebbels Goebbels was the Reich Minister of Propaganda in Nazi Germany (1933–45) and one of Adolf Hitler’s closest
associates and most devoted followers. A brilliant Covenant of had
orator, he the League
a deep andandextreme
the future of the
hatred German
of Jews which
(on the left)
colonies. William ‘Billy’ Hughes, the Australian
led him strongly to support their extermination when the Nazi leadership developed the ‘Final Solution’. Prime
Summary of the terms ofUnder the Treaty of Versailles
his leadership Minister,
the Propaganda Ministry quickly was and
gained at odds withcomplete
exerted the Council over
control thethe news
over
• Evacuation of all occupied territory
media, arts and information. Goebbels’s supervision
anti-Semitic of
propaganda confiscated
promoted colonies (known
stereotypes of as
Jews ‘mandates’).
as
materialistic,
• Repatriation of all prisoners of war immoral, cunning, untrustworthy, physically
The unattractive
Australian delegationand rootless
wanted wanderers.
each mandatoryHitler named
Goebbels his successor as Chancellor in his will.nation to apply its own laws in the captured territory.
• Heinrich Himmler
No transfer Onefrom
of population of Hitler’s closest
evacuated followers from 1922–23, in
territory the1929 he was
United appointed
States to faceReichsführer of the Protection
his Senate critics. He returned Squad
to
(Schutzstaffel), the SS. Paris on 14 March. By this time, the President was
• No destruction of road Initially
or rail communications
the SS played a minor role as part of theseriously
Nazi Party
• Restoration of coal and iron ore mines and water supplies ill.militia. The storm troopers (Sturmabteilung, or
SA) were Hitler’s loyal elite. Himmler regarded the SS as a political fraternity and developed it from a 290-man
• Immediate handover ofbattalion
5000 locomotives group with its ownThe
and 1500
into a powerful ‘BigEventually,
military. Four’ it became a state within a state.
wagons Himmler set up specialist units of the General SS including Death’s Head units which guarded SS-run
• Allies to have rights to requisition
concentration camps,
property inthe ‘SS Deployment Force’, and during the war, the Waffen SS. Members of the latter
occupied
territory regarded themselves as political soldiers and a unwieldy: in practice the work was done by the leaders of
military elite.
the so-called Big Fourof(France, Italy,overseeing
Great Britain and the
• Germany to surrender its From 1943
naval onwards he was both Chief of German Police and Minister
fleet
USA) who were
the Interior,
accompanied
all internal
by their foreign ministers
and external police and security forces including the Gestapo (Secret State Police).
• Germany to restore stolen property and advisers. Each leader tried to reconcile contradictory
• Reinhard
GermanyHeydrich Heydrich which
to accept reparations, was a high-ranking German Nazi official
were to be decided and one
attitudes of the main
towards architects of
the treatment of the Holocaust.
postwar HitlerThe
Germany.
described him as ‘the man with the iron heart’. Heydrich founded the Sicherheitsdienst (SD), an intelligence
Germany in denial? organisation charged with seeking out and neutralising resistance to the Nazi Party via arrests, deportations
and killings. compromise and was deeply flawed.
ÎÎ Germany had unrealistic expectations as to how it would
Directly responsible for the Einsatzgruppen,Table
the special task
1.1 The forces
main that
Allied travelled
powers andin theleaders
their wake of the German
armies to round up and kill Jews and others considered enemies of the state.
Adolf Eichmann USA President Woodrow Wilson
march past by GermanEichmann
troops: was a German Nazi SS-Obersturmbannführer (lieutenant colonel) and one of the leading organisers
of the Holocaust.

Lesser
(‘stab known
in the back’) individuals
myth perpetuated by the German Army. ÎÎ When Hitler came
Russia to power
Excluded due career opportunities
to the November 1917opened
For them, German armies were undefeated up in the security organisations.
Revolution Many
which had of these
brought people
Vladimir
ÎÎ In his recent book, The Generation of the in battle, but
Unbound,
hadGerman
been stabbed in the back by Jews, socialists and with their solid Lenin
educational
and thebackgrounds, university
Bolsheviks to power.
historian Michael Wildt examines the upper
pacifists. Since President Friedrich Ebert needed theand then degrees and even doctorates took up jobs in the police and
echelons of the leadership of the security police, France
support accepted the ideological framework of the racial cleansing
tracesofback
the their
German Army,
earlier he never countered
development. what a
Wildt compiled
was, essentially, a lie. Surprisingly, nor did the Allies.
group biography of about 100 men, examining factors ÎÎ Theofpremier
Germany. These
of the wererepublic,
French men who had studied
Georges law,
Clemenceau,
Between
such asNovember
schooling,1918 andbackground
family May 1919 many Germans
and sociology. was determined to make a harsh peace in order to occupied
history and philosophy. By 1940 and 1941 they extract
accepted the myth that Germany had not lost the war. the top places
guarantees in theHe
of security. security policethat
demanded andGermany:
then went off to
Russia in 1941, leading the mass slaughter of Jews.
6 YEAR 12CHAPTER
MODERN1:
HISTORY
Radio and cinema
5 The various methods used by the
ÎÎBy 1942 70% of German families were listening to Nazi
Nazi regime to exercise control radio programs on a ‘people’s receiver’ (Volksempfänger)
or the ‘German mini-receiver’ (Deutscher Kleinempfänger).
Cult of personality Severe penalties existed for those caught listening to
In the early years of the Nazi movement during the 1920s
ÎÎ foreign radio broadcasts such as the BBC.
Adolf Hitler styled himself on Benito Mussolini, who he ÎÎThrough Alfred Hugenberg, the pro-Nazi chairman of
regarded with great admiration and respect, although his the major film studio UFA, the Nazis gained control over
attitude changed following the reversal of fortunes of the nation’s newsreel and propaganda shorts, even before
Italy as World War II progressed. Like Mussolini, Hitler Hitler came to power. Goebbels imposed strict controls
cultivated a public presence as a strong and decisive on the film industry. Censorship was introduced; Jews,
leader who held the interests of the German people close liberals and independent-minded directors were purged;
to his heart. There is no doubt that Hitler wooed people and many old films were banned. This prepared the way
with his charm and presence; indeed, newsreels of the for the total nationalisation of the film industry in 1942.
day show him surrounded by admirers—male and
ÎÎBig budget propaganda films were made such as Hitler-
female—who were transfixed by him and the hope that
junge Quex, SA-Mann Brand, Horst Wessel, and the crude
he appeared to embody.
anti-Semitic films Der Jud Süss, Die Rothschilds and The
In 2002 this author interviewed a former member of the
ÎÎ Eternal Jew.
Waffen SS who, as a young teenager, met the Führer at his
Berchtesgaden residence during a morning tea for locals. ÎÎThe director Leni Riefenstahl won acclaim for her
Together with his father the young man spoke at some impressive account of the Nuremburg Party rally of 1934
length with Hitler. His description of that meeting confirms in Triumph of the Will, which is still considered to be a
what many other people experienced in his presence: that masterpiece of propaganda.
Hitler was a leader with a seeming deep concern for the Aryan art
person, their ideas and their love of Germany and its
return to power and prosperity. To condemn people of ÎÎ As a failed artist and aspiring architect it is not surprising
another time for ‘believing in Hitler’ is to misunderstand that Hitler was interested in the ‘arts’, although his tastes
the human need to hope for better things. were strictly limited. As an instrument of struggle, Hitler
believed that art would help to remake ‘stronger and
In that sense Hitler was little different from Joseph Stalin
ÎÎ
better’ people.
who called upon the Russian people to make great sacrifices
to build the nation during the 1930s. Both men initiated ÎÎ Six ‘Chambers of Art’ assessed political reliability and the
policies of mass murder, yet both cultivated a cult of granting of work licences. Scholars, artists and writers
personality and won the affection, loyalty and fanaticism who disagreed with official policy were harassed and
of their people. This is strangely contradictory though no imprisoned. To enforce this policy Wilhelm Frick, the first
less true. The question we must ask is: why do people Nazi Minister of Internal Affairs, established ideological
succumb so easily to political leaders who appear to offer inspectors known as Commissars for Artistic Matters.
simple solutions to the world’s complex problems? ÎÎ Yet Goebbels was surprisingly open towards the artistic
movement of Expressionism. He even wanted to make it
Propaganda, laws and censorship the official art of the Third Reich, although the Nazi
In March 1933 Goebbels was appointed head of a newly
ÎÎ fanatic Alfred Rosenberg was opposed and won the
created Ministry of Popular Enlightenment and Propaganda. support of Hitler.
He was now responsible for ‘all tasks of spiritual direction ÎÎ The first Great Exhibition of German Art at the House of
of the nation’, literature, art, the press, the wireless, the German Art in Munich on 17 July 1937 put an end to
film industry, the theatre and government propaganda. Goebbels’s aspirations. Those sections in galleries housing
contemporary paintings were closed down. A special
The press commission was formed to select and to confiscate
ÎÎ By December 1934 Goebbels directly controlled most ‘degenerate art’ from museums. In its place the regime
German newspapers. Official newspapers (Völkischer encouraged ‘Aryan art’—heroic depictions of soldiers,
Beobachter and NS Monatshefte) spread Nazi doctrine. Nazi street fighters, and boys and girls from the Hitler
Julius Streicher owned and operated the newspaper Der Youth marching beneath banners or saluting Nazi-fashion.
Stürmer, which printed sensational articles and reported ÎÎ The list of confiscations included works by important
local crimes, rapes, swindles and scandals allegedly 19th and 20th century artists. Senior Nazi officials seized
committed by Jewish people. In the early 1920s Hitler the best; the majority were sold abroad; and the Berlin
had been a regular subscriber but after 1933 distanced fire brigade burnt the remainder. German Modernists fled
himself and even curtailed Streicher’s activities due to the the country, lucky to escape with their lives.
salacious nature of the articles and their prurient contents.

ÎÎÎ ÎOther
Ever sinceexhibitions dedicated toOtto
the era of Chancellor the von
purpose of unmasking
Bismarck in the Repression
The Versailles and terror
Conference
andand
1870s ridiculing ‘degenerate’
1880s, two works
significant included
political TheinChamber
parties the
ÎÎ ÎOn ÎNazi terror was
18 January 1919,perpetrated
representativesthrough government
of 32 bodies
Allied nations
of Artistic
Imperial Horrorsthe
Reichstag, (Nuremburg), Signs of
SPD and Catholic DecayParty,
Centre in Art
metand Nazi
near organisations,
Paris in the Greatdiscussed
Hall of theacross
Palacethis
of focus of
Versailles
had(Chemnitz
enjoyed anand Dresden)
uneasy and Thewith
relationship Eternal Jew (Munich).
the Kaiser’s
study section.
to decide upon peace Various
terms organisations
for the defeated werepowers.
at the forefront
Books and literature
of repression
A Council of Tenand wasterror.
formed, which included
ÎÎ Goebbels immediately organised the burning of ‘un-German’ representatives from the British Empire.
Concentration camps
Termsbooks,
of the Armistice
mostly the works of Jewish intellectuals. Books by ÎÎ A number of commissions were established to deal with
Î ÎSoon after
particular HitlerPlenary
matters. came tosessions
power in 1933
soon the first
bogged of what
down in
ÎÎ In signing
Einstein,the Armistice,
Brecht, Mann, the
Marx,German
Sigmund delegation
Freud (anagreed
Austrian),
became a vast network of camps for
attempts to come to terms with the immediate problems every category of
to end
and the
manyfighting
othersbased
were on Wilson’s
thrown intoFourteen
an enormous Points.
bonfire
prisoner
of food relief,was established
blockade, civilinwars
Dachau, near Munich
and revolution. Thein
Butoutside
when the Allies
Berlin met at Versailles
University on 10 May it soon
1933.became
Newspaper
Bavaria. It was here that SS Reich Leader
domestic politics of each of the victors obliged all of the Heinrich
evident that of
criticism France in particularwas
the government would settle for nothing
banned.
Himmler
prime established
ministers, at somehis owntopolice
stage, returnapparatus,
home. as well as
Music
restoration of its damaged economic heartland in
concentration camps which held political prisoners in
ÎÎ Early talks were dominated by discussion of the Draft
Î Non-Nazi musicians, composers and performers including ‘protective custody’. Under his control, concentration
northeast
Î France and neighbouring Belgium. Covenant of the League and the future of the German
Schoenberg, Hindemith, Weill, Bruno Walter, Klemperer grew in size and number after the outbreak of war and
and Busch the conquest of territories in the east, which provided a
Summary of thewere exiled,
terms depriving
of the Treaty ofGermany
Versaillesand Europe Minister, was at odds with the Council over the
more secretive environment for the activities of the SS.
of a cultural and intellectual
• Evacuation of all occupied territory elite. The music of Jewish supervision of confiscated colonies (known as ‘mandates’).
composers such as Mahler
• Repatriation of all prisoners of warand Mendelssohn was banned, Sturmabteilung
The Australian delegation (SA, orwanted‘Brownshirts’)
each mandatory
so that by 1936 any remaining Jewish influence had been nation to apply its own laws in the captured territory.
• Immediate handover of 5000 heavy guns and 30 000 ÎÎ The paraphernalia and symbolism of Nazism appealed to
purged and musical criticism forbidden. Boris Blacher, This was accepted.
medium guns the many disenchanted ex-servicemen and free corps
Carl Orff and Richard Strauss created some notable work
in the Nazi period.
ÎÎ As recruited
soon as the intoDraft had been
fighting bandsdiscussed, Wilson left
of storm troopers. forSA,
The
• No transfer of population from evacuated territory theledUnited States to
by Captain faceRöhm
Ernst his Senate critics. Hecomprised
(1887–1934), returned to
• Architecture
No destruction of road or rail communications Paris on 14working-class
mainly March. By this mentime,
with thea President was
strong attachment to
• ÎRestoration of coal and seriously ill. element in the Nazi program. Their primary
the socialist
Hitler understood
Î andiron ore mines
exploited theand
linkwater supplies
between ideology
• Immediate
and architecture. Heofintervened regularly
andin architectural function was to protect Nazi meetings from hecklers but
handover 5000 locomotives 1500 The ‘Big Four’
wagons
matters and personally laid the foundation stones of they were also used to terrorise the meetings of
opponents.
• important
Allies to havebuildings. To conveyproperty
rights to requisition a sense of grandeur, Nazi
in occupied
architecture copied the styles of ancient Rome and
territory
Schutzstaffeln (SS, (France,
or ‘Blackshirts’)
the so-called Big Four Italy, Great Britain and the
• Germany
Greece. toFor the thirditsGerman
surrender Empire (The Third Reich),
naval fleet
USA) who thewereGeneral
accompanied by their SS)foreign
Î ÎIn 1923 SS (Allgemeine was ministers
added as a
• Germany to restore stolen propertystand for 10 000 years.
Hitler intended his buildings to
andpersonal
advisers.bodyguard
Each leader fortried
Hitler to and
reconcile
other contradictory
Nazi leaders; it
• ÎGermany
ÎIn 1933 toheaccept
ordered the closure
reparations, of the
which Weimar-era
were design
to be decided attitudes towards
also policed thetheSAtreatment
and controlledof postwar Germany.
membership of The
the
school, the Bauhaus. Its supporters were exiled, including settlement,
Nazi Party. a product
In 1929of theseappointed
Hitler differences, was a Himmler
Heinrich
Germany
some ofinthe
denial?
greatest names of their generation (Walter compromise
as its leader, and was deeply
a one-time flawed.farmer, and instructed
chicken
ÎÎGermany
Gropius,had unrealistic
Mies expectations
van der Rohe, as to
and Erich how it would
Mendelsohn). him to turn the SS into an elite organisation.
be Nothing
treated incame
the aftermath
of Hitler’sof war. Theplans
grandiose country’s
to rebuild Table 1.1 The main Allied powers and their leaders
politicians and people never conceded that of
itspreparatory
armies had ÎÎ The SS appointed noblemen and academics as military
Berlin, although a considerable amount Wartime Allied Leader who represented national
been defeated—returning soldiers were greeted with commanders, although rapid advancement was later
excavation was conducted on the foundations which power interests
cheers. At the Brandenburg Gate, Ebert offered to men from all social classes. After the purge of
remain to this day, although they are announced
buried under at new
a
USA the SA leadership in JuneWoodrow
President 1934, theWilson
SS became one of the
buildings.
means by which Hitler planned to Nazify the German
No foeandhas overcome you … you are returning Great Britain Prime Minister David Lloyd George
Rallies processions state.
Night time ÎÎ Himmler regarded the SS as an order of knights, comparable
ÎÎ protected thetorchlight
homeland processions
from enemy were popular and
invasion.
achieved almost mystical significance. Carefully stage- to the medieval referred
Teutons.toSomeas ‘The Tiger’ for his
of the most brutal fanatics
managed
World mass rallies,
War Reconsidered, attended
Routledge, by 1986
London, scores of thousands, joined the organisation. Entry requirements were stringent
Italy and somewhat bizarre; one had to prove the purity
who of
werestatement
even moremerely
spectacular. SomeGerman
of the biggest rallies Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando,
Ebert’s
ÎÎ reinforced self-delusion was also President
one’s Aryan ancestry as far back asof1750!
the Conference
Himmler
about the outcome of the war and the Dolchstoßlegendeand at
were held at the vast outdoor grounds at Nuremburg
theinBerlin Olympic himself studied Excluded
photographs to the
check whether1917or not the
(‘stab the back’) mythsports stadium.
perpetuated by Hitler often arrived
the German Army. Russia due to November
appearance of candidates conformed to racial standards.
For them, German armies were undefeated in battle,ofbut
late, the night sky aglow with the light of dozens Revolution which had brought Vladimir
New recruits took an and
oaththe of Bolsheviks
personal loyalty to Hitler
hadsearchlights.
been stabbed Such theatrical
in the back bytricks
Jews,were used and
socialists to clothe Lenin to power.
and were tattooed on the upper arm with their personal
pacifists. Since President Friedrich Ebert needed the mixed
Nazi philosophy in quasi-religious garb. His speeches
an appeal
support of thetoGerman
patriotism withheranting
Army, condemnations
never countered what of France number. Measurements were taken of the skull, length of
the nose, and height of the forehead, and a thorough
was, essentially, a lie. Surprisingly, nor did the Allies. later
Jews and Bolsheviks. Eyewitnesses and participants ÎÎ The premier of the French republic, Georges Clemenceau,
agreedNovember
Hitler’s oratory search made of ancestry to determine racial purity.
Between 1918 wasandremarkably
May 1919 many persuasive
Germans and had was determined to make a harsh peace in order to extract
an almost hypnotic effect.
6 YEAR 12CHAPTER
MODERN1:
HISTORY
Psychological indoctrination prepared many of these
ÎÎ Despite his extensive powers, even Heinrich Himmler
ÎÎ
men for their sadistic role as concentration camp guards (Head of the SS and, after 1943, Reich Minister of the
or in special ‘Action Units’ (Einsatzgruppen) responsible Interior) found it difficult to assert his complete authority
for the mass murder of Jews, Poles, gypsies and Russian over these men.
prisoners of war in the Russian campaign after 1941.
Reichsführer
SS Waffen SS (armed) Police
SD TV Sipo Orpo
(Sicherheitsdienst) (Totenkopfverbände) (Sicherheitspolizei) (Ordnungpolizei)
Kripo
(Kriminalpolizei) Schutzpolizei
Gestapo Gendarmerie
(Geheime
Staatspolizei) Feuerschutzpolizei
Figure 1.8 The structure of the SS organisation
Table 1.12 Titles and roles of the SS organisations

General SS
SD—Sicherheitsdienst The SD was the Security Service of the SS, which was founded as the Nazi Party’s intelligence
service to stifle internal Party opposition. Reinhard Heydrich, Chief of the Security Service (SD) of
the SS, became head of the Secret State Police Office in 1931. He extended his powers to include
external enemies.
From 1934 the SD had its main office in Wilhelmstrasse in Berlin, directly adjacent to the Gestapo
headquarters. SD branch offices were set up throughout Germany.
In 1939 the Gestapo, the Criminal Investigation Police and the SD were fused to form the Reich
Security Main Office (RSHA), and placed under Heydrich. By 1944 its staff numbered more than
50 000: 31 374 in the Gestapo and 12 792 in the Criminal Investigation Police.
Waffen SS (Armed)
TV—Totenkopfverbände Death’s Head Units of concentration camp guards

Police
SIPO—Sicherheitspolizei Security police
Kripo—Kriminalpolizei The Kripo were the criminal police. After 1939 the SD, the Kripo and the Gestapo formed the
RSHA (Reichssicherheitshauptamt), the Reich Central Security Department.
Gestapo—Geheim Staatspolizei Secret State police
ORPO—Ordnungpolizei Regular police
Schutzpolizei Ordinary uniformed police
Gendarmarie Rural police
Feuerschutzpolizei Firefighting police

ÎÎ Ever since the era of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck in the • revolutionise
sexual morality. A ‘healthy sensuality’
6 The
1870s and impact of the Nazi
1880s, two significant politicalregime
parties inon the encouraged the cult of the body and sex, and women
life in Germany
were encouraged to bear children for the Nazi cause.
had enjoyed an uneasy relationship with the Kaiser’s There was contempt for ‘sermonising hypocrisy and
In Nazi Germany Hitler to decide upon peace terms for the defeated powers.
Î Î
government, which felt abledictated thethem.
to ignore ruling principles of
Germany philistine stuffiness’, although German chastity and
cultural life in person through his Führer Principles, A Council of Ten was formed, which included
was a democracy in name only. morality were praised. However, the sudden increase
intending to refashion German society. Only with the representatives from the British Empire.
in babies born out of wedlock soon reversed the trend
Termshelp
of the
of theArmistice
Nazi Party and the State would it be possible ÎÎA number
towardsof commissions
a loosening ofwere established to deal with
morals
ÎÎ to fulfil these radical objectives.
In signing the Armistice, the German Hitler’s first gesture
delegation agreedin particular matters.women.
• emancipate PlenaryNazism
sessionsinitially
soon bogged
rejected down in
female
cultural matters during 1933 was to lay the
to end the fighting based on Wilson’s Fourteen Points. cornerstone attempts to come to but
emancipation terms
thiswith
wasthe immediate
to change problems
dramatically,
Butofwhen
a newthebuilding,
Allies mettheat
House of German
Versailles it soonArt in Munich.
became of food relief, blockade,
especially during thecivil wars
war. and revolution.
Women were soonThe put to
The House later became the main centre of
evident that France in particular would settle for nothingofficial Nazi domestic
workpolitics of each
to replace menoffighting
the victors obliged
at the variousallfronts.
of the
art. By organising the German people
less than the complete humiliation of Germany and collectively he prime ministers, at some stage, to return home.
ÎÎ See also the previous section, ‘Propaganda, laws and
would beofable
restoration to stamp out
its damaged individualism,
economic heartlandwhichin posed a Early talks were
ÎÎ censorship’ . dominated by discussion of the Draft
threat to the Nazi volkische ideology.
ReligionWilliam ‘Billy’ Hughes, the Australian Prime
colonies.
The end
Summary of of
theclass
terms conflict
of the Treaty of Versailles Minister, was at odds with the Council over the
Î ÎMany church leaders accepted the(known
Nazis, while others were
• ÎEvacuation
ÎThe Nazi ofleadership
all occupiedproclaimed
territory the end of class conflict supervision of confiscated colonies as ‘mandates’).
strongly against their ideology of hate.
The Australian delegation wanted each mandatory Rather than risk a
• Repatriation
and its replacement by the ‘Volk
of all prisoners of warcommunity’. The population
head-on confrontation, Hitler worked to isolate Christians
• Immediate
was mobilised through
handover mass
of 5000 gatherings
heavy guns andand parades.
30 000 nation to apply its own laws in the captured territory.
and
This to accepted.
was undermine the influence of Bible teaching.
Meanwhile,
medium guns militant actions terrorised opponents and
Jews, targeting
• Evacuation of the anyone
left bankwho disagreed
of the Rhine with Nazi norms. The
ÎÎ Roman
As soon as theCatholic Church
Draft had been discussed, Wilson left for
• ÎNo
ÎThe Volk of
transfer community
populationwas fromreflected in territory
evacuated social policy the
ÎÎ United States to face his Senate
Hitler admired the Catholic Church critics.
for He returned to
its remarkable
• No destruction of road or rail communications
dedicated to assisting its members who were referred to Paris on 14 March. By this time, the President
endurance as an organisation that had retained was power for
• Restoration of coal and iron ore mines and wateraddressed
as ‘Volksgenossen’. The German people were supplies as seriously ill.
nearly 2000 years. He signed a concordat with Pope Pius
• Immediate handover of 5000 locomotives and 1500from the
‘national comrades’ , which distinguished them XI on
The ‘Big 19 July 1933 drawing the line on the respective
Four’
marginalised. Most willingly adapted to, and shared, the
wagons spheres of influence. For a short period this helped to
aimstoofhave
the rights
Nazi leadership, often denouncing others to ÎÎ It soon
makebecame apparent
morethat the Council of Ten was
• Allies to requisition property in occupied the regime acceptable to world opinion.
the Gestapo.
territory
The German
the so-called BigChristian movement
Four (France, Italy, Great Britain and the
• Elimination
Germany to surrender
of thoseitsoutside
naval fleetthe Volk community
USA)
• ÎGermany to restore stolen property ÎÎ Hitler was contemptuous of thetheir
who were accompanied by foreignreligion,
Protestant ministers
In the Volk community there was no place for ‘useless
Î andpromising
advisers. Each leader tried to reconcile contradictory
to destroy it once the war was over.
• Germany to accept reparations, which were to be decided attitudes towardsthe
theProtestant
treatmentChurch
of postwar
eaters’ and ‘aliens to the community’—asocial elements, Traditionally had Germany. The
been divided,
peopleinincapable of integration, the ‘work-shy’, beggars, settlement, a product of these differences, was a
Germany denial? nationalistic and reactionary. With few exceptions the
etc. All of them were regarded as inferior: ‘pests harmful compromise
Protestantand was deeply
churches flawed.
submitted to Nazi authority.
ÎÎGermany had unrealistic
to the community’ expectations
. Many were forciblyas tosterilised.
how it wouldOthers
be were
treated in the aftermath of war. The country’s ÎÎ
Table Alfred
1.1 Rosenberg
The main was appointed
Allied powers toleaders
and their coordinate the
labelled as ‘genetically diseased’ and their offspring
politicians andthe
people spiritual and philosophical program of the Nazi Party.
a drain on Nazi never conceded that
Volk community anditsthearmies had
economy. Wartime Allied Leader who represented national
been defeated—returning soldiers were greeted with powerRosenberg encouraged the paganistic German Christian
interests
Disabled people and the mentally ill were also lumped in
cheers. Faith Movement, which began to attract a huge and
with At the Brandenburg
antisocial elements and Gate, Ebert
were announced at a
murdered. USA receptive audience
President Woodrow Wilson
march past by German troops: with its novel ideas, such as a ‘Nordic
ÎÎ Professional criminals and prostitutes were taken into
No foe has overcome you … to
you are returningcamps. GreatChrist’
Britain to counter St Paul’s
Prime Jewish
Minister interpretations.
David Lloyd George
protective custody and sent concentration
undefeated ÎÎ The Movement infiltrated the established Evangelical
Deviant behaviour by young people…could
from a glorious combat you have
land them in France President Georges Clemenceau—
protected the homeland from enemy invasion. Church Federation with the result that:
referred to as ‘The Tiger’ for his
special youth camps, even for listening to jazz (regarded
Source: Friedrich Ebert, quoted in G Martel (ed), Origins of the Second • Nazis and German Christians
combative style took over all governing
as ‘Negro music’).
World War Reconsidered, Routledge, London, 1986 bodies of the churches, preventing any public discussion

of church policy
Ebert’s
Socialstatement
ÎÎ merely reinforced
transformation German expression
and cultural self-delusion wasHitler’s
also President ofchoice,
the Conference
about the outcome of the war and the Dolchstoßlegende • Ludwig Müller, personal became the
Î ÎIn terms
(‘stab of social
in the back’) transformation
myth perpetuated byHitler’s Nazi movement
the German Army. Russia new Reich bishop
Excluded due to the November 1917
introduced measures that attempted to:
For them, German armies were undefeated in battle, but • non-Aryan members
Revolutionand Nazihad
which opponents within the
brought Vladimir
had• been
equalise society
stabbed through
in the back bytheJews,
national community
socialists and (the clergy were removed.
Volksgemeinschaft). National Socialism encouraged
supportclass
of intermingling
the German Army,and social mobility,
he never which
countered was
what France
was, essentially, a lie. Surprisingly, nor did the Allies.of class
upwards but also downwards. The breakdown ÎÎ The premier of the French republic, Georges Clemenceau,
Betweenbarriers opened1918
November up new
and avenues,
May 1919especially for
many Germans was determined to make a harsh peace in order to extract
ambitious Party members
6 YEAR 12CHAPTER
MODERN1:
HISTORY
Workers The German Labour Front
The first objective of the Nazi regime was to overcome
ÎÎ In May 1933 trade unions were outlawed and
ÎÎ
unemployment and finance rearmament. Massive public membership of the German Labour Front (Deutsches
works schemes were introduced which emphasised the Arbeitsfront, or DAF) was made compulsory. Many
socialist element of the Nazi program. Getting people back businessmen welcomed Hitler’s destruction of trade
to work was more important than trying to balance the unions, although employers’ associations and agricultural
budget. The Nazis adopted a policy of ‘spend now and organisations were also brought under Nazi control.
find the money later’, which created a large national debt. The Front:
ÎÎ
Hitler’s outstanding achievement was the transformation
ÎÎ • made strikes by employees and lockouts by employers
of the economy during the first five years. To many people a treasonable offence
he was a miracle worker. In October 1933 over 6 million • arranged a program of state-subsidised theatre
German men and women were unemployed. evenings, holidays, sporting events and winter cruises
Hitler eliminated unemployment by:
ÎÎ on the Mediterranean Sea, through the ‘Strength
• funding public work schemes (Work and Bread, or Through Joy’ organisation (Kraft durch Freude).
Arbeit und Brot), e.g. slum clearance Design work commenced on an inexpensive ‘people’s
• building national highways (Autobahnen) car’ (Volkswagen) under Dr Ferdinand Porsche. Hitler
• rearming Germany through the mass production of is said to have played a part in its design.
guns, tanks and aircraft. This employed just a few
hundred thousand metal and engineering workers. Education
The majority of the 6 million unemployed inherited
by the Nazi state in 1933 were put to work in civilian From April 1934 through the policies of Bernard Rust,
ÎÎ
industry and not in the rearmament program, which Minister of Education, non-Aryans were dismissed from
was quite an achievement. The Third Reich produced their teaching positions. Universities lost their independence
guns as well as butter. in terms of teaching, research and the curriculum when
Nazis were appointed to key positions. At every level,
By 1938 the German people had regained confidence
ÎÎ teaching curricula were ‘nazified’. Most of the textbooks
and self-assurance and overcome a sense of helplessness used in the schools of the Weimar Republic, especially
and hopelessness. The Depression years were over and history books, were destroyed. Special Adolf Hitler
a turnaround had been accomplished with only moderate schools (Napolas) were established to indoctrinate
inflation. selected members of the Hitler Youth.
The German economy
Youth
ÎÎ Germany’s return to prosperity meant isolating the
German economy from the outside world which was A paramilitary organisation for boys and
deep in depression. Hitler borrowed heavily from the young men
economic recovery plans of Brüning’s government. ÎÎ In 1922 the Nazi Party established a youth league for
Workers and employers’ associations (brought together boys, which was renamed the Hitler Youth (Hitler Jugend)
in the German Labour Front) enabled Hitler to fix wages in 1926. Boys from ages six to ten could enter the
and prices. Jungvolk before progressing to the Hitler Youth once they
ÎÎ For several more years German capitalists remained had turned 14.
largely free to pursue their own goals. Closer control and ÎÎ From being a working-class-based organisation it grew
coordination of the economy was not possible until 1936 rapidly once Hitler came to power. Children and
when the Four-Year Plan was introduced. Fundamentally teenagers were offered a range of outdoor activities such
the plan was about preparing Germany for another war. as campfires, singalongs and military training, with the
ÎÎ Small businessmen, shopkeepers and artisans were emphasis increasingly on preparation for service in the
squeezed by bureaucratic control and labour shortages armed forces. Hiking, camping and walking clubs had
created by rearmament. Despite the revival of the proliferated since 1901 with the establishment of the
economy, the standard of living in 1937 had barely risen Wandervögel movement. By 1934 the Hitler Youth had
since 1928, although this was the case with most other six million members.
industrialised countries. Business optimism revived,
investment in new projects increased dramatically and Government controls
tax revenue rose, although state debt also increased. A law on the Hitler Youth was passed on 1 December
ÎÎ
ÎÎ As a result of Hitler’s economic policies, vast numbers of 1936 and although membership was not obligatory, boys
workers switched their allegiance from the SPD and KPD were denied a university education or an apprenticeship
to the Nazi Party after 1933. if they refused to join.

ÎÎ ÎEver
Î Onsince
25 March
the era1939 membership
of Chancellor Ottowasvon made compulsory.
Bismarck in the The
ÎÎ Versailles
The outbreakConference
of war made it difficult for the Nazi state
Theand
1870s Youth Ordinance
1880s, of March
two significant 1939 imposed
political harsh
parties in the to maintain the ideological fiction that women should
punishments
Imperial on boys
Reichstag, the SPDwhoand missed threeCentre
Catholic meetings. There
Party, remain at home, caring for their family and having
hadwas even an
enjoyed an internal surveillancewith
uneasy relationship servicetheestablished
Kaiser’s in large families.
July 1934. The
government, whichHJ-Streifendienst
felt able to ignore (SRD)
them. putGermany
units on the
A Council
Minorities of including
Ten was formed, Jews which included
wasstreet to searchinout
a democracy members
name only. who had become juvenile
delinquents.
Terms of the Armistice Early
ÎÎA numberviolence
of commissions were established to deal with
ÎÎ Indoctrination
In signing the Armistice, the German delegation agreed Îparticular
ÎSoon aftermatters. Plenary
the seizure of sessions
power insoon1933,bogged
euphoricdownSAin
ÎtoÎ For all
end themen and based
fighting womenonaged between
Wilson’s 18 andPoints.
Fourteen 26 labour attempts to come were
party activists to terms
quickwith the immediate
to launch their own problems
anti-Jewish
Butservice
when thecamps were
Allies metorganised, withit asoon
at Versailles six-month
becameperiod of food relief, Gestapo
campaign. blockade,chiefcivilRudolf
wars and revolution.
Diels complained Theabout
of compulsory
evident that France attendance.
in particular Thewould
real aim of for
settle these camps
nothing domestic politics
the excesses of of
theeach of the
Berlin SA,victors
but wasobliged all ‘…
told that of the
for
lessand
thanmeetings was the
the complete indoctrination
humiliation of young
of Germany people
and prime
veryministers, at somecertain
human reasons, stage, to returnmust
activity home. be found
and separation
restoration from theeconomic
of its damaged influence heartland
of their parents.
in A ÎÎ which
Early talkswill
weresatisfy the feelings
dominated of our comrades’
by discussion (Kershaw,
of the Draft
combination
northeast Franceofandmilitaristic training,
neighbouring outdoor activities,
Belgium. 1989). of the League and the future of the German
Covenant
campfires, hiking, regular meals and the friendship of Îcolonies.
ÎIn 1933William
about 500 ‘Billy’
000Hughes,
people of theJewish
Australian Prime
religion were
Summaryothersofappealed
the termsto many
of the children.
Treaty of Versailles Minister,
living inwas at odds (0.8%
Germany with the of Council
the total over the
population). The
• ÎEvacuation
Î The intention
of allwas always
occupied sinister: children were also
territory supervision
annexation of confiscated
of Austria incolonies (known
1938 added as ‘mandates’).
a further 185 000,
• Repatriation
encouragedoftoallspy upon parents
prisoners of war and report anti-Nazi Thebut
Australian delegationthere
despite emigration wanted each
were stillmandatory
375 000 Jews living
• Immediate
sentiments. All of this
handover washeavy
of 5000 combined
guns andwith30a 000
racist school nation to apply in
in Germany its 1938.
own laws in the captured territory.
education,
medium gunswhich served to instil racial supremacy and ÎThis
Î was accepted.
While it may come as a surprise, in the early months of
the vilification
• Evacuation of theof
leftSlavic
bank peoples, gypsies and Jews.
of the Rhine ÎÎAs Nazi
soonrule
as thetheDraft
impetushad for
been discussed,agitation
anti-Jewish Wilson left for
usually
• NoFundamentally, Nazi youth
transfer of population from movements aimed to create
evacuated territory thecame
United
fromStates to face
Hitler Youthhisand
Senate critics. Herather
SA activists, returned
thanto
• No destruction of road or rail communications intolerance
a militarised youth culture that emphasised Paris on Hitler
from 14 March.and hisBy this time, the President was
leadership.
and the elimination
• Restoration of the physically weak.
of coal and iron ore mines and water supplies seriously
ÎÎ ill.
The period between the summer of 1933 and the
• Young women
Immediate handover of 5000 locomotives and 1500 beginning
The ‘Big Four’ of 1935 was relatively quiet. From January to
wagons September 1935, a new anti-Semitic wave began.
ÎÎ The League of German Maidens (Bund Deutscher Mädel) It soon became 1936
apparent
• Allies ÎÎ Throughout and that
1937the
theCouncil of Tenactivities
professional was of
was to have rights to requisition property in occupied
extremely popular and had broadly similar aims and unwieldy:
territory Jews were severely restricted or prohibited, includingofa
in practice the work was done by the leaders
activities as the Hitler Youth, although the emphasis was theban
so-called Bigchartered
Four (France, Italy, Great Britaindentists,
and the
• Germany to surrender its navaltofleet on vets, accountants, teachers,
on teaching young women be strong, healthy and USA) who were accompanied by their foreign ministers
• Germany to restore surveyors, auctioneers and nurses.
future mothers ofstolen
Aryanproperty
children. and advisers. Each leader tried to reconcile contradictory
• Germany to accept reparations, which were to be decided Legal basis
attitudes for the
towards persecution
treatment of postwar Germany. The
Women settlement, a product
Germany in denial? Î ÎThe momentum ofof these differences,
violence was produced
and illegalities a the
ÎÎ Hitler intended to recreate the family by emphasising compromise andlegislation
need to pass was deeply flawed.
quickly in order to sanction and
collective activity. Divorce was made difficult, abortion explain
Table 1.1 previous
The main Alliedactions. In fact
powers and the
their Nuremburg Laws
leaders
illegal and childbearing encouraged by the presentation were enacted to avoid losing face with the radicals. In the
politicians and people never conceded that its armies had Wartime
of medals to women who gave birth to large families. 1935Allied Leader
, Hitlerwho
‘Blood Law’ represented
even nationalof four
chose the mildest
During the war years in particular women were also drafts presented to him. See Table 1.15 on page 32.
encouraged to bear children by SS officers. Many of these USA President Woodrow Wilson
children were raised at special children’s homes Resettlement schemes
No foe has overcome you …a you are returning Great
ÎÎ Britain
Increasingly, Prime Minister
wealthier Jewish David
peopleLloyd Georgeto
attempted
(Lebensborn) and endured lifetime of stigma following
undefeated from a glorious
the end of the war in 1945. combat … you have Franceemigrate from Germany
President but theirClemenceau—
Georges attempts often failed
protected the homeland from enemy invasion. due to lack of support
referredfrom
to asother countries,
‘The Tiger’ for hiswho refused
ÎÎ Most Nazi policies towards girls and women were aimed
at strengthening traditional roles, which them entry. combative style
World War Reconsidered, Routledge, London, 1986 were summarised
in the slogan Kinder, Küche, Kirche (Children, Kitchen, ÎÎ One Nazi official, Adolf Eichmann,
Vittorioadvocated a program
Italy Prime Minister Orlando, who

ÎÎEbert’s statement merely reinforced German self-delusion of emigration towas
Palestine. Reinhard of Heydrich favoured
Church). also President the Conference
about the outcome of the war and the Dolchstoßlegende the resettlement of all European Jews on a reservation in
Î ÎProgressively,
(‘stab in the back’)women were removed
myth perpetuated by thefrom the upper
German Army. Russia Excluded due to the November 1917
ranks of the civil service and forced to resign theirbut
jobs as an undefined colonial territory. Officials in the Foreign
For them, German armies were undefeated in battle, Revolution which had brought Vladimir
Ministry proposed theand
island of Madagascar, a suggestion
had been stabbed in the back by Jews, socialists and acting
doctors and lawyers. In 1936 they were barred from Lenin the Bolsheviks to power.
approved by Himmler, mentioned to Hitler, but later
as judges,
pacifists. Sincejurors or public
President prosecutors.
Friedrich Despitethe
Ebert needed these
France vetoed. Emigration was never seriously pursued, which
support of the German Army, he never countered what was
measures the importance of women to the economy
left German Jewry dangerously exposed and, later, fatally
recognised.
essentially,Bya 1944 over 14 millionnorwomen
did thewere employed Thecompromised
premier of thewhen
French
was,
in commerce
lie. Surprisingly,
and industry, mostly in manual
Allies.
or
ÎÎ therepublic,
wartimeGeorges Clemenceau,
Final Solution was
Between November 1918 and May 1919 many Germans wasintroduced.
determined to make a harsh peace in order to extract
supplementary
accepted the mythpositions.
that Germany had not lost the war. guarantees of security. He demanded that Germany:
6 YEAR 12CHAPTER
MODERN1:
HISTORY
Table 1.13 Laws and actions against Jewish people
Date Law/Action
1 Apr. 1933 The first official boycott of Jewish shops, lawyers and doctors was called off after one day.
7 Apr. 1933 Exclusion of Jews from government jobs
22 Jul. 1934 Jews were forbidden to take legal examinations.
8 Dec. 1934 Jews were forbidden to take pharmaceutical examinations.
15 Sep. 1935 Reich Citizenship Act (Nuremburg Laws) was passed denying Jews Reich citizenship. The right to vote on political
questions was withdrawn as was the right to hold an office of State.
15 Sep. 1935 Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour was passed forbidding marriages between Jews and citizens
of German or kindred blood. Extramarital intercourse between Jews and citizens of German or kindred blood was also
forbidden.
12 Jun. 1937 Secret order from Reinhardt Heydrich to deter Jewish women from having sexual relations with Germans
17 Aug. 1938 All male Jews were forced to add the name ‘Israel’ and all female Jews the name ‘Sara’ to their non-Jewish first names.
30 Sep. 1938 Cancellation of qualifications of Jewish doctors
5 Oct. 1938 Polish Jews living in Germany were expelled.
9–10 Nov. ‘Crystal Night’ (Reichskristallnacht) Pogrom against German Jews following revenge murder of a German diplomat in
1938 Paris by a young Polish refugee, Herschel Grünspan: Jewish shops, homes and synagogues destroyed and arrest and
detainment of over 20 000 Jews in concentration camps. They were later released on condition they left the country.
Heydrich estimated that damage to broken windows alone was worth 10 million Reichsmarks. SA thugs and Nazi
activists were instructed not to wear uniform in order not to provoke anti-Nazi sentiment among the population.
12 Nov. 1938 Göring ordered Jews to pay for repairs out of their own pockets rather than claim on their insurance (owned by
Jewish business people).
15 Nov. 1938 Jewish children were excluded from German schools and universities.
3 Dec. 1938 Jewish businesses and shops were closed and forced to sell for a fraction of their value.
21 Feb. 1939 Jews were forced to hand in all gold and silver objects, and jewels, in their possession.
1 Sep. 1939 Curfew on Jews after 8 pm in winter and 9 pm in summer
23 Sep. 1939 Confiscation of all radios owned by Jews
The Jews and the Anschluss Most were murdered. Meanwhile the special mobile unit
ÎÎ The Anschluss with Austria in March 1938 foreshadowed of the Security Police and the SD systematically murdered
a more ominous development for the Jews with the arrival gypsies in Eastern Europe. The estimated number is up
of Heinrich Himmler and his agents in Vienna. In the to 500 000.
following weeks 76 000 Jews and political opponents were
arrested and thousands murdered in a settling of old scores. K e y Q U E STI O N
Î

Gypsies and Sinti people 3 Discuss two impacts of the Nazi regime on the life
ÎÎThe National Socialists regarded the Sinti and the Roma of the German people.
as racially alien, like the Jews. As racial enemies, these Answer p. 44
gypsy people had already been subjected to criminalisation
and police registration during the Weimar Republic.
After 1933 many were forcibly sterilised, subjected to 7 Opposition to the Nazi regime
pseudo-scientific experiments in ‘racial biology’ and

finally held in concentration camps. Like the Jews, they Socialists and communists
were to be eliminated from German society.
ÎÎFrom about May 1940 the Reich Security Main Office Despite the destruction of political parties and the
ÎÎ
instructed local offices of the Criminal Investigation imprisonment of socialists and communists, there was
Police to organise the deportation of the Sinti and Roma resistance, albeit symbolic. To Hitler it never amounted
to an area in German-occupied Poland called the General to more than a policing problem. After 1935 secret
Gouvernement. In the spring of 1943 some 23 000 Sinti left-wing groups built small cells over a large part of
and Roma were deported to Auschwitz-Birkenau Germany, although their gains were modest. Two examples
extermination camp where the SS set up a ‘Gypsy camp’. include the Eilbeck Comrades (formed in 1934 by a

ÎÎ Evermember
since the of the
era ofSPD), and members
Chancellor Otto von of aBismarck
resistanceingroup
the The Versailles
Gestapo fromConference
the pulpit. He demanded the rule of law
1870s
thatandthe 1880s,
Gestapo two significant
named political(Red
Rote Kapelle parties in the in
Orchestra) be restored. Fearful of alienating Westphalia, Galen’s
Imperial
order to Reichstag,
create itsthe SPDimage
lasting and Catholic
as a Soviet Centre Party,
espionage home state, Hitler ordered that euthanasia within the
hadorganisation—which
enjoyed an uneasy relationshipit was not. Key withfigures
the Kaiser’s
included boundaries of prewar Germany should cease. Despite this
government,
Arvid Harnack whichand feltHarro
able toSchultze-Boysen.
ignore them. Germany Both were the Nazis increased their attacks against the Roman
wasinterrogated
a democracy in name only.
and tortured in the house prison at Gestapo Catholic Church and its organisations. Thousands of
central quarters in Berlin. priests died in concentration camps for their stand
Terms of the Armistice ÎÎ A number
against theof commissions
regime. were established to deal with
ÎÎ Divisions
In signing the within the Party
Armistice, the German delegation agreed particular matters. Plenary sessions soon bogged down in
to end the fighting based on Wilson’s Fourteen Points. The Protestant
attempts to come toChurch terms with the immediate problems
Î
ButÎThe
when power of the met
the Allies 3.5 million-strong
at Versailles it soon SA under becameErnst of food relief, blockade, civil wars and revolution. The
Röhm represented a serious threat to Hitler because Î ÎA few courageous
domestic politics of each Protestant clergymen
of the victors formed
obliged all ofthe
the
evident that France in particular would settle for nothing
lessRöhm believed
than the completethat humiliation
the army should be subordinate
of Germany and to prime ministers, at some stage, to return home. it was
Confessing Church to fight Nazi influence but
the SA. There was talk of a ‘second revolution’ among quickly suppressed. Among the leaders were Martin
restoration of its damaged economic heartland in Early talks were
some SA party and
leaders and the many activists who were
ÎÎ Niemoller anddominated by discussion
Dietrich Bonhoeffer, laterofmurdered
the Draftin a
northeast France neighbouring Belgium. Covenant of the League and the future of the German
still demanding that the ‘socialist’ element of National concentration camp, and Karl Barth, the Swiss Calvinist
theologian and professor, who fled to Switzerland. Prime
Socialism be put into practice.
ÎOn 1 February
• ÎEvacuation 1934 Röhm made a submission to the supervision of young
confiscated colonies (known as ‘mandates’).
of all occupied territory
Minister for War, calling for the reduction of the German Dissent by people
Army to a training role, which upset its leaders. The The White
nation to Rose
apply its own laws in the captured territory.
Minister warned Hitler that the President might declare
medium guns This
ÎÎ was accepted.
Sophie and Hans Scholl, a brother and sister who were
martial law and replace the government. When Himmler,
Goebbels and Göring produced evidence of a fictitious
ÎÎ As students
soon as theat Munich
Draft had University, printedWilson
been discussed, an anti-Nazi
left for
• NoSAtransfer of population from evacuated territory
plot to depose him, Hitler decided to act.
thenewsletter.
United States Emboldened,
to face his theySenate continued
critics. Hetheir activities
returned to
• No destruction of road or rail communications buton
Paris were arrestedBy
14 March. onthis
18 February 1943 afterwas
time, the President distributing
ÎÎ During the Night of the Long Knives on 30 June 1934 leafletsill.
seriously during a lecture which detailed SS atrocities on
• Restoration of coal and iron ore mines and water supplies
Hitler arrived in Munich with his personal bodyguards
• Immediate the Eastern Front. Along with several others they were
handover of 5000 locomotives and 1500
and ordered the murder of senior SA officials. Driving to The ‘Big
triedFour’
before Judge Roland Friesler in the People’s Court
wagons
a nearby resort Hitler and his followers found Röhm ÎÎ It soon became apparent that the Council of Ten was
and hanged.
• Allies
asleepto have
with rights to requisition
a homosexual lover.property in occupied
Hitler woke the startled unwieldy: in practice the work was done by the leaders of
territory
pair, berated Röhm for his disloyalty and sexual practices, Youth gangs
• Germany
and thentoordered
surrender theitspair
naval
tofleet
be shot. He may even have ÎUSA)
ÎUntil recently
who little was known
were accompanied by about the Edelweiss
their foreign ministersPirates,
• Germany
shot them to restore stolen property
personally. anda advisers.
blanket term Eachfor young
leader people
tried opposedcontradictory
to reconcile to Nazism. The
• ÎGermany
ÎMeanwhile to accept reparations, which were to be decided
Göring supervised the murder of dissident SA research
attitudes of the the
towards German historian,
treatment Detlev Germany.
of postwar Peukert, remains
The
leaders and rivals in other parts of Germany, including the essential areading.
settlement, productThere were
of these several working-class
differences, was a gangs
Germany in denial?
generals von Schleicher and Kurt von Bredow. Hindenburg that appealed
compromise andto was boys in their
deeply teens. Opposition included
flawed.
ÎÎ Germany had unrealistic
sent telegrams expectations
of congratulation as to The
to Hitler. how SSit would
was minor acts of vandalism, bashing Hitler Youth and refusing
be made
treatedindependent
in the aftermath of war. The country’s Table 1.1 The main
to join Allied powers
in prescribed and their
activities. leaders
These gangs went under
of the SA and Heinrich Himmler
politicians
consolidatedand people neverover
his control conceded that its armies had
the police. different
Wartime Alliednames,Leader and their
whofavoured
represented clothes varied from
national
been defeated—returning soldiers were greeted with power town to town, asinterestsdid their badges. In Essen they were
Î ÎHitler
cheers. Atachieved the backing
the Brandenburg of the
Gate, Ebertarmy and abandoned
announced at a
any pretence at implementing the social aspects of the USA called the Farhtenstenze President (Travelling
Woodrow Dudes),
Wilson in Oberhausen
march past by German troops: and Düsseldorf they were known as the Kittelbach
Nazi program.
No foe has overcome you … you are returning GreatPirates,
Britain and in ColognePrime Minister Davidthe
they were Lloyd GeorgeAll saw
Navajos.
The Romanfrom
undefeated Catholic
a glorious Church
combat … you have Francethemselves as EdelweissPresidentPirates
Georges (named after the
Clemenceau—
protected the homeland from enemy invasion. edelweiss flowerreferred badge worn).
to as ‘TheThe Gestapo
Tiger’ for hiswas active in
ÎÎ Officially, the Roman Catholic Church in Germany tried
Source: Friedrich Ebert, quoted in G Martel (ed), Origins of the Second monitoring them and in 1944
combative stylehanged 12 members of a
to oppose
World the NaziRoutledge,
War Reconsidered, regime, although
London, 1986 it paid a heavy price. Pirates gang in Cologne for their activities.
In May 1937 the pope issued an encyclical, ‘With Burning Italy Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando, who
ÎÎ Ebert’s statement merely reinforced German self-delusion
Sorrow’ , in which he condemned the persecution of The ‘swing’ movement
was also President of the Conference
Catholic Christians. A notable example
(‘stab in the back’) myth perpetuated by the German Army. was Hitler’s ÎÎ Jazz and swing music
Russia wasdue
Excluded banned
to theafter 1940 as1917
November degenerate
Forillegal
them,euthanasia
German armies program werethat commenced
undefeated in February
in battle, but but young adherents showedwhich
Revolution their had
dislike of Nazi
brought conformity
Vladimir
1940 when 100 000 mentally ill,
had been stabbed in the back by Jews, socialists and weak-minded or epileptic by growing theirLenin
hair and
longthe
andBolsheviks to power.clothes.
wearing English
peopleSince
pacifists. (examples of ‘useless
President Friedrichfeeders’)
Ebertwereneededtakenthefrom The ‘Swing-Jugend’ were indifferent to Nazism,
support of the German Army, he never countered by
church-run institutions and put to death, usually gassing.
what Franceundermining Hitler’s notion of national community,
Î
was,
ÎChurch leaders
essentially, confronted
a lie. Surprisingly,the Nazis
nor did publicly. Bishop
the Allies. ÎÎ Theor Volksgemeinschaft.
premier of the French republic, Georges Clemenceau,
WurmNovember
Between of Württemberg 1918 and wrote
May strong
1919letters
many of protest
Germans was determined to make a harsh peace in order to extract
and inthe
accepted Julymyth1941that
Bishop Galen had
Germany of Münster
not lostattacked
the war. the guarantees of security. He demanded that Germany:
6 YEAR 12CHAPTER
MODERN1:
HISTORY
Outright resistance to the Nazi regime An organised subterranean German resistance had existed
ÎÎ
since before 1938 and was entrenched in the German
Methods of resistance Army, the diplomatic service and the administration.
ÎÎUntil recently the German resistance—Widerstand— It consisted of senior military officers, civil servants,
received little attention from historians. There were two international diplomats, jurists, intellectuals and men of
broad phases of resistance, the first being the clandestine letters, such as Hjalmar Schacht, Julius Leber, Carl
dealings of political organisations of the Weimar Republic. Goerdeler, Ulrich von Hassell, Wilhelm Canaris and
The second stage consisted of groups of individuals Ludwig Beck. The historian Hans Mommsen believes
loosely connected to one another at a personal or social there were specific reasons why the resistance failed to
level. unite to defeat Hitler, as much to do with greed, ambition
ÎÎThe Kreisau Circle and Leadership Circle of the United and power as with obedience, fear and cowardice. See
Trade Unions were two examples and were involved in: Hans Mommsen, ‘The German Resistance Against Hitler
• hiding Jewish people, and printing and distributing and the Restoration of Politics’, in Resistance Against the
underground literature Third Reich, 1933–1990.
• occasional instances of open agitation and clandestine Powerful industrialists approved of the destruction of
ÎÎ
resistance by the suppressed political parties of the left-wing political parties and the trade unions. Powerful
left wing business interests wanted to avert civil war (detrimental to
• at least 46 attempts on Hitler’s life between 1921 and everybody’s interest) and possible communist revolution.
1945. Hence they were prepared to accept at least a Nazi share
ÎÎEven if an assassination had succeeded it is doubtful in government. US historians Richard Geary and Henry
whether the Nazi state would have been removed. Recent A Turner support this view.
books by the German historian, Peter Hoffmann, are The army thought it could work in partnership with
ÎÎ
extremely useful in helping us understand the extent and Hitler and the Nazis. Only later did it realise its mistake.
nature of plots against Hitler. These include Hitler’s Despite this failure, by July 1944 something like a grand
ÎÎ
Personal Security: Gaps and Contradictions (published by coalition of political and military conservative opponents
The Perseus Group in 2000) and Hitler’s Personal had taken shape, culminating in an attempt on Hitler’s life.
Security: Protecting the Führer 1921–1945.
The Kreisau Circle
The German military
ÎÎ The Circle believed that National Socialism was the
ÎÎ A small number of senior officers in the German Armed culmination of a faulty and intolerant line of development
forces, including Admiral Canaris (head of the Intelligence in Western history beginning in the time of the
Bureau of the OKW (Abwehr)), General Beck (Army Reformation under Martin Luther.
chief of staff), and General Franz Halder, plotted
ÎÎ The former mayor of Leipzig, Carl Goerdeler, coordinated
unsuccessfully to remove Hitler. Like many others of the
the Kreisau Circle. He was in touch with many former
Prussian officer class, they were disturbed at the moral
and current high officials in the Foreign Ministry, as well
destruction caused by Hitler’s domestic policies and the
as in the Army High Command.
outcome of his adventurist foreign policy. The ethical
problem for military personnel was the solemn oath that The July Bomb Plot
they had sworn, upholding Hitler and the Nazi state.
ÎÎ Colonel Klaus Schenk von Stauffenberg (chief of staff of
Their refusal to break the oath prevented many sympathetic
the Reserve Army) was a member of the Kreisau Circle.
officers from committing to the removal of Hitler by the
He masterminded the bomb plot of 20 July 1944, an attempt
use of violence.
to kill Hitler at his headquarters in East Prussia—the ‘Wolf ’s
ÎÎ During the Czech crisis of September 1938 General Lair’ (Wolfschanze)—and seize control of the state in a
Halder made plans to arrest Hitler the moment he gave coup d’état using the Reserve Army. It very nearly succeeded.
orders for the invasion of Czechoslovakia. Generals
ÎÎ The bomb exploded and Hitler was lucky to escape with
Witzleben, Count Brockdorff-Ahlefeldt and Erich
minor wounds. However, the conspirators failed to order

Hoepner promised support. A Foreign Ministry official,
the Reserve Army and other anti-Nazi units into taking
Ernst von Weizsäcker, contacted his British counterparts.
immediate action. The reprisals were swift and terrible
Chamberlain and his colleagues, however, ignored the
against conspirators and anyone remotely connected with
secret visit of high-ranking German officers to Britain
them. One high-ranking casualty was Field Marshal
and dismissed Weizsäcker’s plans.
Erwin Rommel, although the extent of his involvement is
Conservatives and elites not entirely clear. He favoured the arrest rather than the
assassination of Hitler. On 14 October 1944 Rommel was
ÎÎAs a populist Hitler based his power on the masses, not
forced to take his own life by poison. The German people
on the elite. The opponents or rivals who most threatened
remained ignorant of the truth about his death until after
Hitler in the domestic political arena were the conservatives.
the war.

ÎÎ Understanding
Ever since the era ofNazism
Chancellor Otto von Bismarck in the Structuralist
The Versaillesversus intentionalist debate
Conference
1870s and 1880s, two significant political parties in the In18the 1970s 1919,
and beyond, fierce debate
Nazism’s link to Prussian history Î
ÎÎOnÎ January representatives of 32polarised historians
Allied nations
Imperial Reichstag, the SPD and Catholic Centre Party, of the Third Reich into two groups—the so-called
During thean1980s, historians in West met near Paris in the Great Hall of the Palace of Versailles
Îhad
Î enjoyed uneasy relationship withGermany
the Kaiser’sargued ‘intentionalist’ versus ‘structuralist’ debate.powers.
This debate
that Nazism was unique to decide upon peace terms for the defeated
government, which felt ableand could them.
to ignore only beGermany
properly centred on the role played by Hitler in the regime and
wasunderstood
a democracy within the framework
in name only. of Prussian–German whether it was ideologically driven by Hitler’s own
development in the 19th century. They believed the representatives from the British Empire.
Termscountry’s
of the Armistice intentions or whether it was an almost chaotic
authoritarian and feudal traditions were on a ÎÎA number of commissions were established to deal with
development driven by structural determinants within
ÎÎ In signing
collisionthe Armistice,
course the German
with a dynamic and delegation
modernising agreed
economy. particular matters. Plenary sessions soon bogged down in
that regime, with Hitler as a ‘weak dictator’. The debates
to end
When thethe
fighting
economy based on Wilson’s
collapsed afterFourteen
1929 bothPoints.
the attempts to come to terms with the immediate problems
dominated the 1980s and went on well into the 1990s.
Buttraditional
when the Allies metand
interests at Versailles
the modern it soon became
economy erupted of food relief, blockade, civil wars and revolution. The
Was Hitler just presiding over a regime that was beyond
evident that France
in violent protest,inthus
particular
bringingwould
aboutsettle for nothing
the Nazi victory domestic politics of each of the victors obliged all of the
his automatic control, and without any clear intentions,
lessin 1933.
than the complete humiliation of Germany and prime ministers, at some stage, to return home.
or did Hitler know what he was aiming at from the
restoration of its damaged economic heartland in ÎÎEarly talksThat
outset? werewasdominated by discussion
the central of the Draft
issue. The opening of the
Nazism
northeastas totalitarianism
France and neighbouring Belgium. Covenant
archives in the former Soviet Union helpedGerman
of the League and the future of the to shift the
ÎÎ Contrary to popular belief Nazism was not wholly colonies. William
focus of debate ‘Billy’
about Hughes,
the naturetheofAustralian Prime
the Nazi regime.
totalitarian
Summary of thein that itofnever
terms fully achieved
the Treaty total control
Instead it focused on the actions of those who tend to be
over every aspect of society
• Evacuation of all occupied territory and the economy. It was supervision
called theofperpetrators.
confiscated colonies (known as ‘mandates’).
certainly authoritarian and
• Repatriation of all prisoners of war shared fascist characteristics The Australian delegation wanted each mandatory
with its Italian counterpart. Professor Sir Ian Kershaw, an nation to apply its own laws in the captured territory.
eminent historian and renowned expert on Hitler and the
medium guns ThisFOwasCU S O F ST U DY
accepted.
Nazis, believes the value of the totalitarian concept to be
• Evacuation of the left bank of the Rhine ÎÎ THE
As soonSEARCH
as the Draft FOR
had been PEACE AND
discussed, SECURITY
Wilson left for
extremely limited in attempting to describe the essential
• Nonature
transfer of population from evacuated territory
of the Nazi regime.
the
INUnited
THE States
WORLD to face his Senate critics. He returned to
• Nazism as fascism
Restoration of coal and iron ore mines and water supplies An overview
seriously ill. of the search for peace
• ÎImmediate
Fascism ishandover
Î a system of
of 5000 locomotives
government with and 1500
strong centralised and security 1919–1946
The ‘Big Four’
wagons
powers. It permits no opposition and attempts to control
• Allies
all affairs
to haveofrights
the nation. It is aggressively
to requisition property innationalistic
occupied and The ambitions
unwieldy: of the
in practice Germany
work was in doneEurope
by the leaders of
territory
usually anti-communist. Superficially it differs little from
ÎtheÎ so-called
Put simply,Big Four (France,
Germany’s Italy, Great
ambitions Britain
in Europe canand
be the
• Germany
totalitarianism.
to surrender its naval fleet
USA) who were accompanied by their foreign
summed up with the intended creation of a ministers
new political
• ÎGermany
ÎDespite to restore stolen
advances property
in research and techniques of andconfiguration—the
advisers. Each leader New tried
Orderto reconcile
of Europe. contradictory
This would be
• Germany to accept
interpretation, reparations,
there is still nowhich were toapproved
universally be decided
theory attitudes
imposed towards
on thethe treatmentareas
conquered of postwar
under itsGermany. The
dominion.
that can explain fascism. Some historians consider that settlement, a product ofby
Publicly proclaimed these
Adolfdifferences, was ait had
Hitler in 1941
Germany
the termin should
denial? be reserved for the Italian system under compromise
commenced andeven
wasbefore
deeplytheflawed.
outbreak of war in 1939.
ÎÎGermany had while
Mussolini, unrealistic
Nazism expectations as to how
should be called it would
‘National Hitler’s New Order entailed the creation of a pan-German
be Socialism’
treated in.the aftermath
Supporters of of war. Thefascist
a general country’sconcept Table 1.1 The main Allied powers and their leaders
racial state which would ensure the supremacy of an
politicians
maintainand thatpeople neverdictatorships
right-wing conceded thatare itsfundamentally
armies had Wartime Allied
Aryan-Nordic Leaderrace,
master who massive
represented national
territorial expansion
been defeated—returning
different from left-wingsoldiers were greeted with
dictatorships. power into Eastern Europeinterests
through its colonisation with
Similarities USA German settlers,President
the physical annihilation
Wilson of the Jews and
march past bybetween fascism and communism Woodrow
German troops: others considered to be ‘unworthy of life’, and the
ÎÎ Some
No foe historians
has overcome go soyoufar… as you
to say
arethat fascist and
returning Greatextermination,
Britain Prime Minister
expulsion David Lloyd George
or enslavement of most of the
undefeated from a glorious combat … you haveThe first
communist dictatorships are basically similar.
FranceSlavic peoples and
President Georges Clemenceau—inferior’.
others regarded as ‘racially
use of ‘totalitarian’
protected the homeland to linkfrom
fascist and communist
enemy invasion. states referred to as ‘The Tiger’ for his
appeared in Britain in 1929. During the 1930s and 1940s
Source: Friedrich Ebert, quoted in G Martel (ed), Origins of the Second The ambitions combative
of Japanstyle
in the Asia-Pacific
exiled
World Warwriters of theRoutledge,
Reconsidered, GermanLondon,
left paved
1986 the way for the
Japan’s desperatePrime
needMinister
for rawVittorio
materials and resources
models established after 1945 by the historians Hannah ÎÎ

Italy Orlando, who
ÎÎEbert’s statement merely reinforced German self-delusion
Arendt and Carl Friedrich. help to explain its
wasaggressive foreign
also President policy
of the and ambitions
Conference
in the Asia-Pacific during this period. From about 1931
Î During
(‘stab
Î in thethe 1950s
back’) theperpetuated
myth pioneering by worktheofGerman
the German
Army. Russia Excluded due to the November 1917
the occupation and exploitation
Revolution which of
hadManchuria provided
brought Vladimir
Forhistorian,
them, German Karl Dietrich Bracher,
armies were argued that
undefeated research
in battle, but
some, though insufficient,
Lenin and the Bolsheviks to power.on
resources. The attack
hadwould
been confirm
stabbed in similarities
the back by in Jews,
techniques
socialistsof rule
andof the
China in 1937 was immensely wasteful of Japan’s scarce
Bolshevik,
pacifists. SinceCommunist, Nazi andEbert
President Friedrich Fascist systems.
needed the The
resources of rubber, iron ore and oil, and drew Japan into
France
decisive
support character
of the German of Army,
totalitarianism
he never lay in the total
countered whatclaim
an unwinnable war with both the Nationalist Chinese
was,toessentially,
rule, the leadership principle,nor
a lie. Surprisingly, the did
exclusive ideology
the Allies. ÎÎ The premier of the French republic, Georges Clemenceau,
and the Communists. More promising were the abundant
and theNovember
Between fictional roles
1918of ruler
and Mayand ruled.
1919 many Germans was determined to make a harsh peace in order to extract
resources (rubber and oil in particular) of the Asia-Pacific
region, yet since these vast areas were already colonised,
6 YEAR 12CHAPTER
MODERN1:
HISTORY
they could only be acquired through military conflict. Wilson:
ÎÎ
Hence in 1941 and 1942, the simultaneous attacks on • included provisions for the League in his Fourteen
Pearl Harbor, Singapore, Hong Kong, the Philippines and Points in January 1918 as the mainstay of a system that
Malaya. Japan’s intention was to reward conquered lands would permanently preserve European peace
through membership of the East Asia Co-Prosperity • was aware of the reluctance in the US to take a more
sphere but the advantages were only in Japan’s favour. active stance in European and world affairs following
the end of the war
• failed to appreciate that the League was not strong
K e y Q U E STI O N
Î

enough to guarantee the new order created by the
4 Compare the ambitions of Germany in Europe and Paris treaties
Japan in the Pacific in the period before WWII. • failed to reckon with challenges put forward by Britain
Answer p. 44 and France, which questioned its workability and
effectiveness
• never provided detailed plans as to how the League
The intentions and authority of the League might work.
of Nations
Draft Covenant
The intentions of President Woodrow Wilson ÎÎ At the start of conference proceedings at Versailles
ÎÎ The idea of a ‘league of nations’ was not new. Irving Wilson insisted on tackling the League of Nations first
Fisher, a US economist, first presented the idea in his to prevent the others from rejecting it or using it as a
doctoral thesis in 1890. John Hay, the US Secretary of bargaining chip.
State, had called for an international conference at the ÎÎ On 14 February 1919 he presented the Plenary Session
Dutch city of The Hague on the rules of war and of the Council of Ten with a Draft Covenant, based on
international agreements. proposals developed by the British Cabinet and
ÎÎ Wilson’s interest and the writings of Fisher inspired the Dominion leaders.
formation of the ‘League to Enforce Peace’ (1915). In 1917 ÎÎ In early April a Franco-Italian plan for tougher collective
the French Prime Minister, Leon Bourgeois, had also security was rejected. Formation of the League was
suggested an organisation for peacekeeping. Lord Robert approved on 28 April 1919 and then written into the
Cecil of Great Britain and Jan Smuts of South Africa had Treaty of Versailles.
suggested similar ideas.
Table 1.14 Actions taken after World War I by the League of Nations to maintain peace and uphold the greater good
Issue Date Description

Prisoners of war 1920 The League arranged the repatriation of 500 000 First World War POWs.
Aaland Islands 1921 Sweden and Finland accepted the League’s arbitration to give the Aaland Islands to Finland.
Turkey 1922 The League set up camps and fed Turkish refugees.
Austria 1923 The League sent economics experts to help Austria when its government went bankrupt.
Bulgaria 1925 Greece obeyed the League’s orders to pull out of Bulgaria in 1925.
Slaves 1926 The League approved the Slavery convention; altogether, the League freed 200 000 slaves.
Disease 1920s The League worked to prevent malaria and leprosy.
Drugs 1936 After more than ten years of work, 26 League nations signed an international convention to combat
the drugs trade—a law that is still in force today.
Permanent Court The League oversaw the Court (transferred to the UN in 1945 as the International Court of Justice).
of International
Justice
Agencies and These included the Disarmament Commission; the Health Organisation (transferred to the UN in
commissions of the 1945 and restructured as the World Health Organisation); the International Labour Organisation
League (transferred to the UN in 1945); the Mandates Commission; the International Commission on
Intellectual Cooperation (a precursor to UNESCO); the Permanent Central Opium Board; the
Commission for Refugees; and the Slavery Commission.

The
ÎÎEverLeague: a force
since the era for good?
of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck in the The
ÎÎ Versailles
Austria, reduced Conference
to a fraction of its former size, was plunged
1870s
ÎÎ Diplomatic means alone couldpolitical
and 1880s, two significant partiesdisputes
never resolve in the and into social and economic chaos, and unable to recover
Imperial Reichstag, the SPD and Catholic Centre
deter invasion and occupation. Unlike its successor Party,body, from the loss of most of its territory, population and
hadthe
enjoyed an uneasy relationship with the Kaiser’s
United Nations, it had no armed forces to deploy. industry. A union with Germany would have lessened the
government,
However, thewhich felt able
League was to ignore
a force forthem.
goodGermany
in many effects of the resulting misery, but this was impossible
wasdifferent
a democracy
ways. in name only. under the terms.
ÎÎ General reconciliation among the nations was made even
Terms
Whyof the
did theArmistice
League fail? ÎÎ A number of commissions were established to deal with
more difficult. Ethnic rivalry among sections of the new
Authority compromised nations was intense. Ethnic Germans in Poland and
ÎÎ The authority of the League was compromised from the Czechoslovakia felt that they had been denied national
outset. The Allies were determined to enforce the terms self-determination. Poland, for example, included one
of the Treaty of Versailles against Germany. However, this million Germans, six million White Russians and three
was never Wilson’s intention. Originally he intended it to million Jews.
monitor and make periodic adjustments to the treaties.
northeast France and neighbouring Belgium. The absence
Covenant of League
of the the USA and the future of the German
ÎÎ German politicians on both the left and right of politics colonies. William ‘Billy’ Hughes, thethe
Australian Prime
ÎÎ Woodrow Wilson returned from peace talks before the
did
Summary everything theyofcould
of the terms to subvert
the Treaty what they considered
conference ended. In poor health his attempts to gather
to be oppressive terms. Within 15 years of the League’s
• Evacuation of all occupied territory supervision
support for of confiscated
the Treaty ofcolonies
Versailles(known
and theas ‘mandates’).
League failed.
creation the attempt at collective security had collapsed. TheThe Australian delegation wanted each mandatory
• Repatriation of all prisoners of war
The German press denounced it as a ‘League of Victors’.
US Congress refused to ratify the treaty and for the
• Immediate handover of 5000 heavy guns and 30 000 nation to
next two apply its own
decades laws inremained
America the captured firmlyterritory.
neutral. Had
French newspapers mocked it for being a ‘toothless This was accepted.
medium guns it done so, and had the threat of armed intervention been
debating society’.
• Evacuation of the left bank of the Rhine ÎÎ As used
soontoasdeter expansionist
the Draft had beenGermany,
discussed,Italy and left
Wilson Japan,
for then
• Refusal to admit
No transfer Germany
of population fromand its eventual
evacuated territory departure thepeace
Unitedmight
Stateshave beenhis
to face more
Senate achievable.
critics. He returned to
• ÎNo
Î destruction
Germany wasofbarred
road orfrom
rail communications
joining the League, having Paris on 14 March. By this time, the President was
Failure
seriouslytoill.extend disarmament
• Restoration
been judged by the
of coal andvictors
iron oretomines
be theand
cause of the
water war.
supplies
ÎÎ Signatories to the League Covenant agreed upon
• Immediate
Improvedhandover
relationsofled to Germany
5000 locomotivesjoining the League,
disarmament, yet Germany was the only nation to be
negotiated as a result of the Treaty of Locarno (1926).
wagons
ÎÎ actively
It soon disarmed.
became apparent Britain
thatand the United
the Council States
of Ten did make
was
• When
Allies Hitlerrights
to have became Chancellor
to requisition in January
property 1933, he
in occupied
some concessions.
unwieldy: in practice the Unsurprisingly
work was done the byGerman General
the leaders of
avoided making aggressive public pronouncements to
territory
theStaff secretly
so-called Bigrearmed. The Treaty
Four (France, Italy, of Rapallo
Great thatand
Britain Germany
the
• rearm on
Germany to equal terms
surrender itswith
navalthe Allies. On 14 October,
fleet
USA)concluded
who were with Russia in 1924
accompanied allowed
by their German
foreign pilots to
ministers
• Germany to restore stolen property diplomats and the army
acting with the support of senior
andtrain with Soviet
advisers. Each forces.
leaderBy the to
tried time the Geneva
reconcile Disarmament
contradictory
• leadership,
Germany he announced
to accept Germany’s
reparations, which werewithdrawal. Hitler
to be decided Conference
attitudes towards ended in 1934 it had
the treatment achieved
of postwar nothing.The
Germany.
argued that since Germany did not have equal status as a
Germany
militaryin or
denial?
political power it was at a diplomatic Failure to actandover aggression by member nations, 1931
compromise was deeply flawed.
ÎÎ disadvantage. Rearmament
Germany had unrealistic proceeded
expectations as toat how
a rapid pace.
it would ÎÎ Japan’s occupation in 1931 of the Chinese province of
be treated in the aftermath of war. The country’s Table 1.1 The mainand
Manchuria Allied thepowers
Italianand their leaders
invasion of Abyssinia in 1935
Refusal to include Communist Russia
politicians and people never conceded that its armies had undermined
Wartime Allied the integrity of the League
Leader who represented national and its reputation
Î ÎThe
been Bolshevik seizure ofsoldiers
defeated—returning power were
in October
greeted1917 withand the power as an international body. Despite widespread condemnation,
interests
cheers. At the Brandenburg Gate, Ebert announced attoaany
consolidation of the Soviet state by 1921 put paid
hopepast
thatbythe Leaguetroops:
would welcome Russia. Communist USA League membersPresident were notWoodrow
preparedWilson to sanction the use of
march German armed force to remove occupying powers. Understandably
Russia altered the balance of power, and encouraged Greatnobody
Britain had thePrime Minister Davidof Lloyd George
No foe has overcome you … slightest intention precipitating
Allied attempts to isolate theyou are returning
regime. Like Germany, the
undefeated from a glorious combat … you havefor the France
another war. President Georges Clemenceau—
Soviet Union became an international outcast
protected the homeland from enemy invasion.
next decade. The Soviet Union was granted membership referred to as ‘The Tiger’ for his
The Rhineland, 1936
combative style
in September 1934.
World War Reconsidered, Routledge, London, 1986 In 1936 Hitler’s forces reoccupied the Rhineland region
ÎÎ
Italy along the French

Prime Minister
border. Vittorio
By now Orlando,had
the League whoproved
New
ÎÎ nation-states
Ebert’s statement merelyunsupported, worsening
reinforced German ethnic
self-delusion was also President of the Conference
rivalries
about the outcome of the war and the Dolchstoßlegende itself unwilling and unable to counter aggression. The
(‘stab collapse of collective
Russia security
Excluded due tothrough the failure
the November 1917of the
Î ÎTheinsettlement
the back’) did
myth perpetuated
little to supportbythe
thenewly
German Army.
independent
Forcountries
them, German armies were undefeated in battle, but League encouraged the Nazi
Revolution regime
which had to continue
brought with its
Vladimir
(Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Austria) Lenin and the Bolsheviks to power.
hadfollowing
been stabbed in the back by Jews, socialists and demand for territorial adjustments.
the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
pacifists. Since President
Conservative forces in Friedrich EbertEuropean
these Eastern needed thestates
support of the German Army, he never countered whatof France
The intentions and authority of the UN
asserted control and government fell into the hands
was, essentially, a lie. Surprisingly, nor did the Allies.
conservative minority elites such as the Roman Catholic ÎÎÎThe
Î premier
The of Nations
United the French
(UN)republic, Georges
was created in Clemenceau,
1945, following
Between
Church November 1918 and May 1919 many Germans
and landowners. wasthe
determined to make a harsh peace in ordermission
devastation of World War II. Its central to extract
has
been to maintain international peace and security.
6 YEAR 12CHAPTER
MODERN1:
HISTORY
Denmark Sweden
Lithuania
Baltic
North Sea Sea Danzig
(Gdansk)
Hamburg
Poland
Berlin White Russia
Poznan
Holland Germany (Posen) Warsaw
Liepzig Breslau
(Vroclav)
. Belgium
Cologne USSR
Rh
Frankfurt
ine
Krakow
lan
Lux
Ukraine
Saar Stuttgart Czechoslovakia
Basin
Munich Vienna
France Eger
Austria
Berchtesgaden
Budapest
Romania
Hungary
Switzerland
Italy
Germany 1918 Occupied as Protectorate Remilitarised 1936

Annexed 1938 Regained by Plebiscite Annexed 1939
Figure 1.9 Germany’s territorial expansion, 1935–39
Table 1.15 The intentions of the United Nations

Maintain international The UN works to prevent conflict, help parties in conflict make peace, and is involved in peacekeeping.
peace and security It also tries to create the conditions to allow peace to flourish.
The UN Security Council has primary responsibility for international peace and security.
The General Assembly and the Secretary-General play major, important and complementary roles
alongside other UN offices and bodies.
Protect human rights The UN’s founding charter emphasised the term ‘human rights’, making their promotion and
protection a key purpose and guiding principal. In 1948 the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
enshrined human rights in international law.
Deliver humanitarian aid From May 1945 the UN delivered aid to the devastated continent of Europe, which it helped to rebuild.
Promote sustainable In 1945 a major objective of the UN was to ‘achieve international cooperation in solving international
development problems of an economic, social, cultural, or humanitarian character and in promoting and
encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to
race, sex, language, or religion.’
Uphold international law The Preamble to the UN Charter sought to ‘establish conditions under which justice and respect for the
obligations arising from treaties and other sources of international law can be maintained’. This work is
carried out by courts, tribunals, multilateral treaties and by the Security Council. This body can approve
peacekeeping missions, impose sanctions or authorise the use of force when there is a threat to
international peace and security, if it deems this necessary.
K e y Q U E STI O N
Î

5 Discuss the role of the League of Nations in peacekeeping between the wars.
Answer p. 44

HSC Exam-TYPE Questions
ÎÎ Ever since the era of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck in the
Now for the which real thing! The following totypes
decideof upon peaceyouterms for thein defeated powers.
government, felt able to ignore questions
them. Germanyare modelled on the questions will face the HSC Examination.
Think about it: if you get extensive practice at answering these sortsA Council of questions, of you
Ten will
wasbe formed, which included
more confident in answering them.
It makes sense, doesn’t it? representatives from the British Empire.
Terms of the
Another Armistice
advantage for your exam preparation is the format ofÎ the
ÎAanswers:
number they are deliberately
of commissions were structured
establishedtotogive dealyou
with
strategies on how to answer examination questions. This will help you aim for full marks!
The Examiner Maximiser ( ) at the beginning of every suggested answer provides you with Examiner-type tips.
But when the Allies met at Versailles aitsample
Each short-answer question has answer.
soon became of food relief, blockade, civil wars and revolution. The
Each
evident extended-response
that France in particular question
would has a scaffolded
settle for nothingsample answer. domestic politics of each of the victors obliged all of the
less
Whenthanyouthemark
complete humiliation
your work, highlightof any
Germany and you found difficult
questions primeand ministers,
earmark at someareas
these stage,fortoextra
return home.
study.
restoration
The SourceofBookletits damaged economic
on pages 42–43 heartland
is requiredin for this section. ÎÎ Early talks were dominated by discussion of the Draft
Question
Summary of the terms1 of the Treaty of Versailles Minister, was at odds with the Council over the
Outline the impact
• Repatriation of all prisoners of war of the Treaty of Versailles on Germany
The Australian until the end
delegation wantedof each1923. (3 marks)
mandatory
• Suggested answer KEY POINTS TO INCLUDE
Evacuation of the left bank of the Rhine ÎÎ As soon as the Draft had been discussed, Wilson left for
Î Germany lost territory as a result of the treaty, including
• No transfer of population from evacuated territory theland
United States to face states.
to neighbouring his Senate critics. He returned to
EM Students should note that the directive term outline
requires students to indicate in general terms the impact Î It also lost about 6.5 million people who were no longer
• Restoration seriously ill.
of the treaty.of coal and iron ore mines and water supplies considered to be within German territory.
Markers will be looking for 3–5 valid points in order to TheÎ‘Big Four’ collective pride was hurt as a result of the
Germany’s
wagons
award full marks. terms of the treaty.
• Allies to have rights to requisition property in occupied Î Restrictions
unwieldy: were placed
in practice the work on Germany’s
was done byproduction
the leadersandof
Students should keep in mind that the impacts were both
territory economy, eventually crippling the nation.
long- and short-term, and that the impacts ranged from the so-called Big Four (France, Italy, Great Britain and the
• Germany
economictotosurrender
geographical its naval fleet
to psychological. ÎUSA)Somewho historians argue that the
were accompanied harshness
by their foreign of ministers
the treaty led
Students should spend around 6 minutes answering to conditions ripe for a totalitarian government,
and advisers. Each leader tried to reconcile contradictory and
• Germany to
this question. accept reparations, which were to be decided combined with other factors it would
attitudes towards the treatment of postwar Germany. The ultimately lead to the
rise of the Nazi party and the beginning of World War Two.
Germany in denial?
ÎÎ Question
Germany had unrealistic 2 expectations as to how it would
politicians and people never conceded that its armies had
How successful was the League of Nations as an instrument
Wartime Allied of Leader collective security?
who represented (4 marks)
national
Suggested
march past by German answer troops: Î While the intentions for the League of Nations were for it
No foe has overcome you … you are returning Greatto be an instrument
Britain PrimeofMinister
collective security,
David students should
Lloyd George
focus on the extent to which the League of Nations made
undefeated
The directivefromterm
a glorious combat
here is how, … you
which means havestudents France
EM
the world a saferPresident
place. Georges Clemenceau—
protected
will need tothe homeland
decide from
the extent toenemy
which theinvasion.
League of referred to as ‘The Tiger’ for his
Nations was successful
Source: Friedrich Ebert, quotedin providing security
in G Martel (ed), forofall.
Origins the Second
Î Although the League combativeof Nations
style had no armed forces to
World War Reconsidered, Routledge, London, 1986 deploy to peacekeeping missions it did achieve a number
Markers will be looking for students to make a clear and Italy of positive outcomes, Prime including settling a dispute
whobetween
Minister Vittorio Orlando,

ÎÎ Ebert’s statement
informed judgement.merely reinforced German self-delusion Finland and Sweden, was also freeing 200 000
President of theslaves, and
Conference
about the outcome
Students should spend of thearound
war and the Dolchstoßlegende
7 minutes answering establishing different agencies and commissions such
this question. as the Health Organisation.
Î Despite its original Leningoals,
and the within 15 years
Bolsheviks tothe attempt at
power.
had been stabbed in the back by Jews, socialists and collective security had collapsed. To many it was seen as
KEY POINTS
pacifists. Since TOPresident
INCLUDE Friedrich Ebert needed the an organisation for victors or simply a debating society
support of theofGerman
A number Army, he
world leaders, never countered
including Woodrowwhat Wilson, France
Î lacking real power.
was, essentially,
had been calling a lie.for
Surprisingly,
an organisation nor did
likethe
theAllies.
League of ÎÎ The premier of the French republic, Georges Clemenceau,
Î At various times the League had no representatives of
Between
Nations November
to keep peace 1918 among
and May 1919 many Germans
nations. wasmajor
determined to makelike
world powers a harsh
Russia, peace in order
Germany andtothe
extract
USA.
Î The League of Nations failed to act when member
nations were aggressive towards other nations.
6 YEAR 12CHAPTER
MODERN1:
HISTORY
Question 3
Account for the consolidation of Nazi power in Germany between 1933 and 1934. (5 marks)
Suggested answer Î The Reichstag Fire gave Hitler the power to suspend
basic rights as a result of an emergency decree. He went
EM The term account for requires students to state reasons on to arrest opponents and shut down their operations.
or report on. Î With the Enabling Act the Reichstag authorised Hitler to
Students should keep in mind that the key word here is enact laws in his own right.
consolidation; note that it is not asking for an account of Î The Nazi party went on to ensure that the police force
the rise of the Nazis. was purged of any Nazi opponents and the Gestapo was
It is also important to stay within the timeframe of the established.
question: between 1933 and 1934. Î While Hitler was seen to be at the helm there were a
Students should ensure they continually refer to the number of prominent Nazi party identities who worked
question and state how each event covered in their answer hard during this time to consolidate power.
allowed the Nazi Party to consolidate its power.
Î The Nazi party seized control of German cultural life at
In their conclusion students should summarise all the ways this time with Goebbels heading up the newly appointed
in which the Nazi Party consolidated their power, as outlined Ministry of Popular Enlightenment and Propaganda.
in their response. This was another way in which the Nazi party was able to
Students should spend around 9 minutes answering consolidate power.
this question.
Î After Hitler came to power in 1933 a series of camps
were set up for prisoners. The SA and the SS would be
KEY POINTS TO INCLUDE instrumental in the Nazification of the German state.
Î Hitler was appointed in the role of Reich Chancellor and Î With the death of President Hindenberg in 1934 Hitler
it was from this position that he was able to announce combined the offices of Chancellor and President to become
new elections, trying to capitalise on what he saw as the Germany’s Führer, consolidating Nazi power in Germany.
rise in popularity of the Nazi party.
Question 4
What perspectives do Sources A and B reveal about the impact of the Nazis on German
minorities? (5 marks)
Suggested answer It was made to encourage the targeting of Jews by the

general population, not just the party itself, which had an
EM It is important for students to acknowledge that both extensive impact on the Jewish population of Germany.
sources focus on the impact of the Nazis on Jews in particular. Î Source B is another example of the Nazi party attempting
Other minority groups were also deeply impacted by the to involve the German population in discrimination
laws, ideologies and actions of the Nazi party. against Jews. The photograph shows members of the Nazi
Both are primary sources and reveal the impact on Jews at party calling for a boycott of Jewish shops in 1933. The
the time. boycotting of shops had an impact on the finances of the
shopkeepers but was another way of highlighting to
Students should spend around 9 minutes answering

this question. Jewish people that they themselves, and their businesses,
were not supported by the Nazi party and other members
of the German population.
KEY POINTS TO INCLUDE
Î Source A reveals the way the Nazi party was able to
disseminate propaganda against the Jews through the
vehicles of culture and, in particular, film. This film was
designed to inform the German population about the
so-called influence of the Jews around the world.

ÎÎ Question
Ever since the era5of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck in the The Versailles Conference
How do Sources C and D demonstrate
the impact metofnear Nazi propaganda?
Paris in the Great Hall of(8themarks) Palace of Versailles
Suggested answer Î Source D is an
representatives extract
from from a Empire.
the British speech by Hitler, which
Terms of the Armistice focuses on two aspects of Nazi propaganda: architecture
ÎÎ A number of commissions were established to deal with
Students and the longevity of the Third Reich. He likens the
ÎÎ InEMsigning the should consider
Armistice, what thedelegation
the German photographagreed
and the particular matters. Plenary sessions soon bogged down in
buildings created by members of the Nazi party to the
extract from the speech actually reveal about the impact of attempts to come to terms with the immediate problems
to end the fighting based on Wilson’s Fourteen Points. cathedrals of the past and identifies them as serving the
the propaganda on the German population.
Students 14 minutes interests of the party.
evident thatshould
France spend around would
in particular answering
settle for nothing domestic politics of each of the victors obliged all of the
thisthan
less question.
the complete humiliation of Germany and Î primeTheministers,
influence at of some
Nazism andtothe
stage, opportunity
return home. for
restoration of its damaged economic heartland in propaganda were to be seen in all aspects of German life;
northeast France and neighbouring Belgium. they had a physical presence.
KEY POINTS TO INCLUDE Covenant of the League and the future of the German
Î Another
colonies. aspect ‘Billy’
William highlighting
Hughes, thetheimportance
AustralianofPrime
propaganda
Î Sources C and D are both primary sources and effectively
Summary of the terms of the Treaty of Versailles is Hitler’s
Minister, was reference
at odds to the
with theReich
Council being eternal
over the and
demonstrate the importance of propaganda to the Nazi extendingof‘into the millennia of (known
the future’
• Evacuation
party. of all occupied territory supervision confiscated colonies as.‘mandates’).
The Nazi
The party neededdelegation
Australian the German population
wanted each to believe that the
mandatory
• ÎRepatriation of all prisoners of war
Source C shows the Cathedral of Light display at the nation apply
nation to underits Nazi
ownrule lawswould
in thebecaptured
so strongterritory.
that it would
• Immediate handover
Nuremberg Rally which of 5000 heavy
was guns and
designed 30 000
to give the live forever.
appearance of a holy place. Members of the Nazi party
• Evacuation of the left
utilised methods of bank of the Rhine
propaganda to encourage the German ÎÎ As soon as the Draft had been discussed, Wilson left for
• Nopopulation
transfer of topopulation from evacuated territory
embrace the Nazi ideology as if it were a the United States to face his Senate critics. He returned to
• Noreligion.
destruction
The of roadnumber
sheer or rail communications
of people in attendance at the Paris on 14 March. By this time, the President was
• Restoration
rally indicates that
of coal and the impact
iron was widespread.
ore mines Further,
and water supplies seriously ill.
• Immediate
the imagehandover
of the Cathedral of Light wasand
of 5000 locomotives used
1500in a The ‘Big Four’
propaganda film, thereby expanding its impact.
wagons
ÎÎ It soon became apparent that the Council of Ten was Year 12
territory
Option F:the Russia
so-called andBig the Soviet
Four Union
(France, Italy,1917–1941
Great Britain and the
• Germany to restore stolen property Content Focus and advisers. Each leader tried to reconcile contradictory
• Germany to accept reparations, which were to be decided Students investigate attitudes towards
key features the treatment
of the history of Soviet
of Russia and the postwar
Union Germany. The
1917–1941. The
Historical concepts and skills content is to be integrated as appropriate.
Germany in denial? Key features compromise and was deeply flawed.
ÎÎ Germany had unrealistic expectations as to how it would•• Bolshevik ideology in theory and practice
competing visions for the Bolshevik Party and the USSR
be treated in the aftermath of war. The country’s Table
• Bolshevik 1.1 Theofmain
consolidation powerAllied powers and their leaders
• political and economic transformation
politicians and people never conceded that its
A quick note! All the major headings in this guide• (like armies had the ones
Wartime
social and cultural below) areLeader
Allied
transformation basedwho on represented
the syllabus dot points.
national
been defeated—returning soldiers were greeted with • nature and power
impact of Stalinism interests
cheers. At the Brandenburg Gate, Ebert announced at a • aims, nature and effectiveness of Soviet foreign policy
march SpastU RV Eby
Y German troops:
Content
BOLSHEVIK
No foe has overcomeCONSOLIDATIONyou … you OF POWER
are returning Modern Great
History Britain
Students investigate:
Prime Minister David Lloyd George
Stage 6 Syllabus
1 An overview of Bolshevik
undefeated from a glorious combat … you have ideology
Survey France President Georges Clemenceau—
protected
Î the homeland
In the half-century from
before 1917, radical enemy
agitators invasion.
and revolutionary referred to as ‘The Tiger’ for his
• Bolshevik consolidation of power, including:
groups challenged autocratic rule by the Romanov monarchy. With – an overview of Bolshevik ideology, the October coup 1917 and early Soviet government
Source: Friedrich
political Ebert, opposition
activity banned, quoted ingroups
G Martelwent(ed), Origins of the Second
underground (ACHMH136)
combative style
World clandestinely) toRoutledge,
War Reconsidered,
(operated London,
avoid the Tsar’s 1986the Okhrana.
secret police, – the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, the Civil War and the introduction of the New Economic Policy
Italy ACHMH138)
(ACHMH136, Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando, who
aboutFtheO C Uoutcome
S O F S T U DofY the war and the Dolchstoßlegende Focus of study
(‘stab in BOLSHEVIKS
THE the back’) myth AND perpetuated
THE POWER the German Army.• The
bySTRUGGLE Bolsheviks
Russiaand the power struggleExcluded
following thedue
deathto
of Lenin, including:
the November
– the impact of the Bolshevik consolidation of power, including the creation of the USSR
1917
ForFOLLOWING
them, German THEarmies
DEATHwere undefeated in battle, but
OF LENIN (ACHMH138) Revolution which had brought Vladimir
– power struggle between Stalin, TrotskyLenin andand
otherthe Bolsheviks
leading to power.
Bolshevik figures in the 1920s
had1been stabbedofinthe
The impact theBolshevik
back by consolidation
Jews, socialists and (ACHMH137)
of power,
pacifists. Since including
Presidentthe creationEbert
Friedrich of theneeded
USSR the – reasons for the emergence of Stalin as leader of the USSR by the late 1920s (ACHMH137)
support France
Î Leninofwasthe German
fatally weakened inArmy, heonnever
the attempt his life incountered
1918 by the what • The Soviet State under Stalin, including:
was, essentially,
Socialist a lie. Surprisingly, nor did the Allies.
Revolutionary Fanya Kaplan. On 26 May 1922 he suffered a – the The
Înature
Î premier
of the of the
USSR under French
Stalin, includingrepublic, Georges
dictatorship and Clemenceau,
totalitarianism (ACHMH138)
stroke. During his convalescence he acknowledged that communism
Between November
had failed 1918
to convince the masses.and May 1919 many Germans was determined to make a harsh peace in order
– economic transformation under Stalin and its impact on Soviet society, including
to extract
accepted the myth that Germany had not lost the war. guarantees
collectivisation of security.
and the five-year He demanded that Germany:
plans (ACHMH138)
– political transformation under Stalin: growth of the Party, use of terror, show trials, gulags,
propaganda and censorship (ACHMH138, ACHMH139)
– social and cultural change in the USSR under Stalin (ACHMH138)
• Soviet foreign policy, including:
– the nature of Soviet foreign policy 1917–1941
6 YEAR 12CHAPTER
MODERN1:
HISTORY
POWER AND AUTHORITY IN THE MODERN WORLD 1919–1946– the role of ideology in Soviet foreign policy 1917–1941 41
Source Booklet
Source A
Film poster for The Eternal Jew.
This film is about the so-called influence of Jews in the world.

Source: https://static.hwpi.harvard.edu/files/styles/os_files_medium/public/hds-rlp/files/11284798253_11cf848feb_z.jpg?m=1427913753&itok=IVfLta0Z
Source B
The Nazi Jewish shop boycott on 1 April 1933
The Nazis called for a national boycott of Jewish shops on 1 April 1933. The campaign was a failure.
Source: http://www.historyplace.com/worldwar2/timeline/boycott.htm

ÎÎSource C era of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck in the
Ever since the The Versailles Conference
Image of the
Imperial Cathedral
Reichstag, theofSPD
Light
andfrom Centre Party,Triumph of the Will, 1935
Leni Riefenstahl’s
Catholic
Terms of the Armistice ÎÎ A number of commissions were established to deal with
• The Cathedral
Immediate of Lightofdisplay
handover at the 1934and
5000 locomotives Nuremberg
1500 Rally gaveThe
the ‘Big
appearance
Four’ of being in a holy place.
wagons
It was featured in the film Triumph of the Will, a masterpiece of Nazi propaganda.
• Source:
Allieshttps://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1982-1130-502%2C_N%C3%BCrnberg%2C_Reichsparteitag%2C_
to have rights to requisition property in occupied
Lichtdom.jpg
territory
D
• Source
Germany to accept reparations, which were to be decided attitudes towards the treatment of postwar Germany. The
Adolf Hitler writing in the Volksicher Beobachter settlement, a product of these differences, was a
Germany in denial?
The buildings whichexpectations
you see risingasintothis compromise and waserected
deeplyor flawed.
ÎÎGermany had unrealistic howcity [Nuremberg], the
it would buildings already planned in other
places, for example in Berlin or Munich
be treated in the aftermath of war. The country’s or Hamburg, are intended to serve the interests of this
Table 1.1 The main Allied powers and theirauthority ... And
leaders
since we
politicians andbelieve
peopleinnever
the eternity
conceded of this
that Reich thesehad
its armies works of ours shallAllied
Wartime also be eternal ... Therefore
Leader these national
who represented
been buildings
defeated—returning
of ours shallsoldiers
not be were greeted
conceived forwith
the year 1940, nopower
not for the year 2000, but like the cathedrals of the
interests
cheers. At they
past, the Brandenburg Gate,the
shall stretch into Ebert announced
millennia of theatfuture.
a
Source: Adolf Hitler, Volksicher Beobachter, 19 July 1937

6 YEAR 12CHAPTER
MODERN1:
HISTORY
AnSWERS to Key Questions
Key question 1 p. 17 Key question 3 p. 32
• Italy, and in particular Germany, were severely impacted by the • The press was heavily censored under the Nazi regime. Official
Treaty of Versailles and its provisions. newspapers were mostly controlled by Joseph Goebbels and they
had the task of disseminating information about the Nazi regime.
• There was a desire for strong leadership to rebuild both nations
after the First World War. • The Nazi use of repression and terror had a significant impact on
the life of many German people. The SA, or Brownshirts, would
• Economic instability in both nations was attributed to parliamentary protect Nazi meetings and rallies against any opposition but also
democracy, among other reasons, and the population was looking terrorise the meetings of any opponents of the regime. The SS were
for an alternative. personal bodyguards to Hitler and important members of the Nazi
• Europe had been experiencing years of political instability and firm, Party and were certainly an intimidating presence.
decisive and all-encompassing leadership became appealing to many.
Key question 4 p. 36
Key question 2 p. 22 • Both Germany and Japan were looking to expand their nation and
conquer foreign territories but the primary reasons for doing so
• In 1919 Hitler aligned himself with the German Worker’s Party,
were actually quite different.
which was a small group of anti-communist, anti-monarchist,
anti-Weimar and anti-Semitic members. • While Germany sought political supremacy and a new order in
Europe, Japan required resources and raw materials that it lacked
• In February of 1920 Hitler announced the new name, The Nationalist
on home soil.
Socialist German Worker’s Party (NSDAP), which became known
as the Nazi Party. • Both nations were prepared to go to war to pursue their ambitions.
• The agenda of the party would in time appeal to many German
Key question 5 p. 38
people including the reversal of the Treaty of Versailles, the
expansion of the German nation and major economic reforms. • The intention of the League of Nations was to resolve disputes,
deter invasions and prevent forceful occupations.
• Hitler surrounded himself with powerful and influential men and
built up the ‘brand’ of the Nazi Party. • While the League of Nations lacked military power it was able to
achieve a number of outcomes that contributed to peacekeeping
• After the collapse of Wall Street and the subsequent depression the
during the wars. It issued orders for the withdrawal of Greek troops
Weimar Republic became vulnerable and the growing profile and
in Bulgaria, provided economic advice to Austria about their
popularity of Hitler and the Nazi Party meant that they were in an
bankruptcy and oversaw a court for international justice.
opportune position.
• While at times its role was limited and restricted, the League
certainly worked towards peacekeeping between the wars.

ÎÎ Sample HSC Examination
QUESTIONS
ÎÎ
On 18 January 1919, representatives of 32 Allied nations
Terms Tryof tothe Armistice
complete this paper as if it is the real thing. These are the
ÎÎinstructions
A numberyou of need to followwere
commissions in theestablished
HSC Exam:to deal with
General instructions Total marks: 100
• Reading time: 5 minutes Section I: 25 marks
• Working time: 3 hours Section II: 25 marks
prime ministers, at some stage, to return home.
• Write using black pen.
restoration of its damaged economic heartland in Section III: 25 marks
• A Source Booklet is provided at the back of this paper.
northeast France and neighbouring Belgium. Section
CovenantIV:of25 themarks
League and the future of the German
• Section
Evacuation of all occupied
I: Power territory in the Modern World 1919–1946
and Authority
• Attempt
Repatriation of all prisoners of war The Australian delegation wanted each mandatory
Questions 1–5. nation to apply its own laws in the captured territory.
• Allow
Immediate handover of 5000 heavy guns and 30 000
about 45 minutes for this section.
The Source Booklet is required for this section.
• Your
No answer
transfer will
of population from evacuated
be assessed on how well you: territory the United States to face his Senate critics. He returned to
• • No destruction historical
of road or knowledge
rail communications Paris on 14 March. By this time, the President was
demonstrate and understanding relevant to the question
• communicate ideas and information logically
•• Immediate handover of 5000 locomotives and 1500
use historical terms and concepts appropriately. The ‘Big Four’
wagons
territory
• Question
Germany1to (3surrender
marks) its naval fleet USA) who were accompanied by their foreign ministers
• How
Germany
did thetoTreaty
restoreofstolen property
Saint-Germain-en-Laye reshape Europe? and advisers. Each leader tried to reconcile contradictory
Germany
Question in2 (4denial?
marks)
Compare
ÎÎGermanythe hadambitions ofexpectations
unrealistic Germany in as
Europe
to how and Japan in the Asia-Pacific.
it would
politicians and people
Question 3 (5 marks) never conceded that its armies had Wartime Allied Leader who represented national
Account forthe
cheers. At theBrandenburg
conditions that allowed
Gate, Ebert dictators
announced to rise
at a in Europe in the 1920s and 1930s.
Question 4 (5overcome
No foe has marks) you … you are returning Great Britain Prime Minister David Lloyd George
undefeated
What from
do Sources a glorious
A and combat …
B demonstrate you the
about haverise of Hitler andFrance
the Nazi Party? President Georges Clemenceau—
Question
World War5Reconsidered,
(8 marks) Routledge, London, 1986
How Sources Cmerely

dostatement and D reinforced
outline howGerman
the Nazis Italy
were able to exercise control in Germany? Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando, who
Ebert’s
ÎÎ self-delusion was also President of the Conference
6 YEAR 12 MODERN HISTORY SAMPLE HSC EXAMINATION 349

Section II: National Studies
Attempt ONE Question from Questions 6–8.
Allow about 45 minutes for this section.
Your answer will be assessed on how well you:

• demonstrate historical knowledge and understanding relevant to the question
• use relevant evidence and interpretation to support your response
• communicate ideas and information using historical terms and concepts appropriately
• present a sustained, logical and cohesive response.
Question 6—Option F: Russia and the Soviet Union 1917–1941 (25 marks)
To what extent was Stalin successful in the economic and political transformation of the Soviet Union?
OR
Question 7—Option G: USA 1919–1941 (25 marks)

Analyse the nature and impact of American isolation from world affairs in the period 1919–1941.
OR
Question 8—Option H: Iran 1945–1989 (25 marks)

To what extent was Islamic ideology a fundamental cause in the 1979 revolution?

ÎÎEver sinceIII:
Section thePeace
era of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck in the
and Conflict The Versailles Conference
Attempt ONE Question from Questions 9–12. ÎÎ On 18 January 1919, representatives of 32 Allied nations
Allow about 45 minutes for this section. met near Paris in the Great Hall of the Palace of Versailles
The Source Booklet is required for this section. to decide upon peace terms for the defeated powers.
was answer
Your a democracy
will beinassessed
name only.
on how well you: representatives from the British Empire.
Terms of the Armistice
• demonstrate historical knowledge and understanding relevant ÎÎ to
A the question
number of commissions were established to deal with
ÎÎ • use relevant evidence and interpretation to
In signing the Armistice, the German delegation agreedsupport your response
•to communicate
end the fighting ideas
basedand
oninformation using historical
Wilson’s Fourteen attempts to
Points. terms and concepts come to terms with the immediate problems
appropriately
•But when the
present Allies metlogical
a sustained, at Versailles it soon became
and cohesive response. of food relief, blockade, civil wars and revolution. The
Question
northeast9—Option
France andA: Conflict in Belgium.
neighbouring Indochina 1954–1979 (25 marks) Covenant of the League and the future of the German
Evaluate the impact of the anti-war movements in Australia and thecolonies. United States
Williamon the course
‘Billy’ of thethe
Hughes, conflict in Indochina.
Australian Prime
• Evacuation of all occupied territory OR supervision of confiscated colonies (known as ‘mandates’).
• Question
Immediate handover of nation to apply its own laws in the captured territory.
10—Option B:5000 heavyin
Conflict guns
theand 30 000
Pacific 1937–1951 (25 marks)
Analyse the nature and impact of the Japanese occupation on theÎ civilians inas
those territories fromdiscussed,
1941 to 1945.
• Evacuation of the left bank of the Rhine Î As soon the Draft had been Wilson left for
• No destruction of road or rail communications OR Paris on 14 March. By this time, the President was
• Question
Immediate 11—Option
handover of C:5000
Conflict in Europe
locomotives 1935–1945 (25 marks)
wagons
Assess the impact of the racial policies of Adolf Hitler and the Nazis ÎÎ Iton occupied
soon became Europe in the
apparent thatperiod 1939–1945.
the Council of Ten was
• UseAllies to have rights to requisition property in occupied
Source E to support your response. unwieldy: in practice the work was done by the leaders of
territory
• Germany to restore stolen property OR USA) who were accompanied by their foreign ministers
Question 12—Option D: The Cold War 1945–1991 (25 marks)
Germany in denial?
To what extent were the ideologies of communism and capitalism responsible forand
the was
development of the Cold War?
compromise deeply flawed.
ÎÎ Germany had unrealistic expectations as to how it would


Section IV: Change in the Modern World
Attempt ONE Question from Questions 13–15.
Answer ALL parts of the question.
Allow about 45 minutes for this section.
Your answer will be assessed on how well you:

• demonstrate historical knowledge and understanding relevant to the question
• communicate ideas and information logically
• use historical terms and concepts appropriately.
Question 13—Option C: Civil Rights in the USA 1945–1968 (25 marks)

(a) Outline the concepts of segregation and discrimination as they relate to the United States. 4
(b) Explain the activities and methods of opposition groups to the civil rights movement. 9
(c) To what extent was the attitude of US Presidents responsible for the Civil Rights Act 1964? 12
OR
Question 14—Option D: The Changing World Order 1945–2011 (25 marks)

(a) Describe the emergence of the ‘American Century’. 4
(b) Explain the nature and role of Russia under Putin. 8
(c) How effective was the use of ‘hard’ and ‘soft’ power by the USA as an instrument
of foreign policy in the post – Cold War world? 13
OR
Question 15—Option E: The Nuclear Age 1945–2011 (25 marks)

(a) Outline the fears of civilians and the strategies put in place by the USA to survive a
nuclear bomb and the resulting fallout. 4
(b) Discuss the role of weapons testing in the Nuclear Age between 1945 and 1974. 6
(c) Explain the impact of weapons testing in the Nuclear Age between 1945 and 1974. 15

Source Booklet
ÎÎ
Source A
Terms of the Armistice ÎÎ A number of commissions were established to deal with
ÎÎ English historian
In signing Richard Jthe
the Armistice, Evans writing
German on the Nazi
delegation movement particular matters. Plenary sessions soon bogged down in
agreed
But whenThetheNazi
Alliesmovement as it ithad
met at Versailles soondeveloped
became by the lateof1920s was blockade,
food relief, dependent civilon the
wars energy
and and The
revolution.
evidentfanaticism
that France in of its active members. Without them, it would have been just another political all of the
particular would settle for nothing domestic politics of each of the victors obliged
party. The Third Reich was created not least by the ordinary, street-level members of the
brownshirts
northeast and the NaziBelgium.
France and neighbouring Party. What was it, then,Covenant that bound of theyoung
Leaguemen and theto future
the Naziof the German
movement with such a terrifyingly single-minded sense of commitment? Where did the Prime
Summarywellsprings
of the termsof of brownshirt
the Treaty of Versailles
violent lie? Hitler’s charisma Minister, was at odds with the Council over the
obviously played a part… More
significant still, however,
• Repatriation of all prisoners of war was the inspiration providedThe by the
Australian basic elements
delegation wanted of each
Nazimandatory
• Immediatepropaganda
handover of – 5000
the speeches
heavy guns byandHitler
30 000 and Goebbels, the marches, the banners, the
nation to apply its own laws in the parades.
captured territory.
Source: Richard J Evans, The Coming of the Third Reich, Penguin, London, 2003, pp. 217–218
• Source B
Restoration of coal and iron ore mines and water supplies seriously ill.
• English
Immediate handover
historian of 5000biographer
and Hitler locomotives and
Ian TheHitler
1500 writing about
Kershaw ‘Bigafter
Four’
the initial election successes in 1930
wagons
ÎÎIt soon became apparent that the Council of Ten was
Hitler contributed as good as nothing to the running and organization
unwieldy: in practice the of thewas
work massively
done by the leaders of
territory
expanded Nazi movement. the so-called Big Four (France,
His ‘work-style’ (if it could be called such) was unchanged Italy, Great Britain
from and the
• Germanythetodays when
restore stolenthe NSDAP was a tiny, insignificantand
property volkisch
advisers.sect.
EachHe wastried
leader incapable of contradictory
to reconcile
• Germany to accept reparations, which were to be decided
systematic work and took no interest in it. He wasattitudes as chaotic andthe
towards dilettante
treatmentasofever.
postwar Germany. The
Germany in denial? Source: Ian Kershaw, Hitler: 1889-1936 Hubris, Penguin, London, 1998, p. 343


Source C
Photograph of the Nuremberg Rally, 1934
Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/Nazi_party_rally_grounds_%281934%29.jpg
Source D
Photograph of the prisoner barracks at Dachau Concentration Camp near Munich, 1933
The camp was established in March 1933 to deal with the Nazis’ political enemies.
Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Prisoner%27s_barracks_dachau.jpg

ÎÎSource
Ever since Map of the Jewish Holocaust death toll as a % of the
E the era of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck in the The Versailles Conference
1870s and 1880s,total prewar Jewish population by country/region
two significant political parties in
the
Map of the Jewish Holocaust death toll as a % of total prewar Jewish
ÎÎ population
On 18 January by 1919,
country/region
representatives of 32 Allied nations
government, which felt able to0–1ignore
% them. Germany A Council of Ten was formed, which included
2–34 % representatives from the British Empire.
Terms of the Armistice 35–59 % ÎÎ A number of commissions were established to deal with
ÎÎ 60–79 %
In signing the Armistice, the German delegation agreed particular matters. Plenary sessions soon bogged down in
to end the fighting based on Wilson’s
80–90 % Fourteen Points. attempts to come to terms with the immediate problems
wagons
territory
Germany in denial?
Table World
be treated in the aftermath of war. The country’s Source: Yad Vashem—The 1.1 The main Allied
Holocaust powersCenter
Remembrance and their leaders


Sample HSC Examination AnSWERS
Section I: Power and Authority in the Modern World 1919–1946
Question 1
Suggested answer One and while the Treaty of Versailles focused largely on
containing Germany’s power in Europe, the Treaty of
EM The directive term here is how, which means students Saint-Germain-en-Laye focused on restricting Austria’s
will need to explain the role the treaty played in reshaping power and influence in Europe.
Europe. Î Geographically the treaty reshaped Europe as Austria lost
Markers will be looking for 3–5 valid points in order to land to Poland, Italy and Czechoslovakia.
award full marks. Î The military landscape of Europe was changed as
Austria’s army was reduced and restricted.
KEY POINTS TO INCLUDE Î This treaty also required Austria to make reparation
payments, thus limiting Austria’s ability to expand their
Î The key here is for students to acknowledge that Austria–
power and influence in Europe in the future.
Hungary was a powerful ally of Germany in World War
Question 2
Suggested answer Î Both nations had active patriotic groups driven by

nationalism that pushed for overseas expansion.
EM When students are asked to compare they are expected Î Both Germany and Japan believed they had been
to show how things are similar or different. mistreated in treaties and peace negotiations in the past
To award full marks the markers will be looking for four and were looking to reassert their dominance and to
valid points comparing the two nations and their policies command respect.
and actions in the period between World War One and Î Both nations were looking to rebuild their weakened
World War Two. economies.
Î It was also important for Japan to expand its empire due
KEY POINTS TO INCLUDE to a significant lack of vital raw materials.
Î Both Germany and Japan had a history of militarism for
a variety of reasons including protection and a show of
might to the outside world.
Question 3
Suggested answer Î In some cases there was the view that democratic
governments were weak and ineffectual and consequently
EM The term account for is asking the student to state the people desired strong leaders who were prepared to
reasons for, or report on, what was occurring in Europe take control and make tough decisions.
between the two world wars that allowed dictators to rise. Î Particularly in the cases of Italy and Germany, the dictators
had the support of paramilitary organisations who called
KEY POINTS TO INCLUDE for a show of force.
Î After the dissolution and weakening of a number of
Î In nations where dictators came to power, the people were
powerful nations throughout Europe there was uncertainty;
highly dissatisfied at their treatment by other nations and
some leaders saw this as a power vacuum that provided
their leaders in past treaties and peace negotiations
opportunity.
Î Economies were unstable and in some cases in a desperate
state, and it seemed that giving a strong and decisive
government more power and control might turn them
around.

Question
Ever since the
ÎÎ 4 era of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck in the The Versailles Conference
Suggested answer
KEY
met POINTS
near ParisTO inINCLUDE
the Great Hall of the Palace of Versailles
Îto decide upon
In Source peace terms
A historian for the
Richard defeated
Evans argues powers.
that the rise
EM It is important in source-based questions that students A Council
of Hitlerofand
Tenthe was formed,
Nazi Partywhich
can beincluded
attributed to the
integrate both of the sources in their response. Students representatives from the British
energy and fanaticism Empire.
of ordinary, street-level members.
Termscanoffallthe
intoArmistice
the trap of just focusing on the topic without ÎÎ While he acknowledges that
A number of commissions were established Hitler’s charisma played
to deal with a
referring to the sources or just discussing the sources in
ÎÎ In signing the Armistice, the German delegation agreed particular matters. Plenary sessions soon bogged downtoindo
part in the rise of the party, Evans feels it was more
isolation without explaining what they do or do not reveal
toabout
end the fighting based on Wilson’s Fourteen Points. with the
attempts to young
come to people
termsbeing inspired
with the by theproblems
immediate propaganda
the topic.
But when the Allies met at Versailles it soon became machine.
of food relief, blockade, civil wars and revolution. The
Students
evident should
that acknowledge
France that would
in particular both sources
settle are
forsecondary
nothing domestic politics of eachIan of the victorsargues
obliged allHitler’s
of the
and are written by historians from their perspective.
Î In Source B historian Kershaw that
less than the complete humiliation of Germany and prime ministers,toatthe
contribution some risestage,
of thetoNazi
return home.
party was minimal.
restoration of its damaged economic heartland in ÎÎ Early talks were
Kershaw statesdominated
that Hitler’sby leadership
discussionwas of the Draftand
chaotic
northeast France and neighbouring Belgium. Covenant
that he of
hadtheveryLeague
little and
to dothe future
with the of the German
organisation and
colonies. Williamof‘Billy’
machinations Hughes, the Australian Prime
the party.
Î Both sources indicate that Hitler’s role was not significant
• Evacuation of all occupied territory supervision
in the riseofofconfiscated
the Nazi party.colonies (known as ‘mandates’).
• Question 5 the left bank of the Rhine
Evacuation of ÎÎ As soon as the Draft had been discussed, Wilson left for
• Suggested Paris on 14 March. By this time, the President was
answer
No destruction of road or rail communications Î Source D is an image of Dachau concentration camp near
seriously ill.
• Restoration of coal and iron ore mines and water supplies Munich, which was the first of its type established by the
EM Students should acknowledge that both sources are The ‘Big
NaziFour’
party. Together with the activities of the SA, SS and
wagons
photographs and are primary sources. Gestapo, concentration camps such as Dachau were
• Allies to have rights to requisition property in occupied advertised to the German people. The
unwieldy: in practice the work was done by the leaders ofNazis publicised
territory
thethe use of terror
so-called Big Four so (France,
that people knew
Italy, GreattheBritain
price ofand the
• KEY POINTS
Germany TO INCLUDE
to surrender its naval fleet
USA) who were accompanied by their foreign camp
opposition to the regime. Those sent to the initially
ministers
• ÎGermany
Source Ctoreveals
restore the sheer
stolen size of participation in the
property were mostly German Communists, trade
and advisers. Each leader tried to reconcile contradictory unionists and
• Germany
Nuremberg Rallyreparations,
to accept of 1934. Rallies
whichand gatherings
were were a
to be decided others considered political opponents
attitudes towards the treatment of postwar Germany. The of the Nazi regime.
way for members of the Nazi party to create enthusiasm Source Dareveals
settlement, productthat terrordifferences,
of these was anotherwas important
a
Germany in denial?
for Hitler and other leaders and to gather energy around component of the Nazi’s control in Germany.
ÎÎ the ideology
Germany and aims expectations
had unrealistic of the Nazi party.
as toIthow
demonstrates
it would
be that oneinofthe
treated theaftermath
importantofways
war. that
The the Nazis were able to
country’s Table 1.1 The main Allied powers and their leaders
exercise and
politicians control wasnever
people through mass rallies
conceded and
that its the had
armies Wartime Allied Leader who represented national
dissemination
been of propaganda.
defeated—returning soldiers were greeted with power interests

6 YEAR 12 MODERN HISTORY SAMPLE HSC EXAMINATION ANSWERS 357

Section II: National Studies
Question 6—Option F: Russia and the Soviet Union 1917–1941
Suggested answer Î During this time Stalin wanted to appear strong politically
to outsiders and would host lavish occasions to showcase
EM When students are asked to what extent, they are the Soviet Union and its vast and rapid improvements.
required to make a judgement based on relevant In actual fact he was presenting a particular view that he
information. wanted to portray to the rest of the world.
Students are essentially being asked how successful Stalin Î Under Stalin agricultural production was collectivised,
was in transforming the Soviet Union. Students will need resulting in a number of negative outcomes including
to state whether he was very successful, somewhat successful violence and uprisings among the peasants, investment
or whether he had limited success in the transformation of capital being wasted and large state farms becoming
the Soviet Union. unproductive. Eventually, with the introduction of the
Markers will be looking for correct use of key terms and tractor and the combine harvester, agricultural productivity
concepts throughout the response such as economic began to increase.
transformation, political transformation, Bolshevism and
Î Stalin’s second Five Year Plan was seen as being more
industrialisation.
successful economically, largely due to the exploitation
Note also you are to focus on only two aspects of the of natural resources in Siberia.
transformation: the economic transformation and the
political transformation. Î Stalin and the government used propaganda to sell their
economic policies and promote themselves as successful
politicians transforming the Soviet Union.
Î The 1936 Stalin constitution was a big political move in
Î Students might first address the political transformations an attempt to increase the popularity of the regime. It was
by Stalin. From the beginning Stalin made bold political sold as a way of promoting more freedom and democracy
moves such as removing all opposition elements from the but some members of the public saw it as the complete
Bolshevik Party. In order to present a united front he opposite. Was it a political success? The student is to be
worked to remove anyone who opposed his views and so the judge.
could make decisions quickly and without interference. Î There were huge restrictions in the areas of art and
Could this be considered successful political manoeuvring? culture, even though Stalin never spoke publicly about it.
Students should be the judge. Changes were also seen in architecture, the film industry,
Î Students can then begin to address the economic literature and many other areas. What many people were
transformations that were made. Stalin saw the need for seeing was the development of a totalitarian revolution
rapid industrialisation to address the failing economy and the imposition of cultural terror. Could this be seen
and in essence keep up with what was going on in other as a political success in transforming life in the Soviet
parts of the world. Union by gaining more control over the arts and culture?
Î Central planning by Stalin and the government prioritised Î The Great Purge was a frightful use of political oppression
the production and manufacturing of capital goods such that victimised artists, singers, poets, religious figures,
as factories and industrial machinery over consumer musicians and intellectuals, among others. Again students
goods such as bicycles, pots and pans. should ask themselves whether they see purging the
Î The production of these goods needed funding and as Soviet Union of anyone not aligned with, or appealing to,
the governments of other countries turned their backs on the regime a political success.
the Soviet Union and refused to lend money, Stalin Î Political opponents to Stalin’s regime faced oppression,
decided to seize grain from the peasants to trade on the expulsion from the party, and being placed on trial or
international market. Was this a successful economic even murdered. Secret police had the power to interrogate
move? That is for students to decide. and torture. Students should consider whether this makes
Î The first of Stalin’s Five Year Plans was seen as a failure for a successful political transformation.
for a number of reasons including the downturn of food and Î Political prisoners, as well as criminals, were placed in
consumer goods production, the rate of industrialisation slave labour camps (Gulags) to advance the process of
being too rapid, the decline in the value of Russia’s industrialisation.
national currency, the decline in living standards and the
loss of morale among the populace.

ÎÎ Stalin
Ever sincewas
theseen as Chancellor
era of a strong leader
Ottobyvon
some, creating
Bismarck in the The
Î Versailles Conference
In their conclusion students should summarise the political
modern
1870s Soviettwo
and 1880s, state. His decisions
significant certainly
political changed
parties in the the and economic transformations that Stalin made. Students
political
Imperial and economic
Reichstag, the SPDlandscape of theCentre
and Catholic Soviet Party,
Union must be clear about whether they see these transformations
hadforever.
enjoyed an uneasy relationship with the Kaiser’s as being ultimately successful and they should elaborate
government, which felt able to ignore them. Germany on the extent of that success.
Question
Terms 7—Option G: USA 1919–1941
of the Armistice ÎÎA number of commissions were established to deal with
Suggested
to end the fighting answer
based on Wilson’s Fourteen Points. Îattempts
Underto come to
Herbert terms the
Hoover withUS theadministration
immediate problems
negotiated
But when the Allies met at Versailles it soon became of food relief, blockade,Pact
the Kellogg-Briand civilofwars
1928and revolution.
which supposedlyThe
evident that France
EM Students shouldinnote
particular
that thewould settle
directive termforanalyse
nothingis domestic politics
‘outlawed’ war of
byeach of the
having the victors
signatory obliged
nationsall promise
of the
less thanon
calling thethem
complete humiliation
to identify of Germany
components and
of America’s prime ministers,
never to wage at ansome stage,war
offensive to against
return home.
each other. As
restoration of itsworld
isolation from damaged
affairseconomic heartland
and to discuss in The
its impact. ÎÎ America
Early played
talks were a lead role
dominated byindiscussion
the negotiation of the pact,
of the Draft
northeast
timeframeFrance
withinand neighbouring
which Belgium.
students need to confine their this wasofnot
Covenant thean example
League andoftheisolationism
future of thein German
action.
answer is the period between World War One and World colonies. Williamduring
‘Billy’ this
Hughes,
Î In US society time the Australian
there Prime
was tension between
War Two.
the internationalists and the isolationists. The isolationists
• Markers willofbealllooking
Evacuation occupied forterritory
the correct use of key terms and supervision of confiscated
were a diverse group and colonies
included(known as ‘mandates’).
progressives,
• concepts throughout
Repatriation the response
of all prisoners of war such as nature, impact, Theconservatives,
business owners and peace activists. Since
• isolation, policies and European
Immediate handover of 5000 heavy affairs.
guns and 30 000 nation to apply
there was no its own lawsorganised
consistent, in the captured territory.
opposition from
medium
Studentsguns
should acknowledge that the extent to which This was accepted.
internationalists, the isolationists’ ideology triumphed.
• Evacuation
America was ofisolated from of
the left bank world affairs has been debated
the Rhine ÎÎAs soon as the Draft had been discussed, Wilson left for
Î Throughout the 1930s legislation was introduced to
• Noover the years
transfer and according
of population fromtoevacuated
some observers the focus
territory thesupport
United theStates to face
policy his Senate critics.
of isolationism He included
and this returned the
to
was not on staying isolated, but rather to operate with a Paris on 14 March. By this time, the President was
• No destruction of road or rail communications Johnson Act 1934, banning American citizens from
‘free hand’. seriously
• Restoration of coal and iron ore mines and water supplies lendingill.money to foreign countries that had not paid
• Immediate handover of 5000 locomotives and 1500 past war debts and The Neutrality Acts 1935–37
theirFour’
The ‘Big
wagons prohibited the sale of war material to those nations
• ÎAllies to havemuch
Although rightsoftothe
requisition
American property in occupied
population was in engaged in war and forbade any exports on credit to
territory
favour of the US joining Wilson’s League of Nations, them. It is important for students to outline the impact
• Germany
Congress to opposed
surrenderWilson’s
its naval policies
fleet and refused to ratify that this legislation had on the American economy.
• Germany to restore
the Treaty stolen property
of Versailles. It was clear that many American ÎandFranklin
advisers.DEach
Roosevelt’s policytotoward
leader tried Latin
reconcile American
contradictory
• Germany to accept
politicians wanted reparations,
to distancewhich were tofrom
themselves be decided
European countries focused on non-intervention
attitudes towards the treatment of postwar Germany.and non- The
politics. settlement, a product of these differences, was awith the idea
interference in their domestic affairs, in line
Germany in denial? of isolationism. It did, however,
Î As an emerging world power America continued to be compromise and was deeply flawed.reinforce the idea that
ÎÎGermany had unrealistic expectations as to how it would America would be a good neighbour and engage in
influential, especially in the matter of repayment of war
be treated in the aftermath of war. The country’s Table 1.1 The mainexchanges
reciprocal Allied powers
suchand their leaders
as better trading relations.
debts and reparations. Through the Dawes Plan and
politicians and people never conceded that its armies had Wartime Allied Leader who represented
Young Plan, the US provided assistance to European Î Despite the growing aggression of fascistnational
dictators in
been defeated—returning soldiers were greeted with power
governments. When discussing the nature of American Japan, Italy and interests
Germany, America continued in its
isolation students might say that it was by no means USA isolation from European
President affairs.
Woodrow It was not until 1941 that
Wilson
complete. America joined the war raging in Europe and threatening
No foe has overcome you … you are returning GreatPacific
Britain nations. Prime Minister David Lloyd George
Î A good example of American isolation is that US legislators
undefeated
turned theirfrom
backa on
glorious combat
continued …migration.
mass you have The France President
Î In their conclusion Georges
students Clemenceau—
should revise the role of
protected the homeland from enemy invasion.
Emergency Quota Act 1921 and the National Origins Act referred
American isolation, to as ‘The Tiger’
acknowledging for his
its changing nature
1924 placed restrictions on immigration from southern
and also the impact that it had within America and
and eastern Europe through a quota system. Italy particularly on its relationship with the rest of who
the world.
Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando,


Question 8—Option H: Iran 1945–1989
Suggested answer Î The economic factors that contributed to the 1979

revolution included the vast difference in wealth between
EM In responding to this question students will need to the powerful and the common people of Iran, and the
make a judgement about how extensive the role of Islamic fact that only a very small proportion of the population
ideology was in causing the 1979 revolution. benefitted from the nation’s vast oil wealth.
Markers will be looking for the correct use of key terms and Î The Shah was an authoritarian figure and many Iranians
concepts throughout the response such as Islamic ideology, were calling out for self-government or democracy. They
fundamental causes, monarchy, and economic, political and saw him as a puppet for Western powers like the USA.
social changes.
Î Islamic groups in Iran criticised the Shah for abandoning
Islamic principles in favour of imperialism. The Islamic
KEY POINTS TO INCLUDE leader Khomeini firmly believed that the way to heal the
alienation in Iranian society was to create a society based
Î The Iranian Revolution of 1979, also known as the
entirely on the laws of Islam. This indicates that the
Islamic Revolution, ultimately led to Iran changing from
Islamic ideology was certainly a cause—but by no means
an absolute monarchy to an Islamic republic.
the only one.
Î The Iranian revolution was seen as both a political and
Î In their response students will need to make it clear as to
religious revolution, with revolutionaries calling for a
what extent Islamic ideology was a fundamental cause of
greater role for religion in society and a movement away
the Iranian revolution. Was it to a large extent or a limited
from being a secular state.
extent? They will need to justify their judgement using
Î Many Iranians were appalled that the United States and evidence.
its leaders were supportive of the Shah, a monarchical
ruler who had dealt with unrest with violence and had
begun to murder his own people. Students should note
that this would become one of the factors driving the
revolution and was not really linked to Islamic ideology.
Î The causes of the revolution in 1979 were economic,
political and sociocultural. In turn these split into
wealth and employment issues, religious conservatism,
Iran as a puppet for foreigners, the brutal secret police,
authoritarianism and fundamentalism. Students should
acknowledge in their response that Islamic ideology was
by no means the only cause of the 1979 revolution.

ÎÎ Section
Ever since theIII: era ofPeaceChancellor and Otto vonConflict
Bismarck in the The Versailles Conference
Question 9—Option A: Conflict
in Indochina 1954–1979
A Council of Ten was formed, which
that included
Suggested
was a democracyanswer in name only. Î A number
representatives
of historians
from the
argue
British
the anti-war protests
Empire.
could have grown to such a level as to have an impact on
EM The directive term evaluate requires students to make ÎÎ A number of commissions
policymaking by the US were established
government, andtothat
dealit with
could
ÎÎ Inasigning
judgement the about
Armistice,something the German
based on delegation
evidence.agreed particular matters. led
have ultimately Plenary
to thesessions
withdrawal soonofbogged down
US troops in
and
toStudents
end the fighting
will needbased to state onwhether
Wilson’sthey Fourteen
think the Points.
impact attempts to come
resources fromto theterms withStudents
conflict. the immediate
need toproblems
be clear
But when
of the the Allies
anti-war met at Versailles
movements in Australiaitandsoon thebecame
United States of food
aboutrelief,
whetherblockade, civil wars and revolution. The
they agree.
on the that
evident course of theinconflict
France particular in Indochina
would settlewas extensive,
for nothing domestic politics of each of the victors obliged all of the
Î Students should then start to focus on the anti-war
minimal
less than theor somewhere in between.of
complete humiliation Students
Germany should
and prime ministers, at some stage, to return home.
movement in Australia. As was the case in the USA, the
ensure they
restoration of refer directly to
its damaged the question
economic throughout
heartland in the Early talks were dominated
responseFrance
and be and clearneighbouring
about the extent to which they
ÎÎ movement was strong in by discussion
Australia and of the Draft
arguably had a
northeast Belgium. Covenant of
significant the League
impact on and
the the
coursefuture
of of
the the German
conflict in
believe this movement had an impact.
Indochina.
Markersof
Summary will
thebeterms
looking offor thethe correct
Treaty of use of key terms and
Versailles Minister, was at odds with the Council over the
concepts throughout the response Î The first anti-war moves were made by teachers and
• Evacuation of all occupied territory such as anti-war supervision of confiscated colonies (known as ‘mandates’).
movements, protests, demonstrations, opposition and the lecturers, later joined by the Australian Council of Trade
Vietnam War. Unions (ACTU), encouraging people in the workplace to
get involved and put pressure on the government to
withdraw from the conflict.
• KEY POINTSofTO
Evacuation theINCLUDE
left bank of the Rhine ÎÎ As soon as the Draft had been discussed, Wilson left for
Î Conscription was also introduced in Australia. An
• ÎNoFirstly
transfer of population
students might focus from evacuated
on the anti-warterritorymovement the United States to face his Senate critics. He returned to
anti-conscription
• Noindestruction
the UnitedofStates. road or Inrailthecommunications
USA anti-war protests were Paris on 14 March. By‘Moratorium
this time, the Movement’
President began
was with
over 200
seriously ill. 000 people joining nationwide protests.
• Restoration
loud and demanded
of coal and attention.
iron ore mines During one protest
and water 40 000
supplies
Î Withdrawal from Vietnam became a promise of the
• Immediate
people picketed
handover theofWhite House, burning
5000 locomotives their draft
and 1500 The ‘Big Four’ Labor Party campaign in the 1972 election,
cards, with one man even burning himself alive.
wagons Australian
ÎÎ It soon
whichbecame apparent
they would go on that
to the
winCouncil
and followof Ten was on
through
• ÎAllies
There to were
have rights
opponents to requisition property
to the conflict ininIndochina
occupied in the
unwieldy: in practice the work was done byabout
the leaders of
territory
their promise. Students need to be clear whether
US government itself, with George Kennan, the force thethey
so-called
believeBigthe
Four (France,had
movement Italy,anGreat
impactBritain and the
on this.
• Germany
behind the to surrender
containment its naval fleetof the Cold War, even
policy USA) who were accompanied by their foreign ministers
• Germany to restore stolen property Î At the conclusion of the response students should be able
questioning the cost of the conflict, which seemed to andtoadvisers.
• Germany
have littleto accept
benefit.reparations, which were to be decided state theEach
extent leader triedthe
to which to reconcile contradictory
anti-war movement in the
attitudes
USA and Australia had an impact on the course of The
towards the treatment of postwar Germany. the
Î As the need for troops increased, conscription was settlement, a product of these
Was itdifferences, was a
Germany in denial? conflict in Indochina. to a large or limited extent?
introduced and while university students were exempt, compromise and was deeply flawed.
ÎÎ Germany had unrealistic
universities became theexpectations
site of ongoing as toprotests,
how it would
be including
treated in sit-ins,
the aftermath of war. The country’s Table 1.1 The main Allied powers and their leaders
peace marches, demonstrations, and the
burning of flags and effigies of politicians. that its armies had Wartime Allied Leader who represented national
Î The financial
cheers. drain that the
At the Brandenburg Gate,warEbert
had on the US taxpayer
announced at a
was past
a source of resentment. USA President Woodrow Wilson
march by German troops: The anti-war movement
highlighting this issue meant that it was becoming harder Great Britain Prime Minister David Lloyd George
No
forfoe
thehas overcome
supporters of you
the war … you are returning
to justify US involvement.
In 1971 The
Î protected the Pentagon
homelandPapers, from enemy secret invasion.
government referred to as ‘The Tiger’ for his
documents
Source: Friedrichcovering
Ebert, quotedtheindecisions about
G Martel (ed), early
Origins of theUS
Second combative style
involvement
World in Vietnam,
War Reconsidered, Routledge, were 1986 in the New York
published
London,
Times. This caused outrage in theGerman

United States. The Italy Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando, who
ÎÎ Ebert’s statement merely reinforced self-delusion was also President of the Conference
aboutdocuments
the outcome showed of thethatwar theandUS the
hadDolchstoßlegende
consistently
underestimated
(‘stab in the back’) myth the strength
perpetuated and byresourcefulness
the German Army. of the Russia Excluded due to the November 1917
Vietnamese, and also revealed
For them, German armies were undefeated in battle, but that some government Revolution which had brought Vladimir
advisors had realised the problems
had been stabbed in the back by Jews, socialists and of the conflict but Lenin and the Bolsheviks to power.
were consistently ignored. It exposed
pacifists. Since President Friedrich Ebert needed the the government as
havingofknowingly
support the German deceived
Army, he thenever
American people.
countered what France
Students can judge the impact this
was, essentially, a lie. Surprisingly, nor did the Allies. had on US involvement ÎÎ The premier of the French republic, Georges Clemenceau,
in the November
Between conflict, beyond 1918 and the anti-war
May 1919movement.
many Germans was determined to make a harsh peace in order to extract

Question 10—Option B: Conflict in the Pacific 1937–1951
Suggested answer Î In Indonesia the Japanese used terror as a mechanism to

ensure support. Food was confiscated and millions of
EM Students should note that the directive term analyse native people were forced into labour.
requires them to draw out and relate the implications of Î It is important for students to analyse the nature and
Japanese policies on civilians. Students should also note impact of Japanese occupation in a number of territories.
the timeframe within which they should confine their Life for many Vietnamese was also changed forever by
answer, which is during World War Two.
Japanese occupation. Many Vietnamese were forced from
Markers will be looking for the correct use of key terms and their homes to work in war production, rice harvests
concepts throughout the response such as occupation, were sent to feed the Japanese army causing famine in
territories, civilians, nature, impact and atrocities. Vietnam, and much of their infrastructure was destroyed.
Î Under Japanese occupation in the Philippines freedom of
KEY POINTS TO INCLUDE speech and the press was denied, thousands became forced
Î The poor treatment of civilians by the Japanese took
labourers and the Japanese were given priority access to
many forms, from enslavement and abuse of all kinds food and resources.
(work gangs, sexual slavery) to torture and massacres. Î So many atrocities occurred in Japanese-occupied
In 1942 over 100 Dutch civilians were murdered as a territories that had both immediate and lasting impacts
reprisal for the destruction of oil-field installations in the on affected civilians. In Manchuria, the Japanese military
Dutch East Indies. conducted its trials of biological warfare on human guinea
Î Students should analyse the impact of Japanese occupation
pigs by infecting them with the likes of the bubonic plague,
on individual nations. In China and foreign Chinese anthrax, typhoid, cholera and syphilis.
communities large-scale rapes, murders and atrocities Î Students should acknowledge the nature of Japanese
were committed by the Japanese. In British Malaya, occupation but also attempt to quantify the impact that it
Borneo and Sarawak, Malay Chinese were imprisoned in had on civilians. Was the impact enormous, extensive,
concentration camps. Students should outline the impact horrific—or all three?
this had on civilians by using evidence such as the fact
that 100 000 Chinese died during the Japanese occupation.
Î As well as the Chinese, Korean citizens were deeply
affected by Japanese occupation with more than 650 000
Koreans taken to Japan as forced labourers, where about
60 000 of them died. In an attempt to eliminate Korean
national identity all schools in Korea were forced to use
the Japanese language and speaking Japanese was
necessary in order to gain a ration card. Thousands of
Korean women were removed from their families to
serve as sexual slaves in brothels for the Japanese military.

ÎÎ Question
Ever since the 11—Option
era of Chancellor C: Otto
Conflict in Europe
von Bismarck The Versailles Conference
in the 1935–1945
Suggested answer
ÎmetThe main
near Paris extermination
in the Great Hall centres for Palace
of the those targeted by the
of Versailles
Nazis’ racial
to decide upon policy
peace termswere located in Poland,
for the defeated as a crime of
powers.
EM Students should note that the directive term assess such magnitude
A Council of Ten was would
formed, havewhichbeen difficult
includedto conceal in
requires them to make a judgement, which means they Germany. Students
representatives from the have the opportunity
British Empire. again here to
Terms needof to the
judgeArmistice
how big an impact racial policy had in ÎÎ refer to the map which demonstrates
A number of commissions were established to that 80-90%
deal withof Jews
occupied territories. Students can quantify this by arguing in the area were victims of genocide.
ÎÎ In signing the Armistice, the German delegation agreed
that it was anything from minimal to substantial, using
tohistorical
end the fighting based on Wilson’s Fourteen Points. Î Given to
attempts thatcomethe question
to terms with requires students to problems
the immediate make a
evidence to back up their judgement.
But when the Allies met at Versailles it soon became judgement,
of food and basedcivil
relief, blockade, on the warsevidence presented
and revolution. so far,
The
In addition
evident to making
that France a judgement
in particular aboutsettle
would the impact of
for nothing coupledpolitics
domestic with the source,
of each of thestudents
victors might stateallthat
obliged the
of the
Nazi racial policies, students are required to integrate the Nazis’
prime racial policy
ministers, at some hadstage,
a substantial
to returnand lasting impact
home.
source in their response; they should make reference to the on talks
Nazi-occupied territories.
restoration of its damaged economic heartland in ÎÎ Early were dominated by discussion of the Draft
source more than just once.
northeast France and neighbouring Belgium. Covenant of the League
Î While the source focuses on and thethefuture of theofGerman
amount deaths, there
Markers will be looking for the correct use of key terms and
colonies.
were other impacts of the Nazis’ racial policy Prime
William ‘Billy’ Hughes, the Australian that
concepts throughout the response such as policies, impact,
Summary of the terms of the Treaty of Versailles Minister,
students was at odds
should with the
discuss in Council
their over the
response. The attempt to
Nazis, Jews, genocide and Holocaust.
• Evacuation of all occupied territory supervision of confiscated
destroy Polish culture was colonies (knownofasthe
an example ‘mandates’).
Nazis’ racial
• Repatriation of all prisoners of war Thepolicy
Australian delegation
in action. Museums, wanted each and
libraries mandatory
theatres were
• Immediate handover of 5000 heavy guns and 30 000 nation to apply its own laws in
demolished and high schools and universities the captured territory.
closed.
Professional men, large landowners, businessmen, officials,
Î The application of Nazi racial policies is most obviously
seen in the Holocaust, which should be the focus of Î ÎAs priests,
soon as teachers,
the Draft military
had been officers and
discussed, journalists
Wilson leftwere
for
• Nostudents’
transfer responses.
of population from evacuated territory
The organised mass murder of Jews, the jailed,
United executed
States toor deported.
face his SenateLow wage
critics. ceilings
He and
returned food
to
• NoSlavs and Eastern
destruction of road European gypsies was referred to as the
or rail communications rations
Paris on 14 were
March.set for
By workers.
this time, the President was
• Restoration
‘Final Solution’of coal. and iron ore mines and water supplies Îseriously
Those ill.who suffered at the hands of the Nazis inside and
• ÎImmediate outside of camps were affected to varying degrees. Some
handover of 5000 locomotives
The development of ideas for the Nazis’ racial policy andand 1500 The ‘Big Four’
wagons
other forms of discrimination, focusing on the disposal of those affected regressed to infantile states of mind and
ÎÎ It soon became
behaviour dueapparent
to constant that uncertainty
the Council about of Tenthe wasfuture,
• Allies to have rights to requisition property
of the infirm, the mentally ill and ‘enemies of the state’ in occupied
unwieldy:
territory
(Jews, Slavs, gypsies, homosexuals, Jehovah’s Witnesses, some became neurotic after being brutalised and of
in practice the work was done by the leaders
thedesensitised,
so-called Bigand Four (France,
some sufferedItaly,chronic
Great Britain
anxiety.and the
Many
• Germany
and so on) to surrender
happeneditswell naval fleetWorld War Two. This was
before USA) who were accompanied by their foreign ministers
• Germany
evidenced by ‘mercy
to restore stolenkilling’
propertyprograms and concentration survivors of the death camps felt extreme guilt at having
andsurvived
advisers.while
Eachotherleadermembers
tried to reconcile contradictory
of their families didn’t and
• Germany
camps as toplaces
acceptof incarceration
reparations, whichand
weremurder. It was,
to be decided attitudes towards the treatment of postwar Germany. The
however, the outbreak of the world war that gave Hitler ongoing trauma was experienced by the sons and
settlement, a product of these differences,
daughters of Holocaust survivors born after the war. was a
Germany in denial?
the opportunity to wage his real war: the extermination compromise and was deeply flawed.
ÎÎ of the Jews
Germany had and Bolsheviks.
unrealistic expectations as to how it would Î In their conclusion it is important for students to refer to
be treated in the aftermath of war. The
Î Students may choose to discuss some of the other aspects country’s theThe
Table 1.1 source
mainagain,
Alliedwhich
powersclearlyand their demonstrates
leaders the impact
of the Nazis’ racial policy in action which would that its armies had the Nazis’
Wartime Allied racial policy had on Jews
Leader who represented national with such high
been defeated—returning soldiers were
culminate in the Holocaust. An example of this would be greeted with power percentages of deaths.
interests It is also vital that students
cheers.
that on At the Brandenburg
21 September 1939 Gate, Ebert announced
Reinhard Heydrich issued at a a reinforce their judgement: given the source and the
USA additional evidence President
they haveWoodrow Wilsonwas the impact
presented,
decree which laid down the general lines of the Jewish
persecution,
No such as the
foe has overcome youseizure
… you of areJewish-owned
returning land Greatof the Nazis’ racial
Britain Prime policy on those
Minister Davidin Nazi-occupied
Lloyd George
and the establishment of ghettos to…house territories minimal or substantial?
undefeated from a glorious combat you Jews.
have France President Georges Clemenceau—
protected the homeland from enemy
Î In countries such as the Netherlands, Romania, France, invasion. referred to as ‘The Tiger’ for his
Source: Friedrich Ebert, quoted in G Martel (ed),
Latvia, Yugoslavia and Soviet Russia, the Germans took Origins of the Second combative style
full advantage of the extent of anti-Jewish feeling that

ÎÎ Ebert’s
alignedstatement
with their merelyracialreinforced
policy. ItGerman self-delusion
became easier for them was also President of the Conference
about the outcome
to perpetrate theof the war
crime and the Dolchstoßlegende
of genocide. At this point students
might refer to the map and, in particular, the huge
Forpercentages
them, German armies were undefeated in battle, but Revolution which had brought Vladimir
of deaths per total of the Jewish population Lenin and the Bolsheviks to power.
hadacross
been Europe
stabbedthat in the back byasJews,
occurred socialists
a result of this.and

Question 12—Option D: The Cold War 1945–1991
Suggested answer Î The Marshall Plan of 1947 was created as a result of the
rapid deterioration of European economies and the fear
EM When students are asked to what extent, they are required that this could make those nations susceptible to
to make a judgement based on relevant information. Communist expansion.
Students are essentially being asked how big a role the Î The Berlin blockade was the result of a number of factors
differing ideologies played in the development of the Cold which revolved around the differing views of the western
War. Students will need to state whether the ideologies nations and the Soviet Union about how Germany should
played a significant or only a minor role. be dealt with after World War One. It culminated in the
Markers will be looking for the correct use of key terms and Soviet Union cutting off all supplies and transport in and
concepts throughout the response such as communist out of Berlin to the western zones. Students should decide
ideology, capitalist ideology, spheres of influence, economic whether this incident reflected the conflict going beyond
rivalry and political rivalry. ideological differences and was more about attempting to
Students should avoid lengthy explanations of communism politically and economically outmanoeuvre the opposition.
and capitalism, and instead focus on the role they had in Î China becoming a Communist nation was seen as a
driving the Cold War. disaster by the United States. On the other hand the
Soviet Union was happy to welcome China as an ally and
KEY POINTS TO INCLUDE present them as a successful example of a Communist
revolution to other Asian nations. Certainly the expansion
Î It is important to note the United States and the Soviet of the Communist ideology was significant in the United
Union had rivalries beyond their conflicting ideologies: States and its allies feeling more threatened; this led to
they were also economic and political rivals. further development of the Cold War.
Î Students need to be clear about how much they believe Î The Korean War was an example of the US policy of
the ideologies of capitalism and communism were the containment in action: the resolve of the US government
driving forces behind the economic and political to stand firm against Communist aggression and expansion.
decisions and actions taken by the United States and its The policy of containment was in response to the
allies, and the Soviet Union and its allies. ‘domino theory’, which is the idea that if one country in
Î The Cold War played out in the opposing forces seeking a region fell to communism then the surrounding
to expand their territory and influence, as well as in the countries would be vulnerable. Again students will judge
arms race and the space race. the extent to which the opposing ideologies were driving
Î Some historians argue that the origins of the Cold War
these developments of the Cold War.
dated back to the late 19th century when Britain’s Î Students should also discuss the arms race and the space
dominance was waning. At this time the USA and Russia race and whether they were yet another reflection of the
were eager to assert their power and dominance on the opposition and rivalry between the two opposing
world stage. Keep in mind, though, that the question superpowers; or whether they were driven by the
focuses on the development of the Cold War; it doesn’t fundamental differences between the ideologies of
ask students to look specifically at its origins. communism and capitalism.
Î In Churchill’s famous ‘Iron Curtain’ speech he refers to Î Students can discuss other events in the Cold War, such
the division of Europe and those areas under the ‘Soviet as the erection of the Berlin Wall in relation to the division
sphere’. Was he referring to the Soviet sphere being of Germany and Berlin, and the Cuban Missile Crisis as
driven by the ideology of communism and those on the an example of the arms race coming to a climax. It is key
other side of the curtain being driven by the ideology of when discussing these events that students attribute them
capitalism? either to ideological differences or to other reasons.
Î The Truman Doctrine from the United States was about Î At the conclusion of the response the marker should
protecting nations from internal or external authoritarian clearly see whether the student believes that ideologies
forces. Students should decide whether this doctrine was played a significant or only a minor role in the
driven by political and military motivations or whether it development of the Cold War.
was about limiting the sphere of influence of the
Communist ideology.

ÎÎSection
Ever since theIV: era ofChange
Chancellor Otto invon the Modern
Bismarck in the World
Question 13—Option C: Civil
Rights in the USA 1945–1968
A Council of TenStates
was formed, whichwere
included
(a)
was aSuggested
democracy in name answeronly. Î The National
representatives from
Rights Party
the British Empire.
another group
opposed to the civil rights movement. Their activities
EM In this question students are required to indicate the ÎÎ A number
includedoforganising
commissions were established
bombings to deal with
of black churches and
ÎÎ Inmain
signing the Armistice,
features of segregationthe German delegationinagreed
and discrimination relation particular matters. Plenary
Jewish institutions. One of sessions soon bogged
their methods was todown
havein
totoend
thethe fightingofbased
treatment AfricanonAmericans
Wilson’s Fourteen Points.
in the United States. their leaders
attempts to come tour the south
to terms withofthe
America,
immediateinciting white
problems
But when the Allies met at Versailles it soon became of audiences
food relief, into vigilante
blockade, mobs
civil wars who
and attacked blacks.
revolution. The
Given that it is a four-mark question, students should
evident
providethattwoFrance
features inofparticular
each. would settle for nothing Îdomestic
The Whitepolitics of each
Citizens’ of the victors
Councils obliged
(the WCC) all of
were the
a network
less than the complete humiliation of Germany and prime ministers,
of white at someorganisations
supremacist stage, to return home.
active in the United
restoration of its damaged economic heartland in ÎÎ Early talksmainly
States, were dominated
in the South. by Their
discussion of the
methods Draft
included
KEY POINTS
northeast TO INCLUDE
France and neighbouring Belgium. members
Covenant of intimidating
the League and black
theand white
future of people who aligned
the German
Î Segregation, or the divide between black and white with the
colonies. black
William civil rights
‘Billy’ movement
Hughes, the with
Australianeconomic
Prime
Summary of the can
Americans, termsbe of the Treaty
traced back toofslavery
Versailles
when large boycotts,
Minister, waspropaganda
at odds with and violence.
the CouncilThe overCitizens’
the Councils
• Evacuation
groups of of people were brought
all occupied territoryto America to serve in a slowed
supervision the
of process of
confiscated desegregation
colonies (knownand were
as a major
‘mandates’).
• Repatriation
variety of ways.
of all The treatment
prisoners of warof slaves in the United Theobstacle to the
Australian civil rights
delegation movement.
wanted each mandatory
• Immediate
States washandover
generallyofbrutal and degrading. nation to apply its own laws in the captured territory.
5000 heavy guns and 30 000
(c)
This Suggested
was accepted. answer
Îmedium
Even aftergunsslavery was legally ended in the United States,
• Evacuation
the divideofbetween
the left bank
blacks ofand
the Rhine
whites continued as ÎÎ As soon as the Draft had been discussed, Wilson left for
EM Students need to be clear about whether they believe
• NoAfrican
transferAmerican
of populationpeople were not allowed to enjoy
from evacuated territory the United States
successive to face his
US Presidents Senate
were critics.
greatly He returned
responsible for theto
• Nopublic facilities
destruction suchor
of road asrail
pools, libraries and restaurants
communications Paris on 14 March. By this time, the President
passing of the Civil Rights Act 1964 or whether their rolewas
• Restoration
with their of white
coal counterparts.
and iron ore mines and water supplies seriously ill. Students should examine each president’s
was minimal.
contribution to the civil rights movement.
• ÎImmediate handover
Discrimination, or of
the5000 locomotives
unjust and 1500
and prejudicial treatment The ‘Big Four’
wagons
of people, occurred in many forms against African ÎÎ It soon became apparent that the Council of Ten was
• Allies to have in
Americans rights
the to requisition
United States.property in occupied
The ‘Black Codes’ were KEY POINTS
unwieldy: TO INCLUDE
in practice the work was done by the leaders of
territory
one example which made it illegal for blacks to serve on ÎtheThe Civil Rights
so-called Act(France,
Big Four 1964 was signed
Italy, into
Great law byand
Britain President
the
• juries, testify
Germany againstitswhites
to surrender naval or serve in the military. Most
fleet
USA)Lyndon
who Johnson. It outlawed
were accompanied bysegregation
their foreigninministers
businesses
• southern
Germany toblack Americans,
restore though free, were obliged to
stolen property
andsuch as theatres,
advisers. restaurants
Each leader and
tried to hotels, and
reconcile banned
contradictory
• rent land
Germany tofrom
acceptwhite former which
reparations, slave owners.
were to be decided discriminatory
attitudes practices.
towards the treatmentStudents should
of postwar ensure their
Germany. The
Î Another example of discrimination in the United States is answer examines
settlement, a productthe of different presidents’
these differences, attitudes
was a and to
Germany in denial? what extent they were responsible for the eventual
during the Second World War when employers and the compromise and was deeply flawed.
ÎÎGermany had unrealistic
government expectations
reasoned that as to how
only low-status jobsit were
wouldopen signing of this act.
be to
treated in the aftermath of war. The country’s
black people because they were less intelligent and Table 1.1 The main Allied powers and their leaders
Î Harry Truman was the first president since Abraham
politicians
capable. and people
Their never conceded
job classifications, thatand
wages its armies
working had Wartime Alliedto address
Lincoln Leader who represented
the civil rights issue. national
He tried to end
been defeated—returning soldiers were greeted with
conditions were not on a par with white members of the power interests
racial discrimination in the hire of labour, established a
cheers. At the
defence Brandenburg Gate, Ebert announced at a
industry. USA civil rights committee whose
President task was
Woodrow to examine
Wilson
march past by German troops: violence against African Americans in 1946, and in 1948
(b)
NoSuggested
foe has overcomeanswer
you … you are returning Greatissued
Britaintwo Executive
PrimeOrders
Ministerbanning
David Lloyd George in the
segregation
undefeated from a glorious combat … you have armed forces and
France guaranteeing
President Georgesfair employment practices
Clemenceau—
EM Students may outline a number of groups who in the civil service. At this point
protected the homeland from enemy invasion. referred to as ‘Thestudents
Tiger’ forcan
his make a
opposed the civil rights movement but should explain the judgement aboutcombative
how responsible they believe President
Source: Friedrich Ebert, quoted in G Martel (ed), Origins of the Second style
activities and methods of approximately
London, 1986three.
World War Reconsidered, Routledge, Truman was for the eventual signing of the Act in 1964.

ÎÎ Î Dwight Eisenhower felt obliged
was also toofappease
President white
the Conference
about
KEY the outcome
POINTS of the war and the Dolchstoßlegende
TO INCLUDE supremacists and his relationship with civil rights leaders
(‘stab in the back’) myth perpetuated by the German Army. Russia Excluded
was frosty. While due todiscrimination
he opposed the November 1917
Eisenhower
Î The Ku Klux Klan engaged in more acts of racial violence Revolution which had brought Vladimir
For them, German armies were undefeated in battle, but appeared to sympathise far more with white southerners.
than any other hate group in America and were behind Lenin and the Bolsheviks to power.
had been stabbed in the back by Jews, socialists and His failure to speak out left civil rights leaders with the
the Mississippi Burning murders. Their activities and
pacifists. Since President Friedrich Ebert needed the impression that Eisenhower didn’t care about mobs
methods included intimidating black people so as not to
vote in the Mississippi elections, lynchings in order to harassing black children, black churches being burned
was, essentially, a lie. Surprisingly, nor did the Allies. ÎÎ Theand
premier
black of the French
activists beingrepublic, Georges
murdered. Clemenceau,
Students should also
terrorise the black population, and targeted bombings
Between November 1918 and May 1919 many Germans wasmake
determined to make
a judgement a harsh
about peace
just how in order
much to extract
President
such as that on the Sixteenth Street Baptist Church where
accepted the myth that Germany had not lost the war. guarantees of security.
Eisenhower He demanded
contributed to the civilthat Germany:
rights movement and
four black people were killed.
how responsible he was for the signing of the Act.

Î During his presidential campaign, and after he was and no longer allowing the Washington Redskins to use
nominated by the Democrats, John Kennedy made it their federally funded stadium until they signed up
clear he supported civil rights. It is believed by some that African American players. Students should decide the
he did this to obtain black votes as his previous actions extent to which President Kennedy was responsible for
did not suggest this was his stance. He promised to act the signing of the Act.
swiftly if elected, although this did not happen. He was, Î As well as examining the role of the presidents in passing
however, partially responsible for some important the Civil Rights Act 1964, students should briefly discuss
progress in the movement including putting pressure on the role of other groups in the movement who agitated for
federal government organisations to employ more change. To what extent were they responsible for the Act?
African Americans, appointing his brother as Attorney
General which meant that the law courts were used as a Î In their conclusion students should be very clear about
way of enforcing already passed civil rights legislation, the extent to which they believe each of the presidents
were responsible for the Civil Rights Act 1964.
Question 14—Option D: The Changing World Order 1945–2011
(a) Suggested answer (b) Suggested answer

EM The directive term describe requires students to EM The directive term explain requires students to relate
provide characteristics and features of the emergence of cause and effect; in other words, what effects did Putin
the ‘American Century’ before describing its emergence. have on Russia under his rule?
KEY POINTS TO INCLUDE KEY POINTS TO INCLUDE

Î The ‘American Century’ refers to the USA’s economic, Î When Putin came to office Russia was in a dire financial
military and cultural dominance in the 20th century, situation. The policies he put in place earned him praise
following Britain’s dominance in the 19th century. from some people as they have raised wages and
Î US cultural imperialism, often known as Americanisation, consumption.
was evident in the influence of US music, TV, films, art Î In his initial terms as president Putin passed into law
and fashion. US pop stars and movie stars such as Elvis liberal economic reforms including a flat income tax of
Presley, Michael Jackson and Madonna became global 13%, a reduced profits tax, and new land and civil codes.
celebrities as American music, television and film went Î Putin initiated the concept of ‘National champions’:
out to the world. companies that include the whole supply chain in certain
Î Many of the rights and freedoms that most US residents sectors. These are expected to make profits but also
enjoyed, such as freedom of speech, were sought after advance the interests of the nation.
around the world. The American way of life was seen by Î Putin has gained himself somewhat of a cult following in
many as something to aspire to. Russia as he appeals to the masculine spirit and intense
Î The American economy was admired and copied by other nationalism of many Russians who would love to see a
countries as the dominance of the US economy on the powerful Russia re-emerge.
world stage meant that the US dollar became the world’s Î Putin’s foreign policy has been likened to the former
key currency, trade and investment grew continually and belligerent and expansionist policies of the Soviet Union.
currency values were practically unchanging. Under Putin Russia has not cooperated with NATO.
Î Part of America’s mission to the world was the imposition Putin has the backing of many Russian people in his
of Pax Americana (American peace); some say that from foreign policy; these people supported his intervention in
the middle of the 20th century there was relative peace in Georgia and the former southern republics.
the Western world. At this time the United States saw its Î Critics in Russia and abroad believe that Putin’s rule has
role as an interventionist in order to maintain Pax seen the destruction of free media, threats to civil society,
Americana. corruption among officials and the corruption of justice.
Î When looking at the nature of Russia under Putin
students should focus on Putin’s internal policies and the
changes he has made; when looking at the role of Russia
under Putin students should focus on Russia’s role on the
international stage.

(c)
ÎÎEver Suggested answerOtto von Bismarck in the
since the era of Chancellor The
Î Versailles Conference
China has emerged as a superpower in the 21st century.
1870s and 1880s, two significant political parties in the Relations between the USA and China have been generally
Imperial
EM The Reichstag, thehow
directive term SPDeffective
and Catholic Centre
is asking Party,
the students friendly and cooperative, especially concerning trade and
to judge how successful the United States was in achieving development. In recent years, however, China has been
government,
the intendedwhich felt able
outcomes to ignore
of each them. Germany
of the foreign policies. strongly assertive in its claims over disputed islands in the
was a democracy in name only. South China Sea. Relations with Taiwan have remained
tense but peaceful.
KEY POINTS TO INCLUDE ÎÎA number of commissions were established to deal with
Î Some historians and keen observers of politics have noted
ÎÎÎIn signing
Studentsthe Armistice,
might begin by thediscussing
German delegation agreedof
the effectiveness particular matters. Plenary sessions soon bogged down in
that Donald Trump’s election as president means that the
to end thepower
‘hard’ fighting based on
in foreign Wilson’s
policy. FourteenofPoints.
The concept ‘hard’ power attempts to come to terms with the immediate problems
United States may be steered away from the ‘soft’ power
Butrefers
whentothe
theAllies
USA’smet at Versailles
status it soon
as the world’s became
greatest military of food relief, blockade, civil wars and revolution. The
approach. Some commentators even go so far as to say
evident
power,that France
having theinability
particular would
to defeat settleand
armies for expand
nothingits domestic politics of each of the victors obliged all of the
that the ‘soft’ power approach was a contributory factor
lessinfluence
than the throughout
complete humiliation of Germany
the world using forcefulandmeans. prime ministers, at some stage, to return home.
in Trump’s election, with many Americans calling for a
restoration of its damaged economic heartland in Early talks were dominated by discussion
Î An example of the assertion of ‘hard’ power was the ÎÎ hardline approach to foreign policy. of the Draft
attack on Iraq in 2003. This was driven by the concern Students should‘Billy’
be clear in their
that Iraq possessed weapons of mass destruction. The
Îcolonies. William Hughes, theresponse about
Australian how
Prime
Summary of the terms of the Treaty effective they think each of the two different approaches
administration of George W Bushofreferred
Versaillesto this as the Minister, was at odds with the Council over the
have beenofinconfiscated
US foreigncolonies
policy. (known as ‘mandates’).
• Evacuation of all occupied
‘War on Terror’ to justifyterritory
the removal of Iraqi President supervision
• Repatriation of all prisoners of war
Saddam Hussein. The Australian delegation wanted each mandatory
• ÎImmediate handover of 5000 heavy guns and 30 000 nation to apply its own laws in the captured territory.
Critics of the ‘hard’ power approach will say that military This was accepted.
medium guns
intervention in Iraq and the subsequent collapse of the
country lost the US its reputation as the example to the
ÎÎAs soon as the Draft had been discussed, Wilson left for
• Noworld
transfer of population
of democracy andfrom evacuated territory
justice.
The US has forces deployed in the Asia-Pacific region,
• ÎRestoration of coal and iron ore mines and water supplies
including powerful aircraft carrier task forces. Its regional
seriously ill.
commanders lead American forces but also have the The ‘Big Four’
wagons
authority to initiate direct diplomatic contacts with ÎÎ It soon became apparent that the Council of Ten was
foreign governments. Students should be the judge as to unwieldy: in practice the work was done by the leaders of
territory
how effective this approach has been. the so-called Big Four (France, Italy, Great Britain and the
Studentstoshould
• ÎGermany then move on to discuss how effective
restore stolen property
they think the ‘soft’ power approach was in US foreign and advisers. Each leader tried to reconcile contradictory
policy. ‘Soft’ power describes the ability to influence
publicinopinion and the policies of governments by settlement, a product of these differences, was a
Germany denial?
peaceful means rather than by using force. Another way compromise and was deeply flawed.
to influence people is by offering financial inducements Table 1.1 The main Allied powers and their leaders
or penalties. ‘Soft’ power can be exercised by lobbying
through powerful political and non-political organisations.


Question 15—Option E: The Nuclear Age 1945–2011
(a) Suggested answer (b) Suggested answer

EM Students should note there are two parts to this EM Students should note that the directive term discuss
question. They must outline the fear of nuclear bombs and requires them to identify the issues and provide reasons
fallout among US civilians and the strategies that were put for weapons testing.
in place to survive nuclear war. Students should note that a timeframe has been provided
within which they should confine their response.
Î In the 1950s American society and culture was gripped KEY POINTS TO INCLUDE
by real and imagined fears of nuclear warfare, nuclear Î The use of atomic bombs in Hiroshima and Nagasaki in
testing and their effects. This was reflected in the popular 1945 was the first and only time nuclear weapons have
culture of the time. been used in warfare. What these events did was begin a
Î Civilians had seen the impact of nuclear weapons, such race between the two superpowers and other powerful
as birth defects in children of atomic bomb survivors nations to develop even more powerful and destructive
who had been exposed in utero, cancer and the risk of weapons.
genetic damage from nuclear fallout. Î From the first nuclear test in 1945 the frequency of testing
Î A number of strategies were put in place in the USA in increased rapidly until its peak in 1970, although it did
order to survive a nuclear bomb and nuclear fallout. continue until the end of the Cold War in the early 1990s.
These included schools issuing dog tags to students so At this point the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty was
that their families could identify their bodies in the event signed and ratified by the major nuclear weapons powers.
of an attack; the government providing instructions for Î Students need to identify the role of nuclear testing.
building and equipping bomb shelters in basements or Testing nuclear weapons allows nations to have more
backyards; some cities constructing municipal shelters; deadly weapons at their disposal and be perceived as
and nuclear bomb drills becoming a routine part of being more threatening.
disaster preparedness.
Î The Maralinga site in Australia was used by Britain as a
site for weapons testing so that they could test the impact
of their weapons and therefore go on to expand their
nuclear arsenal.
Î France was another nation that deemed nuclear testing
important; it conducted 41 atmospheric nuclear tests at
Mururoa Atoll in the Pacific between 1966 and 1974.
Î In their conclusion it is important for students to restate
the role of nuclear weapons testing after 1945. The
superpowers and other nations engaged in an arms race
to build up their nuclear arsenals; nuclear testing allowed
them to be seen as a threat on the world stage, to examine
the impact of the weapons and to further improve their
effectiveness.

(c)
ÎÎEver Suggested answerOtto von Bismarck in the
since the era of Chancellor The
Î Versailles
Weapons testing Conference
has occurred in our own backyard.
1870s and 1880s, two significant political parties in the Between 1952 and 1963 the British Government carried
Imperial Reichstag,
EM Students shouldthe
noteSPD and
that theCatholic
directiveCentre Party,
term explain out nuclear tests at three sites in Australia: the Monte
requires them to relate cause and effect. This means that Bello Islands off the Western Australian coast, and Emu
government, which
students should felt what
detail able to
theignore
effectsthem. Germany
of weapons testing Field and Maralinga in South Australia. The Maralinga
were. site was shrouded in secrecy. Eventually it came to light
Students should again note that a timeframe has been in the media and the impact of the testing became better
Terms of the Armistice ÎÎA number
known. of commissions
Indigenous peoplewere established
suffered to deal
as a result of with
their
provided for them to focus their response. They should
ÎÎ Inacknowledge
signing the Armistice,
that the usethe Germanweapons
of nuclear delegation agreed
at the end of particular
removalmatters. Plenary
from their sessions
traditional soon
lands asbogged down in
well as suffering
toWorld
end the
Warfighting
Two wouldbased onaWilson’s
begin period ofFourteen Points.
nuclear proliferation, attempts to come
long-term to terms
effects on theirwith the immediate
health. Australianproblems
servicemen
But when the
weapons Allies
testing met
and at Versailles
continuing it soon
threats became
of nuclear war. of food relief, blockade,
contracted cancer as acivil wars
result of and
theirrevolution.
exposure to The
evident that France in particular would settle for nothing domestic
radiationpolitics of each of the victors obliged all of the
at Maralinga.
Markers will be looking for the correct use of key terms and
less than the completethe humiliation of Germany and prime ministers, at some stage, to return home.
concepts throughout response such as long-term Î The first nuclear test conducted by France was on 2 July
restoration of its damaged economic heartland in Early talks
impacts on people and the environment, atomic bombs and ÎÎ 1966 andwere dominated by
contamination discussion
spread of the
across the Draftas far
Pacific
nuclear testing. Covenant of the League and the future of the German
as Peru and New Zealand. Concern was shown around
colonies. William
the world ‘Billy’
for the Hughes,
impact the testing
that this Australian
was Prime
having on
Summary of the terms of the Treaty of Versailles Minister, was at
the environment. odds with the Council over the
• ÎRepatriation
Weapons testing increasedofrapidly
of all prisoners war after the atomic ÎTheInAustralian
their conclusion students
delegation wantedshould
eachsummarise
mandatorythe
impact that weapons testing has
nation to apply its own laws in the captured had on people and the
territory.
• Immediate handover of 5000 heavy gunsand
bombs were dropped on Hiroshima andNagasaki.
30 000
environment, acknowledging that in many instances the
Powerful
medium nations were eager to test their weapons and
guns This was accepted.
look at their impact so they would impact was long term.
• Evacuation of the left bank of the Rhinebe ready should they ÎÎAs soon as the Draft had been discussed, Wilson left for
perceive a need to use them.
• ÎNoThere have been
destruction more
of road thancommunications
or rail 2000 tests of nuclear weapons Paris on 14 March. By this time, the President was
• Restoration of coal and iron ore mines
since 1945. These have been in the and
atmosphere,
water supplies seriously ill.
underground and underwater.
Îwagons
There are a number of impacts of weapons testing, ÎÎ It soon became apparent that the Council of Ten was
• Allies
including
to haveon the health
rights of many
to requisition peopleininoccupied
property the testing unwieldy: in practice the work was done by the leaders of
territory
areas. They have suffered as they carry radioactive the so-called Big Four (France, Italy, Great Britain and the
• Germany
substances in their body
to surrender from
its naval the fallout of nuclear
fleet
• Germany to restore stolen propertyrisk of developing cancer.
testing. This has increased the and advisers. Each leader tried to reconcile contradictory
• ÎGermany
Anothertomajor
acceptimpact
reparations, which were
of weapons to is
testing bethe
decided
toll it attitudes towards the treatment of postwar Germany. The
takes on the environment. Much of the Earth’s surface settlement, a product of these differences, was a
Germany in denial?
has been contaminated at some point with radioactive compromise and was deeply flawed.
particles.
Î Students should be able to discuss examples of where
weapons testing has taken place and the impact it has
had. One example is the Bikini Atoll in the Pacific Ocean
where a bomb was detonated in 1946 and more than 20 USA President Woodrow Wilson
tests were carried out. A huge hydrogen bomb, 1000 times
No foepowerful
has overcome youHiroshima
… you are bomb,
returning Great Britain Prime Minister David Lloyd George
more than the was also
undefeated from in
detonated there a glorious
1954. Ascombat
a result…
theyou haveis still
island France President Georges Clemenceau—
protected the homeland
uninhabitable from enemy invasion.
60 years later. referred to as ‘The Tiger’ for his


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YEAR 12

4 YEAR 12 MODERN HISTORY

Italy Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando, who

Italy Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando, who

6 YEAR 12 MODERN HISTORY

• the right to include Empire governments at the Prime who

the Franco-Prussian War. In a further humiliation, the 0 300 km

Overview of the Treaty of Versailles

East Prussia It was separated from Germany by a strip of land referred to

City of Danzig Danzig became a free city administered by the League of

Rhineland It was occupied by the Allies and demilitarised for an initial

8 YEAR 12 MODERN HISTORY

Reparations Clause 231 blamed Germany for the war asItaly

Consequences Despite the terms Germany still enjoyed a dominant

ÎÎ At first Germany was refused admission to the League.

10 YEAR 12 MODERN HISTORY

Italy Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando, who

leader characteristic of all dictatorships throughout

12 YEAR 12 MODERN HISTORY

Italy Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando, who

The Nazi Party June 1920

Versailles. May 1928 491

Hitler’s personal appeal Sep. 1930

A significant factor in the establishment of a dictatorship

these was Dr Joseph Goebbels. Depending on his 2 659

and farmers. Figure 1.3 German Parliamentary elections

14 YEAR 12 MODERN HISTORY

The struggle for power

Soon after the Bolshevik seizure of power in November

16 YEAR 12 MODERN HISTORY

Ebert’s statement merelyGradually

Italy After the murder of the liberal socialist politician,

that he was not yet a true dictator. His government

18 YEAR 12 MODERN HISTORY

On 24 February 1920 at the first mass meeting of 2000

20 YEAR 12 MODERN HISTORY

Italy Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando, who

The Gestapo persecuted anyone who they regarded a

22 YEAR 12 MODERN HISTORY

Hitler’s role in merely

24 YEAR 12 MODERN HISTORY

Italy Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando, who

26 YEAR 12 MODERN HISTORY

SS Waffen SS (armed) Police

Figure 1.8 The structure of the SS organisation

Table 1.12 Titles and roles of the SS organisations

TV—Totenkopfverbände Death’s Head Units of concentration camp guards

Gestapo—Geheim Staatspolizei Secret State police

ORPO—Ordnungpolizei Regular police

Schutzpolizei Ordinary uniformed police

Gendarmarie Rural police

Feuerschutzpolizei Firefighting police

28 YEAR 12 MODERN HISTORY

Italy Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando, who

30 YEAR 12 MODERN HISTORY

Italy Prime Minister Orlando, who

pseudo-scientific experiments in ‘racial biology’ and

32 YEAR 12 MODERN HISTORY

minor wounds. However, the conspirators failed to order

34 YEAR 12 MODERN HISTORY

models established after 1945 by the historians Hannah ÎÎ

Issue Date Description

Disease 1920s The League worked to prevent malaria and leprosy.