Module 2

Biological Development

At the end of this module, you should be able to:

1. discuss the concepts and theories related to biological/physical development of
children and adolescents; and
2. make connections, using knowledge on current research literature, between
biological development theories and developmentally appropriate teaching
approaches suited to learner’s gender, needs, strengths, interests, and
experiences.

Biological Beginnings
Biological development is the domain of lifespan development that examines
growth and changes in the body and brain, the senses, motor skills, and health and
wellness. This includes:

● Height and weight

● Fine and gross motor skills
● Coordination
● Brain development
● Puberty, sexual health, fertility
● Changes in senses
● Aging

It is postulated that we are who we are because of evolution through natural

selection. The machinery which permitted evolution by natural selection is heredity
and reproduction

Evolution
Evolution, pioneered by Charles Darwin, is the theory in biology postulating that
the various types of plants, animals, and other living things on Earth have their

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origin in other preexisting types and that the distinguishable differences are due
to modifications in successive generations.

It occurs through the process of natural selection where the best-adapted

members of species will survive and reproduce and the poor-adapted members of
species will die off. As an example, variations in cognition and behavior would make
individuals more or less successful in reproducing and passing those genes to their
offspring. Traits important for adaptation and survival are passed onto the next
generation as genes. It must be noted that reproductive success, not survival success,
is the engine of evolution by natural selection

Figure 1. Natural selection in the wild (Source: Khan Academy)

There are various examples of the impact of evolution on human lifespan, growth
and development.

One example is the difference in the mating preferences of sexes. Modern

women have inherited the evolutionary trait to desire mates who possess resources,
have qualities linked with acquiring resources (e.g., ambition, wealth, industriousness),
and are willing to share those resources with them. On the other hand, men more
strongly desire youth and health in women, as both are cues to fertility. These male and
female differences have historically been universal in humans.
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 There is evidence that climate may have played a role in the evolution of our
nose shapes. People living in hot, humid climates tend to have broad, flat noses that
allow inhaled air to be moistened and the moisture in exhaled air to be retained. Other
people living in hot, dry climates typically have narrowed, projecting noses; this type of
nose reduces the amount of water that is lost from the lungs during breathing. Lastly,
people living in cold, dry climates generally have smaller, longer and narrower noses.
This type of nose moistens and warms the incoming air.

Heredity
Heredity is the process of transmitting biological traits from parents to
offspring through genes, the basis units of heredity; accounts for why offspring look
like their parents. Reproduction (and heredity) involves the gametes which contain the
paternal and maternal contributions resulting to new, unique life

Gametes
There are two types of sex cells or gametes: the Sperm (found in males) and the
Egg or Ovum (found in females). Gametes are haploid (N) cells. They only contain 23
chromosomes, only ½ of the normal number (46) found in regular cells. The fusion of
the sperm (23) and ovum (23) produces a zygote with a complete set of chromosomes
(46)

The gametes are formed through gametogenesis which involves meiosis.

Spermatogenesis - formation of sperm in males - occurs in the testes and starts with
puberty (~ 12 years on the average). On the other hand, Oogenesis - formation of egg
in females - occurs in the ovaries but starts during prenatal development (before birth)
and resumes during puberty.

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 Figure 2. Oogenesis and spermatogenesis (Source: Bio Ninja)

Chromosomes and Genes

Figure 3. Organization of genetic material inside the cell (Source: Mayo Clinic)

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 Human life begins as a cell (Cell → Tissue → Organ → Organ system → Human).
Each cell contains deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), a double helix molecule with a sugar
phosphate backbone containing nitrogenous base pairs (adenine, thymine, guanine,
cytosine). The sequence of pairs (A-T, G-C) is the genetic information used by our cells
to make proteins which direct our activity, make-up. The length of Human genome is 3
billion base pairs

Genes are units of heredity in chromosomes. These are Segments of DNA

sequences which control a trait (e.g. eye color). An allele is a specific version or variant
of a gene (e.g. blue eyes allele).

From DNA, Chromosomes are made when combined with histone proteins. In
humans, there are 23 pairs of chromosomes - 22 pairs of autosomes + 1 pair of sex
chromosomes. Autosomes are similar in males and females, while sex chromosomes
vary between males and females:

● Males possess X and Y chromosomes

● Females possess 2 X chromosomes

All of these are found inside the Nucleus of the cell.

Genotypes and Phenotypes

Recall that the sperm (23 chromosomes) + ovum (23 chromosomes) = zygote
(46 chromosomes). Hence, each parent contributes half the genetic information of
the child.

The genotype is the sum total or genetic make-up of an individual inherited

from parents. A person can either be Homozygous - An individual has two copies of
the same allele (or version) of the gene - or Heterozygous - An individual has two
different alleles (or version) of the gene - for a given gene. Again, the result of this
interaction of the genetic material is the Phenotype - manifested, observable trait of the
organism (e.g. behavior, appearance)

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 Figure  4.  Genotype  and  phenotype  (Source:  S7L3.  Obtain,  evaluate,  and  communicate  information  
to  explain  how  organisms  reproduce  either  sexually  or  asexually  and  transfer)  

Chromosomal sex is determined by the sperm. A sperm will develop to either

contain an X or Y chromosome (recall that males are XY), while an ovum will only
contain an X (recall that females are XX). Hence, the presence of an X or Y
chromosome in a sperm will determine the chromosomal sex of the offspring

Genetic Variation and Inheritance

Genetic variation, the genetic difference between individuals, is what
contributes to a species’ adaptation to its environment. There are several causes of
genetic variation

● Mutation - permanent change in the genetic sequence; in clinical terms, it

is a change in DNA which is deleterious found in less than 1% of the
population
● Random mating between organisms - Unique person + Unique person
● Random fertilization - Unique sperm + Unique ovum
● Crossing over (or recombination) between chromatids of homologous
chromosomes during meiosis

That’s why, despite similarities, you are still different from your siblings. There
are exceptions: identical twins - siblings which come from the same zygote (hence,
almost the same genetic material), but even so they are still genetically different from
their other siblings. The fact is the odds of having the same genetic make-up is close to
zero

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 In the study of genetics, there is what we call Mendelian Models of inheritance
(Genetic Alliance & District of Columbia Department of Health, 2010). These are
patterns of inheritance which show how the genotype results in a phenotype. This
model involves only single genes (i.e. 1 gene → 1 trait). There are two bases of this
pattern of inheritance.

First is the Location of the Gene. A gene is Autosomal if the gene is found in
first 22 pairs of chromosomes; consequently, it is called X-linked it is found in the X sex
chromosome. Another location of the gene would be the Mitochondria

Figure 5. Dominant and Recessive Expression (Source: yourgenome.org)

The second basis of this model pertains to the Expression of the mutated
allele with respect to the normal allele. An expression is termed as Dominant when
the mutated allele will manifest regardless if it is paired with a recessive or dominant
allele. It is however called Recessive expression if the (i) mutated allele will manifest
only if paired with another recessive allele or else, if paired with a dominant allele, the
recessive allele will be masked.

There are Five (5) basic modes of inheritance of single gene traits/diseases

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 1. Autosomal dominant - where the affected individual has an affected
parent and this occurs in every generation

Figure 6. Autosomal Dominant Inheritance (Source: National Foundation for

Ectodermal Dysplasias)

2. Autosomal recessive - where the affected individual’s parents are both

carriers (they are unaffected). This is not typically seen in every
generation

Figure 7. Autosomal Recessive Inheritance

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 3. X-linked dominant - This affects more females than males because X-
linked dominant are embryonically fatal in males. This is because males
receive their only X chromosomes from mothers, whereas females receive
X chromosomes from both mother and father

Figure 8. X-linked Dominant Inheritance (Source: US NIH)

4. X-linked recessive - This affects more males than females. Since males
are XY, there is no other X chromosome which will counter the recessive
X obtained from the mother

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 Figure 9. X-Linked Recessive Inheritance (Source: US NIH)

5. Mitochondrial - It is only passed by females because our mitochondria

are only passed from mothers to offspring through the egg cell. However,
this means that it can affect both males and females

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 Figure 10. Mitochondrial pattern of inheritance (Source: US NIH)

Table 1. Matrix covering 4 of the 5 Basic models of inheritance

Expression of the mutated allele with respect to the normal allele

Location of the Gene
Dominant Recessive

Autsome Autosomal dominant - the gene is Autosomal Recessive - the gene is

found in autosomes and will manifest found in autosomes and will manifest
in heterozygous (Aa) and in homozygous (aa) individuals only
homozygous (aa) individuals

X-linked X-linked dominant - the gene is found X-linked recessive - the gene is
in the X chromosomes and will found in the X chromosome and will
manifest in females more frequently manifest in males more frequently

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 Nonetheless,  there  are  also  some  non-­‐Mendelian  modes  of  inheritance  (Libretexts,  
2018).  This  means  that  they  don’t  follow  the  conventional  rules  of  inheritance,  i.e.  the  questions  “is  it  
recessive  or  not?”  or  “It  is  autosomal,  x-­‐linked  or  mitochondrial?”  are  not  applicable  to  these  
patterns  of  inheritance.  

Codominance  is  when  two  alleles  are  expressed  equally  in  the  phenotype.  The  ABO  
blood  type  system  follows  codominance,  i.e.  if  you  have  allele  for  A  and  B,  you  have  an  AB  blood  
type.  

Incomplete  dominance  happens  when  the  dominant  gene  is  not  completely  dominant,  i.e  
When  a  person  is  heterozygous,  an  intermediate  phenotype  is  observed.  As  an  example,  if  a  
heterozygous  person  (Aa)  has  an  allele  for  a  functional  protein  (A)  but  has  an  allele  for  a  
nonfunctional  protein  (a),  they  will  only  produce  half  the  normal  number  of  proteins  produced  by  a  
homozygous  person  (AA)  who  has  both  normal  alleles  

 
Figure  11.  The  difference  of  complete,  co-­‐,  and  incomplete  dominance  (Source:  
https://i.ytimg.com/vi/FXc5F9AMAiQ/maxresdefault.jpg)  

Multiple alleles show that traits are controlled by a single gene with more than
two alleles. Again, the ABO blood type system follows multiple allele inheritance, i.e.
three alleles: one for A antigen, one for B antigen and one for no antigen This is
different from Polygenic inheritance, where a single trait is controlled by more than
one gene. For example, Human height is polygenic as many genes’ effects add up to
each other and result in height X. Pleiotropy occurs when a gene affects more than
one trait. This is seen in problems with a gene involved in collagen (main protein of the
body) which results in problems in (i) bones and (ii) sensory organs.

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 Figure 12. Polygenic inheritance vs Pleiotropy (Source: https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-
_3wEh3bcowY/WtLs0e40N8I/AAAAAAACpfI/ECSgss94KKEkXo2UqYxs37hIYBJ4yNDf
wCLcBGAs/s1600/polygenic.jpg)

Lastly, Epistasis happens when a gene affects the expression of another,

different gene. Let’s look at the example of Albinism which follows epistasis. Skin color
is a polygenic trait (e.g. Caucasian father and African mother has a biracial child who
has “Mulatto” complexion), albinism however involves a defect in a different gene which
produces tyrosinase, an enzyme used to make melanin (our skin pigment). That means,
If you have the albinism gene, you will not produce melanin and skin color regardless of
your inherited skin color genes.

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Physical and Motor Development
Physical development includes all aspects of growth and changes to the human
body during a period of time. Such changes may involve the person’s height, weight,
brain, skeleton(or bones), muscles, teeth, hair, and their internal systems related to the
heart, lungs, and digestion.

Motor Development pertains to the Increasing control of large muscles - gross

motor skills like running, climbing, jumping,hopping and kicking) and smaller muscles -
fine motor skills like doing up shoelaces, cutting with scissors, writing, drawing, putting
puzzles together, managing buttons, pronouncing words, blowing bubbles, and
whistling. Motor skills depend upon the proper functioning of the brain, skeleton, joints
and the nervous system.

Individual’s development will vary due to differences in:

● maturity rates
● motivation levels
● health and nutrition quality
● the opportunity to practice these skills.

In general, there are trends in Growth and Development. First, development is

Cephalocaudal, i.e. development occurs from head (“cephalo”) to feet (“cauda”)
direction. Also, development occurs in a Proximodistal manner, i.e. starting from the
center (“proximo” = close) to outward (“distal” = distant) direction

Physical Development from Infancy to Adolescence

A baby is born sometime around the 38th week of pregnancy. The fetus is
responsible, at least in part, for its own birth because chemicals released by the
developing fetal brain trigger the muscles in the mother’s uterus to start the rhythmic
contractions of childbirth. The contractions are initially spaced at about 15-minute
intervals but come more rapidly with time. When the contractions reach an interval of

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two to three minutes, the mother is requested to assist in the labour and help push the
baby out.

Newborns are already prepared to face the new world they are about to
experience. As you can see in Table 2, “Survival Reflexes in Newborns,” babies are
equipped with a variety of reflexes, each providing an ability that will help them survive
their first few months of life as they continue to learn new routines to help them survive
in and manipulate their environments.

Table 1. Survival reflexes in newborns (Wede, n.d.)

Name Stimulus Response Significance Video

Example

Rooting The baby’s The baby turns Ensures the Watch “The
cheek is its head toward infant’s feeding Rooting Reflex”
reflex
stroked. the stroking, will be a [YouTube]
opens its mouth, reflexive habit
and tries to suck

Blink reflex A light is flashed The baby closes Protects eyes Watch “Baby
in the baby’s both eyes. from strong and Blinking”
eyes. potentially [YouTube]
dangerous
stimuli

Withdrawal A soft pinprick is The baby flexes Keeps the Watch “Baby
applied to the the leg. exploring infant Withdraw Reflex”
reflex
sole of the away from [YouTube]
baby’s foot. painful stimuli

Tonic neck The baby is laid The baby turns Helps develop Watch “Tonic Neck
down on its its head to one hand-eye Reflex” [YouTube]
reflex
back. side and coordination
extends the arm
on the same
side.

Grasp An object is The baby grasps Helps in Watch “Grasp

pressed into the the object exploratory reflex” [YouTube]
reflex
palm of the pressed and can learning

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 baby. even hold its
own weight for a
brief period.

Moro reflex Loud noises or a The baby Protects from Watch “Moro
sudden drop in extends arms falling; could Reflex” [YouTube]
height while and legs and have assisted
holding the quickly brings infants in
baby. them in as if holding on to
trying to grasp their mothers
something. during rough
travelling

Stepping The baby is Baby makes Helps Watch “Stepping

suspended with stepping encourage Reflex” [YouTube]
reflex
bare feet just motions as if motor
above a surface trying to walk. development
and is moved
forward.

In addition to reflexes, newborns have preferences — they like sweet-tasting

foods at first, while becoming more open to salty items by four months of age
(Beauchamp, Cowart, Menellia, & Marsh, 1994; Blass & Smith, 1992). Newborns also
prefer the smell of their mothers. An infant only six days old is significantly more likely to
turn toward its own mother’s breast pad than to the breast pad of another baby’s mother
(Porter, Makin, Davis, & Christensen, 1992), and a newborn also shows a preference
for the face of its own mother (Bushnell, Sai, & Mullin, 1989).

Although infants are born ready to engage in some activities, they also contribute
to their own development through their own behaviours. The child’s knowledge and
abilities increase as it babbles, talks, crawls, tastes, grasps, plays, and interacts with the
objects in the environment (Gibson, Rosenzweig, & Porter, 1988; Gibson & Pick, 2000;
Smith & Thelen, 2003). Parents may help in this process by providing a variety of
activities and experiences for the child. Research has found that animals raised in
environments with more novel objects and that engage in a variety of stimulating
activities have more brain synapses and larger cerebral cortexes, and they perform
better on a variety of learning tasks compared with animals raised in more impoverished
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environments (Juraska, Henderson, & Müller, 1984). Similar effects are likely occurring
in children who have opportunities to play, explore, and interact with their environments
(Soska, Adolph, & Johnson, 2010)

Early Childhood
The rapid increase in body size of the first two years tapers off in a slower
growth pattern. Hence, it is slower than infancy, On average, children add 2 to 3
inches in height and about 5 pounds in weight each year. Boys continue to be slightly
larger than girls. It is important to note that children who are born with very low birth
weights are still behind their peers in growth.

Large muscles develop before small muscles. Muscles in the body’s core,
legs and arms develop before those in the fingers and hands. Children learn how to
perform gross (or large) motor skills such as walking before they learn to perform fine
(or small) motor skills such as drawing.

The center of the body develops before the outer regions. Muscles located at
the core of the body become stronger and develop sooner than those in the feet and
hands.

Development goes from top down, from the head to the toes. This is why
babies learn to hold their heads up before they learn to crawl. The brain is still the
fastest growing organ. All of the baby teeth are present by 3 years of age. Their bladder
control improves by this time.

Figure 13. Cephalocaudal and Proximodistal development (Source:

https://educerecentre.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/principle-of-cephalocaudal-and-
proximodistal.png)
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 Middle childhood

Physical development is slow but steady. The average child will grow 5- 6cm
and gain 1-3kg in six years from the age of 6- 12 yrs. Girls are generally a little taller
and heavier than boys. However, boys have more muscle tissues than girls.

Each child follows their own unique timetable for growth as individual
differences become more noticeable. Nonetheless, growth is typically concentrated in
the legs, arms, and face. Baby teeth also come out and are replaced with permanent
teeth. Brain growth is completed by age of 10 – 12 (but is still immature or not
developed); similarly the heart and lungs continue to mature.

At this age, children can become obese (over weight) due to:

● inherited genetics
● personality
● poor diet
● watching too much TV and inactivity

Adolescence

Adolescence is a transition between childhood and adulthood where changes in

physical appearance, sexual development and rapid growth are the most obvious signs.
Changes may begin as early as 10 or 11 years of age.

The term ‘adolescent growth spurt’ refers to the rapid changes in height,
weight and body proportions that occur at the beginning of adolescence. Growth
changes are more dramatic during adolescence than in any other stage after 2 years of
age. Girls start their rapid growth about 2 years earlier than boys - Girls start their
growth spurt between 7.5 – 11.5 years ( average age being 9.5 years ) and boys
between 10.5 -16 (average age being 13 years ).

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 Figure 14. Graph depicting the trend of growth spurt between males and females
(Source:https://www.footy4kids.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Screen-Shot-2015-
09-13-at-17.43.24.png)

Girls reach their full height by about 19 years and boys at 21 – 22 years of age.
However, the average male is taller and heavier than the average female by about
the age of 14 years. Boys and girls double their weight between the ages 10 and 18
years.

Their hands, feet, neck, and nose grow first during the growth spurt. The body
achieves adult proportions at this stage. Muscle mass and strength increase, esp.
for boys. On the other hand, fat development slows for males and females and is
redistributed in females.

The brain’s last growth spurt is between 14-1 6 years of age. Lung size and
capacity increases. The size and strength of the heart increases. Most of the internal
organs reach their mature size.

At this age, the oil-bearing glands in the skin become active, leading to
increased risk of developing acne. Likewise, The sweat glands become fully functional,
which can often lead to body odor.

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 Girls continue to demonstrate more finger dexterity (skill) than boys which
continued since early childhood years. Sexual reproduction becomes possible.

Motor Development from Infancy to Adolescence

Infancy – Toddlerhood
Motor development progresses quickly from a new born baby unable to lift
their head to a toddler who can pick up items and walk.

Gross motor skills in infancy is related to locomotors development or the ability

to move. These skills include the following abilities in order of development:

● Control of the head and neck muscles

● Sit with head, trunk and arm control
● Crawl and creep, with assists their perceptual development
● Stand and support their weight on their legs without over-balance
● Walk unassisted by themselves by the age of 14.5 months
● Most can run by the age of 18 months but they fall frequently.

Fine Motor Skills in infancy are related to reaching and grasping first as a reflex
(automatic reaction) and then intentionally. Grasping for the first 2-3 months is a reflex
reaction, while Voluntary grasping begins from about 3 months but the hands are
usually open and guided by their sight. At 5 months of age the baby touches an object
before trying to grasp it. Grasping develops from a whole hand grasp at 5-7 months, to
a palm grasp at 9-10 months to pincer grasp (using the thumb and forefinger) at 9-15
months

Early Childhood
Early childhood gross motor development is mainly related to their legs:
running, climbing, jumping and kicking. Gross motor skills in early childhood change as
the child grows taller and they become steadier on their feet. Here are some of the
gross motor development observed in early childhood:

● Most children can run, stop and change directly by 4-5 years of age
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 ● By the time they are 5 years old, most children can “broad jump” across
nearly a meter
● Hopping involves balancing on one leg and is more complex.
● Throwing skills begin to improve during this stage as children learn to use
their elbows and shoulder instead of their whole bodies.
● Catching skills improve from just receiving a ball to stepping forward and
grabbing it.
● Most 5-6 year olds can ride a tricycle or bicycle, swing on a swing, climb a
ladder and some can swim.

Their fine motor skills progress from whole arm activities to more precise
skills using their hands such as cutting with scissors or drawing. Fine motor skills in
the early childhood years are more difficult than gross motor skills because they
need more precise muscle control, careful judgment and more patience to keep trying.
For example, doing up shoelaces, cutting with scissors, writing, drawing, putting puzzles
together and managing buttons can be difficult for young children with short stubby
fingers. Pronouncing words (which involves coordination of the soft palate, tongue, and
lips), blowing bubbles, and whistling involve the use of fine motor skills. Many children
who have difficulties with their fine motor skills also have difficulties in articulating (say
clearly) sounds or words. Fine motor development for the early childhood years can be
summarized as follows:

● Between the ages of 2-7 years, girls are usually more skilled at fine motor
skills while boys perform better at gross motor skills
● Drawing skills become more refined as the child progresses through
particular stages from scribbling to pictures that can be recognized
● Between the ages of 3-5 years, the child learns to dress themselves
without assistance and to tie their shoelaces
● The child can feed and wash themselves and brush their own teeth in the
early childhood years

During play and at school, the child improves and develops their fine motor
skills when building with blocks, using scissors, doing puzzles, drawing, folding paper,

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painting, manipulating play dough, and using a hammer to hit a nail. Fine motor skills
and hand/eye coordination is practiced through drawing and this is an important
basis for writing letters and numbers. Drawing is also a way for the child to
communicate their thoughts and feelings about their world around them.

Individual’s development will vary due to different maturity rates, motivation

levels, health and nutrition quality and the opportunity to practice these skills. Children
who were born premature or with a very low birth weight, may still be behind their
peers in gross motor development at this stage.

Middle childhood (6 years - puberty)

During the middle childhood years, the motor skills learnt in early childhood are
refined and improved by practicing them and playing games and sports. The six basic
gross motor skills that are developed to a higher performance level are:

● Running
● Jumping
● Sequencing foot movement (as in dancing)
● Balancing
● Throwing and catching

The accuracy of these skills is improved by practice and maturity. The ‘reaction
time’ (the speed the child reacts to a ball or a voice or another stimulus) also improves
with age. For example, most children find it easier to kick a ball than to catch it.

Motor activities are essential for the development of muscle tone, balance,
coordination, strength, body functions, and general good health and well-being.
Most children in the middle childhood years enjoy physical activity on playground
equipment, in organized games, riding bikes, or jumping a rope. During this stage
(between about 7-12 years), children become more interested in organized sport
groups and can become more competitive, especially the boys (Harris C., 1993).

On the other hand, The child’s fine motor skills are also becoming more
refined and improved during the middle childhood years. They can make great

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progress in their artistic abilities as they express themselves through drawing, painting,
clay modeling, sewing, and other art and craft activities. The healthy development of
fine motor skills is also essential for progress in reading and writing. All students need
fine motor control for eye muscles to focus and distinguish letters, crossing midline, and
tracking words left to right. They need eye-hand control to develop good handwriting
skills so that they can express themselves in written form.

Adolescence

Early adolescence or the ‘pubertal period’ (11-14 years) is a time of rapid

physical and intellectual development. Middle adolescence (14-17 years) is a more
stable period of adjustment to the changes of early adolescence. Later adolescence
(18-21 years) is a transition period into adulthood with choices, responsibilities and
opportunities.

During the pubertal years of rapid physical growth, adolescent’s motor

development may become awkward or clumsy as they get used to longer limbs and
bigger bodies. Their brains need time to adjust to the growing body and must
establish new connections for coordination to improve.

Strength can be increased further when both males and female adolescents
participate in sports and exercise programs. However, a large number of them may
become less active in high school when sport activities become more competitive.
They can often be motivated by examples set by their parents if regular exercise is a
normal part of family life. They need to be made aware of the physical benefits of
exercise such as improving their mood and energy level.

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Neuroscience and Brain Development
The brain is the body’s most important organ. It allows us to learn everything
we need to know – from learning how to walk, how to talk, how to read a book, and how
to behave in a socially acceptable way. It enables us to develop abstract ideas like the
idea of fairness and justice through reasoning and logical thought.

The brain’s ability to change from experience is known as neural plasticity. The
human brain is especially plastic early in life, which is why the “nurture” part of the
equation is so important. Throughout life the brain continues to be plastic - this is the
mechanism of learning - but plasticity declines in adulthood. It loses some of its
plasticity once the two hemispheres of the brain begin to specialize. This specialization
is known as lateralization.

Researchers have found a link between hemispheric specialization and learning

disabilities or cognitive styles. The left hemisphere of the brain controls language
processes, whereas the right hemisphere processes visual and spatial information.

As a child’s brain develops, it goes through several critical periods, a

developmental phase in which the brain requires certain environmental input or it will
not develop normally.

The Brain
The Cerebrum is the largest part of the human brain and is subdivided into
several lobes. The Frontal lobe helps control skilled muscle movements, mood,
planning for the future, setting goals and judging priorities. The Occipital lobe helps
process visual information. On the other hand, the Parietal lobe receives and
processes somatosensory (somato - body, sensorium - sense) information about
temperature, taste, touch, and movement coming from the rest of the body. Reading
and arithmetic are also processed in this region. Lastly, the Temporal lobe processes
hearing, memory, and language functions.

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 Figure 15. Diagram of an intact brain depicting parts of the cerebrum

The Cerebellum is the portion below the cerebrum which coordinates and fine-
tunes movement and balance

Figure 16. Diagram of the brain split in the midline (Source:

https://askabiologist.asu.edu/sites/default/files/resources/articles/nervous_journey/brain-anatomy.gif)

The Brainstem is the segment of the brain that serves to connect the spinal cord
to the rest of the brain; nonetheless, its parts provide vital functions to life as well. The
Medulla oblongata contains centers for the control of vital processes such as heart
rate, respiration, blood pressure, and swallowing. The Pons, on ther hand, contain
centers for the control of vital processes, including respiration and cardiovascular
functions. It also is involved in the coordination of eye movements and balance
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 A portion of the midbrain also houses the Limbic system. These are “Primordial
sets of structures” and are composed of four main parts. The Hypothalamus controls
endocrine functions which affect hunger, temperature, thirst, libido and sleep. The
Amygdala is an almond-shaped organ, involved in memory, decision-making and
emotional responses (fear, aggression). Another component is the Thalamus serving
as the relay center of the brain, relaying information from and to different parts of the
brain. Lastly, the Hippocampus is involved in transforming short-term to long-term
memory

Neurons
The brain of an adult weighs about 1.3 kilograms and contains around 100 billion
brain cells which are called ‘neurons’. Neurons are nerve cells which can store and
transmit information. It is thought humans are born with between 150 and 200 billion
neuron cells, but as an adult we only get to keep 100 billion. Within the adult brain, there
is an estimated one million billion connections between neurons. As the brain develops
and learning takes place, the number of connections between neurons increases. A
neuron has several parts, namely:

● Cell body - body of the cell, location of the nucleus and most organelles
● Dendrites - ‘branches’ of the cell body which receives the signals from
another neuron
● Axon - transmits the signals from the cell body to another neuron
● Synaptic terminals - terminal end of an axon. An axon passes the
electrical impulse from its synaptic terminal across the synapse - the gap
between two neurons- to the receiving neuron’s dendrites.

Figure 17. Parts of the neuron

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The Infant Brain
The brain is developing from the moment of conception. Most brain cells are
produced between the fourth and seventh month of pregnancy.

The last two months before birth is a time of very rapid brain development. Two
months before birth, the brain is about 10% of its adult weight. When a child is born,
its brain has developed a trillion connections and weighs about 25% of its final adult
weight.

Most of the increase in weight is due to the development of dendrites and axons
and connections between neurons (or neural networks) and the myelin coverings of the
axon. Myelination or myelinization is the process of covering the axon with the
insulating material called myelin, which is an insulating layer that forms around the
nerve cells that is made up of protein and fatty substances. The myelin acts like the
insulation on an electric cord: It keeps the electrical impulses from escaping to other
axons or dendrites and ensures the impulse reaches their destination. Myelination starts
before birth, proceeds quickly until about 4 years of age and is completed in
adolescence.

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 Figure 18. Myelination (Source: https://www.news-
medical.net/image.axd?picture=2020%2F2%2F%40shutterstock_1017266230.jpg)

After birth, the number of synaptic connections between neurons increases

quickly. The number of connections increases to be more adult levels – too many for all
to be used - so some are removed. Removal of excess or weak connections is an
important part of brain development – just as important as the initial development of
new connections. It is called ‘pruning’.

Figure 19. Synaptic pruning in the human brain (Source: http://www.supporting-

cdkl5.co.uk/the-cdkl5-protein.php)

At birth, there is some visual ability. At age 2-3 months, there is a rapid synaptic
development in the area of the brain responsible for processing visual input (occipital
lobe). The area responsible for controlling emotions or making decisions (frontal lobe)
occurs later.

Due to the rapid development of the brain before birth, the mother of the preborn
child needs to be careful to eat a healthy and balanced diet. She should not smoke and
should avoid drugs and alcohol. She should also minimize any stress. In the first two
years, social and emotional skills are developed that will be important for later life, so
the parent needs to show a good example demonstrating appropriate emotional
responses. Poor examples may lead to emotional problems later in life. It is much
easier to develop emotional skills with a two year-old child than it is with a teenager.
Parents need to involve the child in appropriate emotional interactions to develop
emotional and social health for their later life.

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 ‘Sensory motor systems’ describes how the brain processes and controls the
motor activities (movements). Sensory experiences (such as seeing and hearing) and
motor experiences are closely intertwined in the brain. For example, a child’s visual
ability is needed to work out the position of an object, so that their hand can grasp it.
Two parts of the brain are developing and cooperating. Children at this age need
lots of stimulating activities including movement and exploration to enhance this
development. Studies have shown that early motor stimulation can lead to better
attention, listening skills, reading scores and writing skills (Palmer, 2003). This means
that it is important for the infant child to spend time:

● Developing relationships with other people

● Playing and exploring different materials
● Doing activities involving movement
● These are more important at this stage than watching television.

Myelination continues along connections between areas of the brain which

controls movement (Frontal lobe) and the area which coordinates movement
(cerebellum) takes until about age four years to complete. Hence, the maximum
development of fine motor skills won’t be complete until about four years of age. By the
age of two years, the brain’s weight is about 75% of the adult brain.

The Childhood Brain

Between the ages two to five years the child’s neural network is still expanding.
They need a lot of appropriate experiences to assist with their brain development
in preparation for school. This include:

● Much unstructured exploratory (free) play time

● The parents should read to the child often
● Limit the amount of time in front of a television or watching DVDs or
playing video games
● Teach them rhyming games and the alphabet
● Choose ‘high touch’ toys instead of toys with batteries
● Provide simple toys that encourage imagination

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 ● Talk to them and ask them questions

By the time that a child is five years old, he/she has learned a language and
developed their sensory motor abilities. It is now time to explore the world. As for the
pre-school child, plenty of free, creative, and unstructured play provides the opportunity
to do the exploring. It is also a time when a lot of further removal of excess neuron
connections (pruning) takes place as the brain organizes itself.

The brain of the child between five and twelve years of age is ready to learn
how to read, write, calculate, and reason. By about age ten years, the brain’s weight
is about 90% of the adult brain. Children in this age (of 5-12 years) develop more
social awareness and a wider awareness of the world around them. They also know
what they like and dislike and develop interests in hobbies and sports. As they do so,
neurons are developing many more detailed dendrite branches. It is a time where the
synapses reach the maximum number and, at the same time, there is heavy ‘pruning’ of
the weak or rarely used synapses.

The Adolescent Brain

An adolescent’s brain undergoes significant structural changes. In fact, the
scale of the changes compare with those of the infant. This is often the reason for the
strange behavior that an adolescent can exhibit. In some cases, the brain cell
thickening, which could indicate massive changes in synaptic reorganization (Durston et
al., 2001), is not complete until age 30 years.

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 Figure 20. Changes in the adolescent brain (Source:
https://www.addictionisreal.org/teenage-brain)

The front of the brain (prefrontal cortex), the area responsible for reasoning, is
the last area to mature as it is the last area to myelinate (mid-20s). Hence, the
adolescent is more likely to rely on emotions than rational thinking in decision making.
The amygdala, emotion center, is also immature and not fully connected to the frontal
lobe. The effect is the adolescent will have a more difficult time interpreting their
emotion as well as those of others. Pustilnik and Henry said “...a teen may intellectually
understand an issue and emotionally have a response to that issue, but those two
processes may occur nearly in parallel rather than in dialogue...”. A brain undergoing
reorganization could be very unstable, unpredictable, and volatile.

Further refining of gross and fine motor skills takes place during adolescence.
Peak physical motor development is often reached between 18-30 years of age

The level of certain chemicals in the brain can help to explain teenage behavior.
One of these chemicals is melatonin ( sleep hormone) which is associated with sleep
regulation. The level of melatonin is low in the teenager – most teenagers will want to
go to bed later and get up later. This is often not a good fit to class times, so that
classrooms may have sleepy students who then under-perform academically. The
neurotransmitter dopamine (as well as its receptors in neurons) is abundant in the
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teenage expression. Sex, alcohol, drugs, palatable food, gambling, video games
through dopamine triggers the reward centers of the brain and this makes adolescents
vulnerable to addiction

Factors affecting Biological or Physical Development

Recall that growth and development is a function of the interaction between the
influences of nature and nurture. These factors may be:

1. Risk factors - a characteristic at the biological, psychological, family,

community, or cultural level that precedes and is associated with a higher
likelihood of problem outcomes
2. Protective factors - a characteristic at the biological, psychological, family,
or community (including peers and culture) level that is associated with a
lower likelihood of problem outcomes or that reduces the negative impact
of a risk factor on problem outcomes

Nature Factors
Heredity is at play in biological and physical development. Our genes predispose
us to certain physical traits, including growth and development. It interacts with nature to

produce the phenotype. Some examples are (a) Height which are influenced by multiple
genes (tall parents → tall children) as well as nutrition, sleep, etc; and (b) Trisomy 21 -

a.k.a. Down syndrome, a condition where a child inherits an extra chromosome 21 (so
they have 3 chromosome 21 instead of the regular 2) which leads to some common

physical features like flattened face, almond shaped eyes and short neck

Nutrition plays an important role in development of health and disease. Firstly,

nutrition (even starting during prenatal development) is related to functional outcomes in
later life. As an example, women who were pregnant during famines will likely bore low-
birth weight infants who have a higher likelihood of developing diabetes. This is
because the infants’ metabolism was programmed to work efficiently on low levels of
nutrition, so, when exposed to a nutrient-rich environment and lifestyle, they tend to
suffer more from the side effects of overnutrition. Also, sufficient food is important for

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proper growth and development like how bones need protein, calcium, phosphorus and
other nutrients to grow. Hence, malnutrition delays child growth and development.

Different sexes grow and develop differently especially during puberty. Females
tend to mature earlier and faster while Males tend to mature later and longer. There are
also differences in body types between males and females:

● Gynecoid (female) - Pear-shaped bodies. Women tend to carry weight in

the thighs and buttocks
● Android (male) - Apple-shaped bodies. Men tend to carry weight in the
abdomen

Different hormones - chemical substances in the blood acting as “messengers of

the body ”- affect our growth and development. Growth hormone and insulin-like growth
factor (IGF) 1 are hormones which primarily influence body growth. Thyroid hormones
control our metabolism, i.e. hypothyroid (low in thyroid hormones) individuals show
delayed growth and maturity. Sex hormones leads to the development of primary
(development of genitals) and secondary sexual characteristics as well as physical
growth (height and weight) observed during puberty

Physical activity affects biological growth and development. Physical activity is

different from exercise: Physical activity involves movements of the skeletal muscles
which require energy use, while exercise is physical activity that is planned and
structured to maintain and condition the body. Physical activity affects our health: Low
physical activity or being sedentary can make you gain weight, while Moderate physical
activity is protective and helps gain muscle strength and develop bones. Outdoor play is
beneficial because it also exposes children which help them build a healthy immune
system and resistance

Finally, our health also affects our growth and development. As officially defined
by the World Health Organization, health is a state of complete physical, mental, and
social well-being, not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. Some medical
conditions can delay and impair growth. Children with cretinism or congenital
hypothyroidism (because the mother is not able to have adequate iodine while

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pregnant) will show severe stunted physical and mental development. Children with
digestive, heart, lung and kidney diseases will often show growth problems

Nurture Factors
Our physical environment plays a role in influencing biological growth and
development. Children especially are more prone to the effects of the environment
because they are still developing and consume more (e.g. air, water) in proportion to
their weight. Hazards in physical surroundings have an impact in growth and
development primarily affecting their health:

● Presence of pollution (e.g. air, noise) and contaminants/toxicants

● Cleanliness and sanitation
● Presence of disease vectors like mosquitoes
● Hazards in the road and built environment

There is increasing amount of evidence that access to blue and green spaces
plays a role in human brain development as well as physical health, growth,
development and function in children and even adults

Seasonal variation affects growth and development. Children born in different

seasons (dry vs. wet) show different outcomes in life. One factor explaining this is the
type and amount of food available varies per season. The endocrine system is affected
by seasonal changes as well.

Climate change imposes challenges in human growth and development. Climate

change brings about ‘new’ diseases and aggravates current health disparities. It affects
food and water security and our existing economic and social structures. Countries like
the Philippines are on the forefront of the effects of climate change

Socio-economic influence is a well-known factor of human growth and

development. People coming from different socioeconomic backgrounds often have
different body sizes, health. This is related to access to good nutrition, health-promoting
habits, housing and healthcare. As an example, the Level of education of parents is
related with their employment, income, healthcare practices and knowledge

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 Family size affects children's growth. Children from large families are more likely
to be smaller and lighter and limited resources should be shared among family
members. Short intervals between births may not optimize ‘critical windows’ of
development in children since care, nutrition and resources are diverted to the new
member of the family. The vicious cycle of poverty (see figure below) portrays how
socio-economics influence health and vice versa.

Figure 21. The vicious cycle of poverty (Source: Vorster, H. H. (2010). The link between
poverty and malnutrition: A South African perspective. Health SA Gesondheid, 15(1).)

Culture affects beliefs and practices in child rearing and health. We can see an
example of this in the Philippine context: (i) the use of “am” or rice water as (breast)milk
substitute or (ii) Children being reared by an extensive family and even the community.
Concept and aptness of play and work in different cultures. Most of the child rearing
practices of any given society are effective in raising healthy and competent children

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 The role of the family must also be noted as it is a person’s primary social group.
The family provides (the earliest) experiences and needs of the individual (security,
nutrition, love). Relationships are fundamental to the child’s development. The child
learns and develops habits from their family which might be good or bad to their health

Finally, experiences, learning and reinforcement plays a role in biological

growth and development, specifically on our brain. Positive and negative experiences
develop our brain, and growth and learning are best when the child is safe and
protected: conversing, playing with and caring for the child; nurturing a child by
understanding and responding to their needs. Conversely, stress and trauma (such as
abuse or neglect) can have long-term negative effects on brain growth and
development. Reinforcement is a component of learning where an activity or exercise is
repeated and refined to solidify the lessons learned.

Theories
Maturational-developmental theory / Developmental Milestones (Gesell )
Gesell’s theory is known as a maturational-developmental theory. It is the
foundation of nearly every other theory of human development after Gesell. Early in the
20th century, Dr. Gesell observed and documented patterns in the way children
develop, showing that all children go through similar and predictable sequences, though
each child moves through these sequences at his or her own rate or pace.

This process consisted of both internal and external factors. The intrinsic factors
include genetics, temperament, personality, learning styles, as well as physical and
mental growth. Simultaneously, development is also influenced by factors such as
environment, family background, parenting styles, cultural influences, health conditions,
and early experiences with peers and adults. Gesell was the first theorist to
systematically study the stages of development, and the first researcher to demonstrate
that a child’s developmental age (or stage of development) may be different from his or
her chronological age.

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The Cyclical Spiral

Gesell emphasized that growth always progresses in a pattern through

predictable stages or sequences. Sequential development begins within the embryo
and continues after birth. While an individual progresses through these stages at his or
her own pace, the sequence remains the same. According to Gesell, growth can be
thought of as a cyclical spiral. Each cycle of the spiral encompassing the time it takes
to move through six stages, or half-year increments. Notice that the time to complete a
cycle of the six stages is quite rapid in early life and slows down with age. Gesell’s
cycles of development are divided into six well-defined stages which are repeated
throughout life. One cycle includes the following stages: Smooth, Break-Up, Sorting
Out, Inwardizing, Expansion, and Neurotic “Fitting Together”. See figure below of the
cycles of development.

Figure 22. Cycles of Development

Gesell’s research established normative trends for four areas of growth and
development, namely (1) Motor, (2) Adaptive (Cognitive), (3) Language, and (4)
Personal-Social behavior. Originally published as the Gesell Developmental Schedules

  37  
in 1925, these developmental schedules, most recently updated in 2010, continue to
serve and guide pediatricians and psychologists throughout the world today.

Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005) developed the Ecological Systems Theory.

It has recently been renamed “bioecological systems theory” to emphasize that a
child’s own biology is a primary environment fueling her development. The interaction
between factors in the child’s maturing biology, his immediate family/community
environment, and the societal landscape fuels and steers his development. Changes or
conflict in any one layer will ripple throughout other layers. To study a child’s
development then, we must look not only at the child and her immediate environment,
but also at the interaction of the larger environment as well.

Bronfenbrenner recognized that human interaction is influenced by larger social

forces and that an understanding of these forces is essential for understanding an
individual. The individual is impacted by several systems including:

● Microsystem includes the individual’s setting and those who have direct,
significant contact with the person, such as parents or siblings. The input of those
is modified by the cognitive and biological state of the individual as well. These
influence the person’s actions, which in turn influence systems operating on him
or her.

● Mesosystem include the larger organizational structures, such as school, the

family, or religion. These institutions impact the microsystems just described. The
philosophy of the school system, daily routine, assessment methods, and other
characteristics can affect the child’s self-image, growth, sense of

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 accomplishment, and schedule thereby impacting the child, physically,
cognitively, and emotionally.

● Exosystem includes the larger contexts of community. A community’s values,

history, and economy can impact the organizational structures it houses.
Mesosystems both influence and are influenced by the exosystem.

● Macrosystem includes the cultural elements, such as global economic conditions,

war, technological trends, values, philosophies, and a society’s responses to the
global community.

● Chronosystem is the historical context in which these experiences occur. This

relates to the different generational time periods previously discussed, such as
the baby boomers and millennials.

In sum, a child’s experiences are shaped by larger forces, such as the family,
schools, religion, culture, and time period. Bronfenbrenner’s model helps us understand
all of the different environments that impact each one of us simultaneously. Despite its
comprehensiveness, Bronfenbrenner’s ecological system’s theory is not easy to use.
Taking into consideration all the different influences makes it difficult to research and
determine the impact of all the different variables (Dixon, 2003). Consequently,
psychologists have not fully adopted this approach, although they recognize the
importance of the ecology of the individual.

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 Figure 23. Bronfenbrenner’s structure of environment

Guide Questions
1. What is biological development?

2. What are the factors affecting biological/ physical development?

3. What are the theories in the text that explains the biological development of
children and adolescents?

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Answers to Guide Questions
1. Biological development is the domain of lifespan development that examines
growth and changes in the body and brain, the senses, motor skills, and health
and wellness.

2. Nature and Nurture factors affect biological/ physical development.

● Nature factors - Heredity,Nutrition,Hormones,Physical Activity,Health

● Nurture factors - Physical environment,Socio-economic influence, Family

size, Culture,Family,Experiences Learning and Reinforcement

3. Maturational-developmental theory /Developmental Milestones by Arnold Gesell

and the Bioecological theory/Ecological Systems Theory of Urie Bronfenbrenner
explains the biological development of children and adolescents

Key Points

1. Biological development is the domain of lifespan development that examines

growth and changes in the body and brain, the senses, motor skills, and health
and wellness.
2. It is postulated that we are who we are because of evolution through natural
selection. The machinery which permitted evolution by natural selection is
  41  
 heredity and reproduction. Heredity is the process of transmitting biological
traits from parents to offspring through genes, the basis units of heredity;
accounts for why offspring look like their parents. Reproduction (and heredity)
involves the gametes which contain the paternal and maternal contributions
resulting to new, unique life

3. Physical development includes all aspects of growth and changes to the human
body during a period of time. Such changes may involve the person’s height,
weight, brain, skeleton(or bones), muscles, teeth, hair, and their internal systems
related to the heart, lungs, and digestion. Motor Development pertains to the
Increasing control of large muscles - gross motor skills like running, climbing,
jumping,hopping and kicking) and smaller muscles - fine motor skills like doing
up shoelaces, cutting with scissors, writing, drawing, putting puzzles together,
managing buttons, pronouncing words, blowing bubbles, and whistling.

4. The brain is the body’s most important organ. It allows us to learn everything
we need to know – from learning how to walk, how to talk, how to read a book,
and how to behave in a socially acceptable way. It enables us to develop
abstract ideas like the idea of fairness and justice through reasoning and logical
thought. As a child’s brain develops, it goes through several critical periods, a
developmental phase in which the brain requires certain environmental input or it
will not develop normally.

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