CHAPTER 5

5.1 : ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT

Important parameter
Coulomb (C): The basic unit used to measure electric charge.

Joule (J): A joule is the work done by a constant 1-N force applied
through a 1-m distance.

Ampere (A): One ampere or amp is the current that flows when 1
Coulomb of charge passes each second (1 A = 1 C/s)

Volt (V): If a charge of 1 Coulomb may be moved between two points

in space with expenditure of 1 Joule of work, 1 Volt is said
to be a potential difference existing between these points (1
V = 1 J/C)

Watt (W): The rate at which work is done or energy expended. The
watt is defined as 1 Joule per second (1 J/s).
Quantities and SI Units
SI UNITS used in electricity:

VOLTS (V): unit of potential difference, emf, or voltage

OHM (Ω): unit of resistance

AMPS (AMPERES) (A): unit of current

COULOMBS (C): unit of charge (= the charge moved when one amp of current
runs for one second).

WATTS (W): unit of power (power energy per unit time). In electrical
circuits, one watt is produced when a current of one amp flows
down a potential difference of one volt.

JOULE (J): unit of energy.

Electric Current
■ An electric current is the flow of electric charges.
■ Conventionally this is the flow of positive charge.
■ In a simple circuit such as that illustrated, the current in the
wire is composed of electrons that flow from the negative pole
of the battery (the cathode at the bottom of the battery) and
return to the positive pole (the anode at the top of the battery,
marked by a +).
Electric Current
■ Electric current is the time rate of change of
charge, measured in Amperes (A).
■ Mathematically, the relationship between
current i, charge q, and time t, is

dq
i=
dt
■ Current is measured in amperes (A),
 Electric Current
Two common types of current are;

Direct Current (dc) Alternating Current (ac),

•A direct current (dc) is a current • An alternating current (ac) is acurrent
that remains constant with time. that varies sinusoidally with time.
•The symbol I is used to represent • A time-varying current is represented by
such a constant current. the symbol i.
 Voltage
■ Some work or energy transfer is required to move the electron in
a conductor in a particular direction. This work is performed by an
external electromotive force (emf), typically represented by the
battery.

■ The emf is also known as voltage or potential difference.

■ Electric potential is the energy required to move a unit of electric

charge to a particular place in a static electric field.

■ Voltage can be measured by a VOLTMETER.

■ The unit of measurement is the VOLT (V).

Energy and Power
■ Energy is the fundamental ability to do work and
produce action.
■ Energy exists in many forms, such as mechanical,
sound, light, electrical, nuclear and chemical.
■ Energy cannot be created or destroyed. It can be
converted from one form to another.
■ Example, from kinetic energy to electricity
■ From solar radiation to electricity.

Energy is measured in JOULES, but in many fields other

units, such as kilowatt-hours and kilocalories
Energy and Power
■ Electrical energy is the most convenient form of energy
that is readily to be convert to other forms.
■ For examples; to mechanical energy through a motor,
to lighting energy through a lamp, and to heating
energy through a resistance heater.
■ Power is a measure of how fast energy is being used.
(power is the rate of consuming energy)

■ Example: Light bulbs and heaters absorb electrical

power and convert it into either heat, or light, or both.
■ The higher their value or rating in watts the more
electrical power they are likely to consume
 Energy and Power
■ Power is a certain amount of energy used in a certain length of time
P = energy/time = W/t

• In direct current resistive circuits, electrical power is calculated using

Joule's law:
P = VI
where P is the electric power,
V the potential difference, and
I the electric current.
 Simple circuit
Ohm’s Law
■ defines the relationship
between the three fundamental
electrical quantities: current,
voltage, and resistance .
■ When a voltage is applied to a
circuit containing only
resistive elements, current
flows according to Ohm's Law,
which is shown below;
•Ohm's law states that the electrical
current (I) flowing in a circuit is
proportional to the voltage (V) and
inversely proportional to the resistance
(R).
•If the voltage is increased, the current
will increase provided the resistance of
the circuit does not change.
•Increasing the resistance of the circuit
will lower the current flow if the voltage
is not changed.
•The formula current , I = V/R
Simple circuit
Ohm’s Law
■ The formula can be reorganized so that the relationship can easily
be seen for all of the three variables.

V = I R or I = V/R or R = V/I
Where: I = Electrical Current (Amperes)
V = Voltage (Volt)
R = Resistance (Ohms)

When the current flows from a higher potential to a lower potential

(v = iR). If current flows from a lower to high potential, then v =
-iR.
Simple circuit
Resistor
■ A resistor is a two-terminal passive electronic component which
implements electrical resistance as a circuit element.
■ When a voltage (V) is applied across the terminals of a resistor, a
current (I) will flow through the resistor in direct proportion to that
voltage.
■ It is usually made from metallic alloys and carbon compounds.
■ Resistance factor depend on cross-sectional area (A), length (l) and
resistivity (ρ) of the material used as shown in the figure.
Mathematically: length, l

L
R=ρ
A cross - sectional area, A
material with resistivity, ρ
Simple circuit
■ A material with low resistivity is a good conductor; examples are
gold, copper and aluminum.
■ An insulator like mica and paper has a very high resistivity.
Table 2: Resistivity of common materials at 20o C
Material Resistivity (Ω.m) Usage
Silver (Ω.m)
1.64 x 10^-8 Conductor
Cooper 1.72x10^-8 Conductor
Aluminum 2.8x10^-8 Conductor
Gold 2.45x10^-8 Semiconductor
Carbon 4x10^-5 Semiconductor
Germanium 47x10^-2 Semiconductor
Silicon 6.4x10^2 Semiconductor
Paper 10^10 Insulator
Mica 5x10^11 Insulator
Glass 10^12 Insulator
Teflon 3x10^12 Insulator
Example:
Calculate the voltage (V), current (I) and resistance (R)
TYPES OF CIRCUITS

I. Series

II. Parallel

III. Series and Parallel (Combination)

I. SERIES CIRCUIT

• A series circuit is the simplest circuit.

• The conductors, control and protection devices, loads, and
power source are connected with only one path to ground
for current flow.
• The resistance of each device can be different.
• The same amount of current will flow through each
component.
• The voltage across each will be different. If the path is
broken, no current flows and no part of the circuit works.
R R R
R
1 2 3 N

+ V1 - + V 2 - + V 3
V +V -
- N
s
I. SERIES CIRCUIT
A Series Circuit has only one path to ground, so electrons must
go through each component to get back to ground. All loads are
placed in series.

Therefore:
1. An open in the circuit will disable the entire circuit.
2. The voltage divides (shared) between the loads.
3. The current flow is the same throughout the circuit.
4. The resistance of each load can be different.
R R R
1
R2 3 N

+
+ V1 - + V 2 - + V 3 -
Vs V -
N
Series Circuit Calculations
Three resistors connected in series, and the direction of current is indicated by
the arrow.
• The voltage drops across the
resistors must add up to the total
voltage supplied by the battery

• Since V = I R, then

Since there is only one

path for the current to
travel, the current • total resistance (Rtotal) is equal to the sum of all resistances
through each of the
resistors is the same.
• strength of current (I) flowing in the circuit
Series circuit: Summary

I1
V1
Vtotal
I2
V2
I3
V3

Vtotal = I/Rtotal
Example 1

■ Calculate: V1 V2 V3
R1=5Ω R 2 = 10 Ω R 3 = 15 Ω

■ Total resistance RT RT = R1 + R2 + R3
■ Total current , I = (5 +10 +15)Ω

■ V1, V2 and V3 150V = 30Ω

■ Solutions:
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 = (5 +10 +15)Ω = 30Ω

Vs 150V V
I = R 30Ω = 5A
= I = RN
N
T
V1 =1IxR = (5x5)V =
25V V 2 = 5x10 = 50V
V3 = 5x15 = 75V
Example 2

V1 at R1?
V2 at R2?

*Note R0 = Rtotal
V = Vtotal

V1 at R1 V2 at R2 Check,
= I x R1 = I x R2 Vtotal = 4 + 8 = 12 V
=2x2=4v =2x4=8v
II. PARALLEL CIRCUIT

A parallel circuit has more than one path for current flow.

Therefore:
1. In the event of an open in the circuit in one of the branches,
current will continue to flow through the remaining.
2. Each branch receives source voltage.
3. Current flow through each branch can be different.
4. The resistance of each branch can be different.
II. PARALLEL CIRCUIT
• The same voltage is applied across each branch.
• If
the load resistance in each branch is the same, the
current in each branch will be the same.
• If
the load resistance in each branch is different, the
current in each branch will be different.
• If
one branch is broken, current will continue flowing to
the other branches.
I

I1 I2 IN Vs = V1 = V2 = Vn
+ + +
Vs V1 R1 V2 R2 VN RN I = I1 + I2 + In
- - -
II. PARALLEL CIRCUIT
• Resistors can be connected such that they branch out from a single
point (known as a node), and join up again somewhere else in the
circuit. This is known as a parallel connection.
• Each of the three resistors is another path for current to travel between
points A and B.
V is similar across the branches

I
I1 I2
V

⎡ 1 1 1
RT = 1 + + + ... + ⎥
⎢R⎣ R 2 R3 R ⎤
−1
N
⎦
II. PARALLEL CIRCUIT
Example
Example
Or use
III. COMBINED CIRCUIT (SERIES AND PARALLEL)

A series-parallel circuit has some components

in series and others in parallel.

• The power source and control or protection devices are usually in series.
The loads are usually in parallel.

• The same current flows in the series portion, different currents in the
parallel portion.

• The same voltage is applied to parallel devices, different voltages to

series devices.

• If the series portion is broken, current stops flowing in the entire circuit. If
a parallel branch is broken, current continues flowing in the series portion
and the remaining branches.
III. COMBINED CIRCUIT (SERIES AND PARALLEL)
III. COMBINED CIRCUIT
Example 1
Determine the total resistance of the following circuit between points A and
B
B
10 Ω

5Ω 7Ω
4Ω
A
12 Ω

R = (1/12 + 1/12)-1
Rtotal = 10 + (12 x 12/24) + 4
Answer: RT= 20 Ω
III. COMBINED CIRCUIT
Example 2
III. COMBINED CIRCUIT
Example
Example 2
Power
P= VI (watts)

Example
Given the electrical supply is 120 v and the allowable
current, I is 5 amp, calculate the power of the
equipment

P = 120 x 5 = 600 watt

ENERGY
E= PT (watts)
Example
Estimate the daily cost of energy consumption for the appliances listed. The duration
of the usage for each appliances are as shown in Table 1. Assume that the average cost
of energy is RM 0.20 per kilowatt-hour.

Table 1: Appliances daily usage

Appliances Wattage (W) Time used
(minutes)
Laptop 300 180
Table Fan 500 120

E laptop = 300 x 3 (hrs) = 900 watt-hr Cost = 1.9 kW-hr x 0.20

= RM 0.38
E Table fan = 500 x 2 (hrs) = 1000 watt-hr

Total energy = 900 + 1000 = 1900 watt or 1.9 kW-hr

Exercise
■ One 100W lamp and one 200W lamp are
plugged into a 120V circuit. For either DC
or AC. The two lamps are connected in
parallel. Calculate the current flow through
each lamp, the total resistance of the
circuit, the total energy consumed in a
month (30 days x 12 hours per day), and
the cost of electrical energy for the year
(based on current TNB rates).
Exercise : Calculate the following
■ current flow through each lamp,
■ the total resistance of the circuit,
■ the total energy consumed in a month,
■ the cost of electrical energy for month
Measurement Equipment

multimeter
ammeter
ohmmeter

megger
Watt-hour
voltmeter wattmeter meter