hapter 13 | - : Complex Variables and Conformal Mapping FUNCTIONS If to each of a set of complex numbers which a variable z may assume there corre- sponds one or more values of a variable w, then w is called a function of the complex variable 2, written w= f(z). ‘The fundamental operations with complex numbers have already been considered in Chapter 1. A funtion is single-valued if for each value of = there corresponds only one value of w; otherwise it is multiple-valued or many-valued. In general we ean write w = f(z) = w(x, y) + iv(z,y), where w and v are real functions of « and y. Example 1, w = 24 = (g-+iy)t= ot y+ 2izy = wt iv ao that ula y) = 22 ¥, vie, v) = Day. ‘These are called the real and imaginary parts of w = respectively Unless otherwise specified we shall assume that f(z) is single-valued. A function which is multiple-valued can be considered as a collection of single-valued functions. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY Definitions of limits and continuity for functions of a complex variable are analogo to those for a real variable, Thus f(2) is said to have the limit l as 2 approaches 2 i given any «> 0, there exists a 8>0 such that [f(z)—l] <« whenever 0 <|z—z9| <8. Similarly, f(2) is said to be continuous at zo if, given any «> 0, there exists a 8 > 0 such that [f(@)—j(2o)| << whenever |z~zo| <8. Alternatively, f(2) is continuous at zo if Tim f(@) = f(20). DERIVATIVES If f(2) is single-valued in some region of the z plane the derivative of f(z), denoted by f'(2), is defined as tim feb a2) — fl2) provided the limit exists independent of the manner in which az~0. If the limit (1) exists for z= 29, then f(z) is called analytic at zo. If the limit exists for all z in a region &. then f(2) is called analytic in X, In order to be analytic, f(z) must be single-valued and continuous. The converse, however, is not necessarily true. w We define elementary funetions of a complex variable by a natural extension of the corresponding funetions of a real variable. Where series expansions for real functions f(z) exist, we can use as definition the series with x replaced by 2 a ar From these we ean show that e Example 2, Wedefne et = 142 aa 5 well ax nomerous other relations Hees sing = = "9 = econ y + isin y), 286CHAP. 13] COMPLEX VARIABLES AND CONFORMAL MAPPING 237 Example 3, We define a as e182 even when @ and & are complex numbers. Since es! = 1, it follows that oi = cK6F27 and we define Inz — In(pe!®) = Inp + ile-+ 2k). ‘Thus Inz ig a many-valued function. The various single-valued fonctions of which this many-valued function ia compased are called its branches. Rules for differentiating functions of a complex variable are much the same as for d gesing) those of real variables. ‘Thus (2") = nz" a CAUCHY-RIEMANN EQUATIONS: ‘A necessary condition that w = f(z) = u(x,y) + é(z,y) be analytic in a region R is that u and v satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann equations au ae ve yy ae ® (see Problem 13,7). If the partial derivatives in (2) are continuous in ®, the equations are sufficient conditions that f(z) be analytic in R. If the second derivatives of » and v with respect to x and y exist and are continuous, we find by differentiating (2) that o (s) ‘Thus the real and imaginary parts satisfy Laplace's equation in two dimensions. Functions satisfying Laplace's equation are called harmonie functions INTEGRALS If f(2) is defined, single-valued and continuous in a region R, we define the integral of f(z) along some path C in R from point z; to point zz, where 1 =x, +iy1, z= tat ins, as S fle dz th this definition the integral of a function of a complex variable can be made to depend on line integrals for real functions already considered in Chapter 6. An alterna- tive definition based on the limit of a sum, as for functions of a real variable, can also be formulated and turns out to be equivalent to the one above. SLO winner tian =f drm vay +f” ede budy ‘The rules for complex integration are similar to those for real integrals, An important result is Sime] = vena where M is an upper bound of |f(2){ on C, a fas = ML a) M, and L is the length of the path C. CAUCHY’S THEOREM Let C be a simple closed curve. If f(z) is analytic within the region bounded by C as well as on C, then we have Cauchy's theorem that Sree = Fiee = 0 6 where the second integral emphasizes the fact that C is a simple closed curve.288, COMPLEX VARIABLES AND CONFORMAL MAPPING (CHAP. 13 Expressed in another way, (6) is equivalent to the statement that f° f(2)d= has a value independent of the path joining a and 2, Such integrals can be evaluated as F(2)—F(2:) where F’(2) = f(z). These results are similar to corresponding results for line integrals developed in Chapter 6 Example 4. Since fic) = 2 is anslytic everywhere, we have for any simple closed curve C CAUCHY'S INTEGRAL FORMULAS If f(2) is analytic within and on a simple closed curve C and a is any point interior to C, then asa -@ik = mas fle) fla) md ie (6) where C is traversed in the positive (counterclockwise) sense. Also, the nth derivative of f(z) at z is given by, wig 2 MLE Ay ‘These are called Cauchy's integral formulas. They are quite remarkable because they show that if the function f(z) is known on the closed curve C then it is also known within C, and the various derivatives at points within C can be calculated. Thus if a function of a complex variable has a first derivative, it has all higher derivatives as well. ‘This of course is not necessarily true for funetions of real variables. TAYLOR’ Let f(z) be analytic inside and on a circle having its center at z=. Then for all points z in the circle we have the Taylor series representation of f(2) given by ra) 3! SERIES fa) 2! f(z) = flay + fayz—ay + (2-ay? + (z—a)) + (8) See Problem 13.21 SINGULAR POINTS A singular point of a function fiz) is a value of z at which f(2) fails to be analytic If f(z) is analytie everywhere in some region except at an interior point z= a, we call z= a an isolated singularity of f(z). 1 Example 5. If f(a) = 7 a then z= is an isolated singularity of 2). POLES If fl2)= a, and if n is a positive integer, then /(z) has an isolated singularity at 2 =a which is called a pole of order x. If n=1, the pole is often called a simple pole; if n=2 it is called a double pole, ete. ot + (a) 0, where g(2) is analytic everywhere in a region includingCHAP. 18) COMPLEX VARIABLES AND CONFORMAL MAPPING 239 Example 6. fle) hhas two singularities: a pole of order 2 or double pole at 1 E> and a pole of order 1 or simple pole at #= Be—1_ aend . Baample % fle) = FSF = py aqyg say es S40 simple poles at = = 2. A function can have other types of singularities besides poles. For example, (2) = VF sinz has a branch point at z= 0 (see Problem 13.36). The function f(z) has a singularity at 2=0, However, due to the fact that lim""2* is finite, we eall such a removable singularity, - gularity a LAURENT'’S SERIES If f(z) has a pole of order x at z=@ but is analytic at every other point inside and on a cirele C with center at a, then (z—a)*/(z) is analytic at all points inside and on C and has a Taylor series about 2 =a so that a fe) = Geae* past + + ay + ax(2—a) + ae ay + co) ‘This is called a Laurent series for f(z). ‘The part ao + ay(z—a) + o:(2—a)* + +++ is called the analytic part, while the remainder consisting of inverse powers of 2—a is called the principal part. More generally, we refer to the series 3) ax(z~a)! as a Laurent series where the terms with k <0 constitute the principal part.” A funetion which is analytic in a region bounded by two concentric circles having center at z=a ean always be expanded into such a Laurent series (see Problem 13.82) It is possible to define various types of singularities of a function j(2) from its Laurent series. For example, when the principal part of a Laurent series has a finite number of terms and a-,~0 while a-n-1,a-r-2, ... are all zero, then z=a is a pole of order n. If the principal part has infinitely many terms, z =a is called an essential singularity or sometimes a pole of injinite order. Example & The function eve = 144s thas an essential singularity at RESIDUES ‘The evefficients in (9) can be obtained in the customary manner by writing the coeffi cients for the Taylor series corresponding to (z~a)" fiz). In further developments, the coefficient «1, called the residue of f(z) at the pole z= a, is of considerable importance. It can be found from the formula 1 oat on = Pt aol @ where n is the order of the pole. For simple poles the calculation of the residue is of particular simplicity since it reduces to a1 = lim @=a) fl2) an 7 (ay fla) (10) RESIDUE THEOREM If /(2) is analytic in a region ® except for a pole of order n at z=a and if C is any simple closed curve in ® containing 2= a, then f(2) has the form (#”). Integrating (9), using the fact that